All topics for the exam in social studies. Preparation for the exam in social studies. Elements of the social structure of society

Political parties play an active role in the political life of any state. Today they are the second social institution of the political system in terms of influence after the state.

The term "party" was used in ancient world, translated from Latin means "part of something." In the modern sense, political parties as a subject political activity as representatives of the interests of a certain part of society appeared in the process of the formation of parliamentarism (XVII-XIX centuries).

The first political parties originated in Great Britain. At first it was the Tories and Whigs, then the Conservative, Liberal and Labor parties appeared. in the United States in the first half of the nineteenth century. the Democratic Party appeared, and in the middle of the century - the Republican Party.

From the history of Russia, you know that political parties began to emerge in our country much later than in Europe and America, only at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries. in October 1990, the USSR Law "On Public Associations" was adopted, which marked the beginning of the restoration of a multi-party system in Russia.

Already in the time of Aristotle (4th century BC), political groups were spontaneously formed, which were called parties. They were temporary associations to support a particular individual. Grouping around a political figure, his supporters and followers ensured the coordination of actions, which made it possible to achieve the set goals. There are several periods in the history of political parties.

I period - XVI-XVII centuries. - parties are aristocratic groups that unite a few representatives of the political elite. They reflect the emergence of the political systems of the early bourgeois states of Western Europe and America, the struggle between the aristocrats and the bourgeois.

II period - XVIII-XIX centuries. - parties - political clubs focused on attracting to active political activity people who have influence not only in politics, but also in other vital areas of public life.

III period - XIX-XX centuries. - modern political parties - the presence of an ideological doctrine and a developed organizational structure. The first political party of this type, the Liberal Party, was created in England in 1877. 19th century, half a century later than in Western Europe and the USA. First, parties of a socialist orientation, then a liberal one, and finally a conservative one (in the West it is the other way around). At the beginning of the twentieth century. there are 280 parties in Russia (60 are all-Russian: Cadets, RSDLP; regional).

A political party is an organized group of like-minded people who adhere to a certain worldview, representing the interests of a part of the people and setting as their goal the implementation of a political program by conquering state power or participation in its implementation.

Main features of political parties

The bearer of a certain ideology or a special vision of the world and man.

An organized association of people (long enough, voluntary), structured at different levels of politics - from local to international - and with varying degrees of rigidity.

Focus on the conquest and exercise of political power.

A party is a voluntary association of citizens.

The purpose of the party is to participate in the exercise of political power.

The party expresses and defends the common political interests of its members; on the basis of these interests, the ideologists of the party develop its program, which formulates the strategy and tactics of the party, that is, the general goals and specific tasks of the struggle, and also determines the ways and means of achieving them.

The party has its own organization (number, permanent composition, formalized membership, internal structure - all these issues are reflected in the party charter).

The leading core, the leaders, are clearly distinguished in the party.

The party has certain property, financial means, its own means mass media.

Many political parties have their own symbols, badges, banners, sometimes even uniforms.

Structure of political parties:

party apparatus;

Party asset;

Ordinary members of the party mass;

Party supporters.

Tasks of political parties:

The party influences the formation of public opinion: the propaganda it conducts in the media orients citizens in political life, helps to develop certain assessments, judgments from the standpoint of this particular party, its political leadership;

Parties in modern society have a significant impact on political education, raising the political culture of citizens;

Parties organize the participation of citizens in political life: they nominate candidates for elections, lead political clubs, clubs of voters, organize processions, pickets, rallies and other events;

Parties have a significant influence on the activities of parliament and government, on the formation of the cabinet of ministers;

The most important function of a political party is the education of its members, as well as the formation and promotion of political leaders - the party elite, in addition, creating conditions for a person to manifest his abilities, striving for self-realization, preventing the replacement of the true interests and goals of the party with the ambitions of leaders;

Parties develop programs for the development of the country; the largest parties have their own "think tanks" - research institutes, foundations, in which the best cadres of scientists are concentrated: political scientists, historians, economists, jurists.

Functions of political parties:

Expression and upholding in politics the interests of certain social groups of society;

Struggle for power, its use or control over it;

Integration of large social groups;

Development of party ideology, propaganda and the formation of public opinion; political education of society;

Preparation and recruitment of the political elite in party, state, public structures.

Typology of political parties

An actual methodological problem in the study of parties and their systems is their typology. Political scientists use a variety of approaches in classifying parties. From the end of the 19th century and until the middle of the twentieth century. the method of dividing parties according to the criteria of the organizational structure of parties, the nature of membership prevailed. Based on the first criterion, parties are divided into three groups:

1. Decentralized or not having a clear organizational structure (Democratic and Republican parties of the USA, environmental movements).

2. Mass centralized parties (parties of the Socialist International).

3. Strictly centralized parties with a rigid structure and discipline (communist, national-democratic and other parties). The orthodox followers of the Marxist tradition subdivide the parties according to the class principle. They distinguish proletarian, petty-bourgeois, bourgeois and monarchist parties, respectively.

Yu. O. Martov singled out four types of parties: reactionary-conservative, moderate-conservative, liberal-democratic, and revolutionary. Western political scientists have proposed their own typology. The French political scientist Maurice Duverger in his book "Political Parties" (1954) developed a binary (bipolar) classification of the party: personnel (these parties do not seek to increase the number of their ranks; they are based on territorial grassroots committees of leaders; they are insignificant in number; there is no any system of membership with registration and regular payment of membership fees) and mass (more cohesive, have greater interconnectedness of their organizations vertically and horizontally). Parties differ in the type of connections they have with voters, party members and activists, as well as in their internal structure.

In the late 60s, some authoritative political scientists in France and the United States, without rejecting Duverger's scheme, supplemented his binary classification. J. Charlot and J. Sartori proposed a three-component typology of parties currently operating in the West: cadre, mass, and parties of voters (electoral).

Typology criteria

Party types

1. The nature of the relationship to social transformations

Revolutionary, reformist, radical, moderate, progressive, reactionary

2. Ideological platform

Social Democratic, Communist, Liberal, Conservative, Confessional, Monarchist, Nationalist, Fascist, Neo-Fascist

3.Participation in political power

Ruling, opposition, legal, illegal, leading parties, outsider parties, ruling monopoly, ruling in a coalition

4. Social base

Workers, peasants, entrepreneurs

5. Identity, bet on originality

"Grotesque parties" - a party of beer lovers, a party of fools, "Mitka", etc. More often they do not claim power, but very staunchly defend their limited circle of interests, have a small but close-knit composition

6. Differences in the structure and organization of the inner life

Personnel - develop on the basis of election committees and parliamentary groups; free membership, few. The financial base is private financing.

Elite consist of parliamentarians, professional politicians.

Mass - the result of universal suffrage; rigid organization, mandatory membership; financial base - collective financing. Numerous (mass) in composition. Much attention is paid to ideological and educational work

Evolution of political parties

1. In the bowels of the old statehood and political system, a new party is born as a response to the aggravation of contradictions in society.

2. Propaganda of ideas, campaigning, attracting the maximum number of supporters, the formation of the material and technical base of the activity and financial sources of the party's existence.

3. The struggle of the party for power: the search for ways, forms, methods, forces capable of destabilizing and discrediting the state system and the ruling party; use of a crisis.

4. Party victory. Conservation of a new state and economic mechanism, conducting a personnel policy in the interests of their party.

5. Gradual work of the Party on the implementation and enrichment of program goals, taking into account the influence of moods in society, the dialectical development of the organizational structure, forms, methods of work of the Party in order to avoid aggravation of contradictions and conflicts.

6. The defeat of the party and all the social forces behind it, the lack of prospects for achieving goals.

Under the party system is understood the totality of all political parties operating in a given country, their relationship with each other. Stable ties and relations of parties of various types with each other, as well as with the state and other institutions of power, form party systems.

Grounds for classification

1. Nature of government:

- totalitarian;

2. Different political status:

- majoritarian;

- dominant;

- coalition.

3. Number of parties in power or fighting for influence on it:

- one-party (there is a single party in the country that has a monopoly on political power in society; political opposition is prohibited);

- bipartisan (there are several parties in the country, but two of them have a real impact on political life. In case of victory in the elections, one of the two parties receives the majority of seats in the legislature, has the right to appoint its candidates for the post of president or vice president, form government (another party is in legal opposition until it wins the next election);

– multi-party systems (an active role in the political life of society is played by a number of parties, but none of them has sufficient weight to get the absolute support of voters in elections).

- How do you understand what a one-party, two-party, multi-party system is? Is there something in common between them? What are the differences?

The objective basis of a multi-party system:

- social differentiation of society, the presence in it of classes, ethnic groups, confessional associations, other social communities with specific interests of each of them;

- the presence of socio-political interests common to various social objects: groups, layers, associations;

- the presence in the ruling classes and other social communities and groups of groups competing for power.

The election of authorities is a certain political procedure in which voters and representatives of voters (politicians) participate, who, based on the interests of voters and relying on them, build their political programs, claiming power.

The electoral system is the procedure for the formation of the elected bodies of the state, a set of rules on the basis of which the relationship between parliament, government and the electorate is determined.

Suffrage is the principle and conditions for the participation of citizens in the formation of elected bodies.

Suffrage can be: active (the right to vote) and passive (the right to be elected). Suffrage may be limited by qualifications.

Electoral qualifications (restrictions)

Settlement requirement (the right to participate in elections subject to residence in this territory for a certain time (for parliamentary elections in the United States - one month, in Canada - 12 months, in Ireland - to have a place to sleep, in Norway - at least 10 years).

Age requirement (the right to participate in elections upon reaching a certain age (in most countries - from 18 years).

Qualification of sex (universal bourgeois suffrage was formed as a purely male and did not apply to women. For the first time this qualification was abolished in 1883 in New Zealand).

Property qualification (rarely found openly, but its real influence is exceptionally great).

Qualifications are age, educational, national, racial, property, class and settlement.

In democratic states, elections are held on the basis of the so-called "four-member system", characterized by universal, direct, equal suffrage by secret ballot.

Universal suffrage is the right to participate in elections for all citizens who have reached a certain age (usually 18), regardless of gender, race, nationality and other factors. Only the residency requirement is allowed. AT Russian Federation Persons recognized as legally incompetent by a court decision and persons held in places of deprivation of liberty by a court verdict cannot participate in elections.

b) the relative majority - more than the opponent.

The main principle of this system is the “winner takes all” rule.

A proportional electoral system is a method of determining the results of voting, which is based on the principle of distribution of seats in proportion to the number of votes received by each party. Elections are held only on a party basis: each electoral association or bloc nominates its own list of candidates for vacant positions, and the voter does not vote for an individual, but for one or another party list as a whole.

In order to prevent "dwarf" parties from receiving mandates, some countries have introduced the so-called percentage barrier: parties whose lists do not receive a certain number of votes - 5%, are excluded from the distribution of mandates, and the votes they have collected are not taken into account when summing up.

Proportional-majority electoral system

One part of the deputies is elected by the majority system. The other part of the deputies is elected on the basis of a proportional system based on party lists.

LECTURES ON THE TOPIC "INDIVIDUAL AND SOCIETY"

Materials for preparing for the exam in social studies

Truth and its criteria. Relativity of truth.

1. In the history of philosophy, there were different views on the possibility of obtaining reliable knowledge:

    Empiricism - all knowledge about the world is justified only by experience (F. Bacon)

    Sensationalism - only with the help of sensations you can know the world (D. Hume)

    Rationalism - reliable knowledge can only be gleaned from the mind itself (R. Descartes)

    Agnosticism - "thing in itself" is unknowable (I. Kant)

    Skepticism - it is impossible to obtain reliable knowledge about the world (M. Montaigne)

True there is a process, and not a one-time act of comprehending the object immediately in full.

Truth is one, but objective, absolute and relative aspects are distinguished in it, which can also be considered as relatively independent truths.

objective truth - this is the content of knowledge that does not depend on man or on humanity.

absolute truth - this is exhaustive reliable knowledge about nature, man and society; knowledge that can never be refuted.

Relative truth - this is incomplete, inaccurate knowledge corresponding to a certain level of development of society, which determines the ways of obtaining this knowledge; it is knowledge that depends on certain conditions, place and time of its receipt.

The difference between absolute and relative truth (or absolute and relative in objective truth) is in the degree of accuracy and completeness of the reflection of reality. Truth is always concrete, it is always associated with a certain place, time and circumstances.

Not everything in our lives can be judged in terms of truth or error (falsehood). So, we can talk about different assessments historical events, alternative interpretations of works of art, etc.

2. Truth - this is knowledge corresponding to its subject, coinciding with it. Other definitions:

    compliance of knowledge with reality;

    what is confirmed by experience;

    some kind of agreement, convention;

    property of self-consistency of knowledge;

    the usefulness of the acquired knowledge for practice.

Aspects of truth:

objective truth - such a content of knowledge that does not depend either on a person or on humanity

absolute truth

Relative truth

    exhaustive reliable knowledge about nature, man and society;

    knowledge that can never be refuted.

    incomplete, inaccurate knowledge corresponding to a certain level of development of society, which determines the ways of obtaining knowledge;

    knowledge, depending on certain conditions, place and time of their receipt.

Truth is concrete associated with a specific place, time, circumstance

3. Criteria of truth - that which certifies the truth and makes it possible to distinguish it from error.

1. compliance with the laws of logic;

2. matching before open laws Sciences;

3. compliance with fundamental laws;

4. simplicity, economy of the formula;

5. paradoxical idea;

6. practice.

4. Practice - an integral organic system of active material activity of people, aimed at transforming reality, carried out in a certain socio-cultural context.

Forms practices:

    material production (labor, transformation of nature);

    social action (revolutions, reforms, wars, etc.);

    scientific experiment.

Functions practices:

    source of knowledge (practical needs brought to life the sciences that exist today.);

    the basis of knowledge (a person not only observes or contemplates the world around him, but transforms it in the course of his life activity);

    the purpose of cognition (for this purpose, a person cognizes the world around him, reveals the laws of its development in order to use the results of cognition in his practical activities);

    criterion of truth (until some position, expressed in the form of a theory, concept, simple inference, is verified by experience, is not put into practice, it will remain just a hypothesis (assumption)).

Meanwhile, practice is both definite and indefinite, absolute and relative. Absolute in the sense that only developing practice can finally prove any theoretical or other provisions. At the same time, this criterion is relative, since the practice itself develops, improves, and therefore cannot immediately and completely prove certain conclusions obtained in the process of cognition. Therefore, in philosophy, the idea of ​​complementarity is put forward:the leading criterion of truth is practice , which includes material production, accumulated experience, experiment - is supplemented by the requirements of logical consistency and, in many cases, the practical usefulness of certain knowledge.

7 Thinking and activity.

1. Activity - a way of relating to the outside world, which consists in transforming and subordinating it to the goals of a person (conscious, productive, transformative and social character)

2. Differences between human activity and animal activity

human activity

Animal activity

Goal setting in activity

Expediency in behavior

human activity

Animal activity

Adaptation to natural environment through its large-scale transformation, leading to the creation of an artificial environment for human existence. Man keeps his natural organization unchanged, at the same time changing his way of life.

Adaptation to environmental conditions primarily through the restructuring of one's own organism, the mechanism of which is mutational changes fixed by the environment

Goal setting in activity

Expediency in behavior

Conscious setting of goals related to the ability to analyze the situation (discover cause-and-effect relationships, anticipate results, think through the most appropriate ways to achieve them)

Obedience to instinct, actions are initially programmed

3. Subject and object of activity

4. Structure of activity: Motive (a set of external and internal conditions causing the activity of the subject and determining the direction of the activity. The following can act as motives: needs; social attitudes; beliefs; interests; drives and emotions; ideals) - Goal (this is a conscious image of the result that a person's action is aimed at. Activity consists of a chain of actions) - Methods - Process (Actions) - Result

5. Types of motives: needs, social. attitudes, beliefs, interests, drives and emotions (unconscious), ideals

Types of actions according to M. Weber:

    purposeful-rational (It is characterized by a rationally set and thought-out goal. The individual acts purposefully, whose behavior is focused on the goal, means and by-products of his actions.);

    value-rational (Characterized by a conscious determination of one's orientation and a consistently planned orientation towards it. But its meaning is not to achieve any goal, but in the fact that the individual follows his convictions about duty, dignity, beauty, piety, etc.);

    affective (Due to the emotional state of the individual. He acts under the influence of affect, if he seeks to immediately satisfy his need for revenge, pleasure, devotion, etc.);

    traditional (Based on a long habit. Often this is an automatic reaction to a habitual irritation in the direction of a once learned setting)

The activity of people unfolds in various spheres of society, its direction, content, means are infinitely diverse.


6. Types of activity:

6.1 work (aimed at achieving the goal, practical utility, skill, personal development, transformation)

6.2 game (the process of the game is more important than its goal; the dual nature of the game: real and conditional)

6.3 teaching (knowledge of the new)

6.4 communication (exchange of ideas, emotions)

6.4.1 two-way and one-way (communication); concept of dialogue

6.4.2 structure: subject - goal - content - means - recipient

6.4.3 classifications: direct - indirect, direct - indirect

6.4.4 types of subjects of communication: real, illusory, imaginary

6.4.5 functions: socialization (formation and development of interpersonal relations as a condition for the formation of a person as a person); cognitive, psychological, identification (an expression of a person's involvement in a group: "I am mine" or "I am a stranger"); organizational

7. Activities:

7.1 Material (material-production and socially transformative) and spiritual (cognitive, value-oriented, predictive)

7.2 By subject: individual - collective

7.3 By nature: reproductive - creative

7.4 According to legal compliance: legal - illegal

7.5 According to moral standards: moral - immoral

7.6 In relation to social progress: progressive - reactionary

7.7 Depending on the spheres of public life: economic, social, political, spiritual

7.8 According to the features of the manifestation of human activity: external - internal


8. Creation - a type of activity that generates something qualitatively new that has never existed before (the nature of an independent activity or its component).


9. Mechanisms of creative activity:

    combination,

    imagination,

    fantasy,

    intuition

8 Needs and interests

In order to develop, a person is forced to satisfy various needs, which are called needs.

Need - this is the need of a person for what constitutes a necessary condition for his existence. In the motives (from the Latin movere - set in motion, push) of activity, human needs are manifested.

Types of human needs

    Biological (organic, material) - needs for food, clothing, housing, etc.

    Social - the need to communicate with other people, in social activities, in public recognition, etc.

    Spiritual (ideal, cognitive) - the need for knowledge, creative activity, creating beauty, etc.

Biological, social and spiritual needs are interrelated. Basically biological needs in humans, unlike animals, become social. For most people, social needs dominate the ideal: the need for knowledge often acts as a means to acquire a profession, to occupy a worthy position in society.

There are other classifications of needs, for example, the classification was developed by the American psychologist A. Maslow:

Basic Needs

Primary (congenital)

Secondary (acquired)

Physiological: in the reproduction of the genus, food, respiration, clothing, housing, rest, etc.

Social: in social connections, communication, affection, care for another person and attention to oneself, participation in joint activities

Existential (lat. exsistentia - existence): in the security of one's existence, comfort, job security, accident insurance, confidence in the future, etc.

Prestigious: in self-respect, respect from others, recognition, achievement of success and appreciation, career growth Spiritual: in self-actualization, self-expression, self-realization


The needs of each next level become urgent when the previous ones are satisfied.

It should be remembered about the reasonable limitation of needs, because, firstly, not all human needs can be fully satisfied, and secondly, the needs should not contradict the moral standards of society.

Reasonable Needs - these are the needs that help the development in a person of his truly human qualities: the desire for truth, beauty, knowledge, the desire to bring good to people, etc.

Needs underlie the emergence of interests and inclinations.


Interest (lat. interest - to matter) - a purposeful attitude of a person to any object of his need.

The interests of people are directed not so much towards the objects of needs, but rather towards those social conditions that make these objects more or less accessible, primarily material and spiritual goods that ensure the satisfaction of needs.

Interests are determined by the position of various social groups and individuals in society. They are more or less recognized by people and are the most important incentives for various activities.

There are several classifications of interests:

according to their carrier: individual; group; the whole society.

by focus: economic; social; political; spiritual.

Interest must be distinguishedinclination . The concept of "interest" expresses the focus on a particular subject. The concept of "inclination" expresses the focus on a particular activity.

Interest is not always combined with inclination (much depends on the degree of accessibility of a particular activity).

The interests of a person express the direction of his personality, which largely determines his personality. life path, nature of activity, etc.

9 Freedom and necessity in human action

1. freedom - a multi-valued word. Extremes in understanding freedom:

Freedom is a recognized necessity.

Freedom (will) is the ability to do what you want.

Man - a robot acting on a program?

Complete arbitrariness in relation to others?

Fatalism - all processes in the world are subject to the dominance of necessity

Voluntarism is the recognition of the will as the fundamental principle of all things.

Essence of freedom - choice associated with intellectual and emotional-volitional tension (burden of choice).

Social conditions for the realization of freedom of choice of a free person:

    on the one hand, social norms, on the other hand, forms of social activity;

    on the one hand - the place of a person in society, on the other hand - the level of development of society;

    socialization.

    Freedom is a specific way of being of a person, associated with his ability to choose a decision and perform an act in accordance with his goals, interests, ideals and assessments, based on the awareness of the objective properties and relations of things, the laws of the world.

    Responsibility is an objective, historically specific type of relationship between an individual, a team, and society from the point of view of the conscious implementation of the mutual requirements placed on them.

    Types of responsibility:

    Historical, political, moral, legal, etc.;

    Individual (personal), group, collective.

    Social responsibility is the tendency of a person to behave in accordance with the interests of other people.

    Legal responsibility - responsibility before the law (disciplinary, administrative, criminal; material)

Responsibility - a socio-philosophical and sociological concept that characterizes an objective, historically specific type of relationship between an individual, a team, society from the point of view of the conscious implementation of the mutual requirements placed on them.

Responsibility, accepted by a person as the basis of his personal moral position, acts as the foundation of the internal motivation of his behavior and actions. The regulator of such behavior is conscience.

Social responsibility is expressed in the tendency of a person to behave in accordance with the interests of other people.

As human freedom develops, responsibility increases. But its focus is gradually shifting from the collective (collective responsibility) to the person himself (individual, personal responsibility).

Only a free and responsible person can fully realize himself in social behavior and thereby reveal his potential to the maximum extent.

10 System structure of society: elements and subsystems

1. The concept of society. Society is a complex and ambiguous concept

A. In the broadest sense of the word

    This is a part of the material world, isolated from nature, but closely connected with it, which includes: ways, interactions of people; forms of association of people

B. In the narrow sense of the word

    A circle of people united by a common goal, interests, origin (for example, a society of numismatists, a noble assembly)

    Separate specific society, country, state, region (for example, modern Russian society, French society)

    Historical stage in the development of mankind (For example, feudal society, capitalist society)

    humanity as a whole

2. Functions of society

    Production of material goods and services

    Distribution of products of labor (activities)

    Regulation and management of activities and behavior

    Human reproduction and socialization

    Spiritual production and regulation of people's activity

3. Public relations - diverse forms of human interaction, as well as the connections that arise between different social groups(or within them)

Society is a set of social relations. The essence of society is in the relationships between people.

    Material relations arise and develop directly in the course of a person's practical activity outside his consciousness and independently of him. This is:

    • Relations of production

      Environmental relations

      Relationships for childbearing

      Spiritual (ideal) relationships - are formed, previously "passing through the consciousness" of people, are determined by their spiritual values. This is:

      • Moral Relations

        Political relations

        Legal relations

        Artistic Relations

        Philosophical attitudes

        Religious relations

4. Society as a dynamic self-developing system.

Withsystem - complex of elements and connections between them.

Components of the system

The concept of a system

Society as a system

Element

    Separate individuals

    Social communities

Elements may have complex structure as subsystems (more complex than the elements, but less complex than the system itself)

The main subsystems (spheres) of society:

    Economic

    Political

    Social

    Spiritual

Relationships between elements of its subsystems

Public relations (see previous paragraph)

Properties of the system

Integrity

The system is more than the sum of the elements and it has properties that go beyond the individual elements

Society is more than a crowd.

Functioning - development

The system can be functioning (unchanging) or developing

Self-evolving system:

    self-regulation,

    self-structuring

    self-reproduction

    self-development

open-closed

The system can be closed (conservation of energy within the system) and open (exchange of energy with the environment)

open system


Society as a complex, self-developing system is characterized by the followingspecific features :

1. It is bigvariety of different social structures and subsystems.

2. Society is not reducible to the people who make it up, it isa system of extra- and supra-individual forms, connections and relationships, which a person creates by his active activity together with other people.

3. Society is inherentself-sufficiency, that is, the ability to create and reproduce the necessary conditions for one's own existence through active joint activity.

4. Society is distinguished by exceptionaldynamism, incompleteness and alternative development. chief actor in the choice of development options is a person.

5. Society highlightsspecial status of subjects, determining its development.

6. Society is inherentunpredictability, non-linearity of development.

11 Basic institutions of society

1. Social institution is a historically established, stable form of organizing the joint activities of people who perform certain functions in society, the main of which is the satisfaction of social needs.


2. Goals and functions of social institutions . Everyone social institution characterized by the presenceactivity goals and specificfunctions, ensuring its achievement.

Functions

Key institutions

Spheres of society

Main roles

physical traits

Symbolic features

Other institutions of this sphere of society

Caring, raising children

Family,

Inheritance

Social (family and marriage relations)

    Father

    Mother

    Child

House

Situation

Rings

betrothal

Contract

Marriage, blood feud, motherhood, fatherhood, etc.

Procurement of food, clothing, shelter

Own

Economic sphere

    Employer

    hired worker

    Buyer

    Salesman

Factory

Office

Score

Money Trade

Money, exchange, economic relations, etc.

Maintaining laws, regulations and standards

Power

State

Political sphere

    Legislator

    Subject of law

Public buildings and places

Flag

charter

Power, state, separation of powers, parliamentarism, local government, and etc.

Promoting conciliar relations and attitudes, deepening faith

Religion

spiritual realm

    Priest

    parishioner

Cathedral

Church

Cross

Socialization of people, introduction to basic values ​​and practices

Education

spiritual realm

    Teacher

    Student

School

College

Textbook

Diploma

Degree

Public opinion, media, etc.

In modern society, there are dozens of social institutions, among which the key ones can be distinguished: inheritance, power, property, family.


Social institutions:
organize human activity into a certain system of roles and statuses, setting patterns of people's behavior in various spheres of public life. For example, such a social institution as a school includes the roles of teacher and student, and the family includes the roles of parents and children. There are certain role relations between them, which are regulated by specific norms and regulations. Some of the most important norms are enshrined in law, others are supported by traditions, customs, public opinion;

include a system of sanctions - from legal to moral and ethical;

streamline, coordinate many individual actions of people, give them an organized and predictable character;

provide standard behavior of people in socially typical situations.


3. Types of functions of social institutions:

    Explicit - officially declared, recognized and controlled by society

    Hidden - are carried out covertly or unintentionally (they can develop into shadow institutions, for example, criminal ones).

When the discrepancy between these functions is large, a double standard of social relations arises, which threatens the stability of society. Even more dangerous is the situation when, along with official institutions, so-called shadow institutions are formed that take on the function of regulating the most important social relations (for example, criminal structures).


4. The value of social institutions. Social institutions define society as a whole. Any social transformations are carried out through changes in social institutions.

12 The concept of culture. Forms and varieties of culture

1. Approaches to understanding culture as a phenomenon of public life:

    technological: culture as the totality of all the achievements of the material and spiritual life of society;

    activity: culture as a creative activity in the spheres of the material and spiritual life of society;

    value: culture as the realization of universal values ​​in the affairs and relations of people.


2. The concept of culture (from lat. cultivation, processing)

    in a broad sense: a historically conditioned dynamic complex of forms, principles, methods and results of active creative activity of people that are constantly updated in all spheres of public life;

    in a narrow sense: the process of active creative activity, during which spiritual values ​​are created, distributed and consumed.


3. Material and spiritual culture (division according to human needs, satisfied values):

    material - the result of the production and development of objects and phenomena of the material world

    spiritual - a set of spiritual values ​​and creative activity for their production, development and application.

This division is conditional.

4. Functions of culture : cognitive, evaluative, regulatory (normative), informative, communicative, socialization.

5. The spiritual world of the individual - the area of ​​being, in which objective reality is present in the person himself, is an integral part of his personality: knowledge, faith, feelings, experiences, needs, abilities, aspirations and goals.

6. Spiritual life of society - an objective, supra-individual ideal reality, a set of meaningful life values ​​that is present in a person and determines the content, quality and direction of social and individual existence. These are philosophy, morality, science, education, art, religion, law.

7. Elements of spiritual life societies are also considered to be:

spiritual needs;
- spiritual activity and production (science, art, religion - reproduction of public consciousness);
- spiritual values ​​(ideas, theories, images, values);
- spiritual consumption (the general nature of consumption, since spiritual goods are a common property);
- spiritual relations (spiritual social relations of individuals);
manifestations of interpersonal spiritual communication.

Values - socially approved and shared by most people ideas about what kindness, justice, patriotism, romantic love, friendship, etc. are. Values ​​are not questioned, they serve as a standard and an ideal for all people.


8. Forms and varieties of culture. Typology of cultures:

    national - world;

    secular - religious;

    eastern - western (Mediterranean, Latin American, etc.; Russian, French, etc.);

    traditional - industrial - post-industrial;

    rural - urban;

    ordinary - specialized;

    high (elite) - mass - folk

9. Elite, mass and folk culture

Criteria

Mass (pop culture, kitsch, "art of anti-fatigue")

Elite

Folk

Professional creators (culture standardization)

Professional creators creating cultural canons

Anonymous lovers (myths, legends, epics, fairy tales, songs, dances)

Character

Commercial (impossible without mass media)

non-commercial

non-commercial

Difficulty level

Short

High (needs intellectual "decoding"; ambiguous content, repeated reading)

Audience

Bulk

narrow

Wide

Interaction

Close interaction and complementarity

1. Screen culture - a variant of mass culture shown on the screens (movies, video clips, television series and television programs, computer games, PSP, game consoles, etc.)

Clip thinking
2. Subculture - part common culture, a system of values ​​inherent in a large social group (youth, women, professional, criminal). Components: knowledge, values, style and way of life, social institutions as a system of norms, skills, abilities, methods of implementation, methods; social roles and statuses; needs and inclinations.
3. youth subculture - a culture of conspicuous consumption, developing most often on the basis of styles in clothing and music. Causes:

  • rising living standards;

    the development of a consumer society that creates more and more product markets, aimed primarily at young people;

    an increase in the role and importance of free time and leisure.

Youth culture also focuses more on friendship in a group of peers, rather than on a family, conducts large-scale experiments with lifestyle, search for other, different from adult culture, cultural foundations for its existence.


14. Counterculture - the direction of development of modern culture, opposing the spiritual atmosphere of modern society (or official culture; underground as counterculture).

13 Science. The main features of scientific thinking. Natural and social humanitarian sciences

1. Science - a form of spiritual activity of people, aimed at the production of knowledge about nature, society and knowledge itself, which has the immediate goal of comprehending the truth and discovering objective laws. Science is:

    social institution (research institutes, universities, academies of sciences, etc.)

    branch of spiritual production (R&D);

    a special system of knowledge (an integral system of concepts, laws, theories).


2. Classifications of sciences:

    on the subject and method of knowledge: natural, social and humanitarian, about knowledge and thinking, technical and mathematical;

    by distance from practice: fundamental and applied.

3. Functions of science:

    cultural and ideological,

    informative and explanatory,

    predictive,

    social (social forecasting, management and development).

4. General cultural characteristics of science: rationality, criticality, individuality, sociability.


5. Models for the development of scientific knowledge:

    gradual development of science;

    development through scientific revolutions and paradigm shifts (a set of explicit and implicit (and often not realized) prerequisites that determine Scientific research and recognized at this stage of development of science; T. Kuhn "Structure scientific revolutions", 1962);

    development through approaching the cognitive standards of natural science;

    development through the integration of scientific knowledge.

6. Scientific knowledge - a special type of cognitive activity aimed at developing objective, systematically organized and justified knowledge about nature, man and society


7. Features:

    objectivity;

    development of the conceptual apparatus (categoriality);

    rationality (consistency, evidence, consistency);

    verifiability;

    high level of generalization;

    universality (explores any phenomenon from the side of patterns and causes);

    the use of special methods and methods of cognitive activity.


8. Levels, forms and methods of scientific knowledge

Levels

Empirical

Theoretical

Forms

A scientific fact is a reflection of an objective fact in human consciousness;

An empirical law is an objective, essential, concrete-universal, recurring stable connection between phenomena and processes.

Question

The problem is the conscious formulation of questions (theoretical and practical);

A hypothesis is a scientific assumption;

Theory is the initial foundations, an idealized object, logic and methodology, a set of laws and statements.

A concept is a certain way of understanding (interpreting) an object, phenomenon or process; the main point of view on the subject; guiding idea for their systematic coverage.

Methods

(strictness and objectivity)

    observation;

    experiment;

    measurement;

    classification;

    systematization;

    description;

    comparison.

    Unity of historical and logical

    Climbing from the abstract to the concrete

    Formalization

    Mathematization

    Mathematical modeling

9. Universal methods of scientific knowledge:

    analysis - the decomposition of the whole into parts;

    synthesis - the reunion of the whole from parts;

    deduction - derivation of a general position from facts;

    deduction - the logical derivation of a new position from the previous ones;

    analogy - the similarity of non-identical objects;

    modeling - reproduction of the characteristics of one object on another object (model), specially created for their study;

    abstraction - mental abstraction from a number of properties of objects and highlighting any property or relationship;

    idealization is the mental creation of some abstract objects that are fundamentally unrealizable in experience and reality.


10. Social sciences - a form of spiritual activity of people, aimed at the production of knowledge about society.


11. Classification social sciences:

    Sciences that provide the most general knowledge about society: philosophy, sociology

    Sciences that reveal a certain area of ​​public life: economics, political science, sociology, cultural studies, ethics, aesthetics

    Sciences penetrating all spheres of public life: history, jurisprudence


12. Social and humanitarian knowledge:

Social Sciences

The study of facts, laws, dependencies of the socio-historical process

The study of the goals, motives, values ​​of a person, his personal perception

Research result

social knowledge

humanitarian knowledge

Analysis of social processes and identification of common, regular, recurring phenomena in them

Analysis of the goals, motives, values ​​of a person and understanding of his thoughts, motives, intentions

Peculiarities:

    Understanding

    Reference to texts

    The impossibility of reducing to unambiguous, universally recognized definitions

Social and humanitarian knowledge are interpenetrating



13. Social cognition is the process of acquiring and developing knowledge about a person and society

1. Features of social cognition:

1.1. the subject and object of knowledge coincide;

1.2. the resulting social knowledge is always associated with the interses of individuals-subjects of knowledge;

1.3. social knowledge is always loaded with evaluation, this is valuable knowledge;

1.4. the complexity of the object of knowledge - society;

1.5. the establishment of only relative truths, the probabilistic nature of patterns;

1.6. limited use of experiment as a method of cognition.


2. Principles of the concrete-historical approach in social cognition:

2.1. consideration of social reality in development;

2.2. the study of social phenomena in diverse relationships;

2.3. identification of the general and particular in similar phenomena of other societies and eras.

3. Social fact

3.1. objective fact - an event that took place at a certain time under certain conditions; does not depend on the researcher;

3.2. scientific fact - an interpreted objective fact - knowledge about an event that is described taking into account the specifics of the social situation in which it took place; recorded in books, manuscripts, etc. (interpretation - interpretation, explanation).

3.3. kinds social facts:

3.3.1. actions, deeds;

3.3.2. material and spiritual products of human activity;

3.3.3. verbal (verbal) actions.

3.4. Assessment of the social fact:

3.4.1. properties of the object under study;

3.4.2. correlation of the studied object with a similar object or with an ideal;

3.4.3. cognitive goals of the researcher;

3.4.4. personal position of the researcher;

3.4.5. the interests of the social group to which the researcher belongs.

14 Education and self-education

1. Education - one of the ways of becoming a person through the acquisition of knowledge by people, the acquisition of skills, the development of mental, cognitive and creative abilities through a system of such social institutions as the family, school, and the media. The goal is to familiarize the individual with the achievements of human civilization, retransmit and preserve its cultural heritage.

2. Self-education - knowledge, skills and abilities acquired by a person independently, without the help of other teaching persons.

3. Functions of education:

    economic (formation of the socio-professional structure of society);

    social (implementation of the socialization of the individual (social function);

    cultural (the use of previously accumulated culture in order to educate the individual).


4. Network of educational institutions in Russia:

    preschool (nurseries, kindergartens);

    primary (4 grades), general secondary (9 grades) and complete secondary (11 grades) education (schools, gymnasiums, lyceums);

    additional education (houses of children's creativity, circles, sections);

    middle special education(lyceums, technical schools, schools, colleges);

    higher specialized education (universities: institutes, universities, academies);

    postgraduate education (institutes for advanced training, courses);

    training of scientific personnel (magistracy, residency, postgraduate studies, doctoral studies);

    spiritual educational establishments(seminaries, theological faculties, theological academies).

Education in the modern world is distinguished by a variety of ways to receive it (school, external study, home schooling, distance learning, self-education courses, etc.)


5. General trends in education:

    democratization of education;

    increase in the duration of education;

    continuity of education;

    humanization of education;

    humanization of education;

    internationalization of education;

    computerization of education.


6. Directions of reforms in Russian education- for the USE, they correspond to the trends given above. The website of the Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation (2009) defines the followingpriorities of state policy and legal regulation in the field of education:

    Ensuring the availability of quality general education

    Improving the quality of school textbooks

    Increasing the level of remuneration of education workers

    Modernization of the system of training, retraining and advanced training of educators

    Improving the quality of vocational education

    Expanding public participation in education management

    Development of a network of educational institutions

    Transition to normative per capita (budgetary) financing of educational institutions


7. Educational paradigm (from Greek paradeigma - example, sample) - a set of meaning-forming characteristics that determine the essential features of the schemes of theoretical and practical pedagogical activity and interaction in education. For example, the paradigm of pedagogy of tradition, the paradigm of scientific-technocratic and humanitarian pedagogy, etc.


Social science. Full course preparation for the exam. Shemakhanova I.A.

M.: 2014. - 315 p.

The manual has been prepared in accordance with the mandatory minimum content of basic general and secondary (complete) general education in social science, the codifier of content elements in social science for compiling control measuring materials for the unified state exam and contains all the material necessary for the student to prepare for the exam on his own. Included CD-ROM containing social studies tests in USE format, will allow the student to organize independent work to test their own knowledge. The program automatically checks the correctness of the examination tasks, which allows you to control the level of readiness for the exam. (CD included with print edition only.)

Format: doc

The size: 2 MB

Watch, download: drive.google

CONTENT
Man and society.
Natural and social in man. (Man as a result of biological and socio-cultural evolution).
Worldview, its types and forms.
Types of knowledge.
The concept of truth, its criteria.
Thinking and activity.
needs and interests.
Freedom and necessity in human activity.
System structure of society: elements and subsystems.
The main institutions of society.
The concept of culture. Forms and varieties of culture.
The science. The main features of scientific thinking. Natural and social-humanitarian sciences.
Education.
Religion.
Art.
Morality.
The concept of social progress.
Multivariance of social development (types of societies).
Threats of the 21st century (global problems).
Economy.
Economics and economic science.
Factors of production and factor income.
Economic systems.
Market and market mechanism. Supply and demand.
Fixed and variable costs.
financial institutions. Banking system.
The main sources of business financing.
Securities.
Labor market. Unemployment.
Types, causes and consequences of inflation.
Economic growth and development. The concept of GDP.
The role of the state in the economy.
Taxes.
The state budget.
World economy.
Rational economic behavior of the owner, employee, consumer, family man, citizen.
Social relations.
Social stratification and mobility.
social groups.
Youth as a social group.
ethnic communities.
Interethnic relations, ethno-social conflicts, ways of their resolution.
Constitutional principles (foundations) of national policy in the Russian Federation.
social conflict.
Types of social norms.
social control.
Freedom and responsibility.
Deviant behavior and its types.
social role.
Family and marriage.
Politics.
The concept of power.
State, its functions.
Political system.
Typology of political regimes.
Democracy, its main values ​​and features.
Civil society and the state.
political elite.
Political parties and movements.
Mass media in the political system.
Election campaign in the Russian Federation.
political process.
political participation.
political leadership.
State authorities of the Russian Federation.
The federal structure of Russia.
Right.
Law in the system of social norms.
The system of Russian law. Legislative process.
The concept and types of legal liability.
Constitution of the Russian Federation. Fundamentals of the constitutional system of the Russian Federation.
Legislation of the Russian Federation on elections.
Subjects of civil law.
Organizational and legal forms and legal regime of entrepreneurial activity.
Property and non-property rights.
The procedure for hiring. The procedure for concluding and terminating an employment contract.
Legal regulation of relations between spouses. The procedure and conditions for the conclusion and dissolution of marriage.
Features of administrative jurisdiction.
right to favorable environment and ways to protect it.
International law (international protection of human rights in peacetime and wartime).
Disputes, the order of their consideration.
Basic rules and principles of civil procedure.
Features of the criminal process.
Citizenship of the Russian Federation.
Military duty, alternative civilian service.
Rights and obligations of the taxpayer.
Law enforcement agencies. Judicial system.

Man - the highest level development of living organisms on Earth.

Origin theories:

1) Religious. divine origin.

2) Man is an unearthly creature, aliens from space, having visited the Earth, left human beings on it.

3) Man appeared as a result of evolution (Ch. Darwin)

Man is a biosocial being:

1) Biological in man: anatomy, physiology, circulatory, muscular systems. Adapts to the conditions of existence.

2) Social in a person: inextricably linked with society, capable and ready for socially useful work, has consciousness and reason.

The main differences between humans and animals:

1) Possesses thinking and articulate speech.

2) Capable of conscious purposeful creative activity.

3) Not only adapts, but also transforms the surrounding reality.

4) Able to make tools and use them as a means of producing material goods.

5) There are spiritual needs.

Need - this is the need of a person for what constitutes a necessary condition for his existence.

Types of needs:

1) Biological (primary, congenital):

A) physiological (food, sleep, rest)

B) Existential (safety of existence)

2) Secondary (acquired)

* social (communication, social activities, public recognition)

* spiritual (in knowledge, creativity)

Capabilities is a set of properties of a person, thanks to which his activity is ensured.

Ability Development Levels:

  • Capabilities

    giftedness

  • Genius

human activity

Activity - a way of man's relationship to the outside world, which consists in transforming and subordinating it to the goals of man.

Activity Components: Subject (the one who carries out the activity)

Object (what the activity is aimed at)

Activity structure:

Goal - means to achieve goals - actions - result

Types of activities in which each person is included in the development process:

A game - the goal is not the result, but the process (entertainment), takes place in a conditional situation (imaginary environment), which is rapidly changing, substitute objects are used, aimed at satisfying the interests of the participants, contributes to the development of the individual.

Communication – exchange of information, emotions and ideas. Promotes socialization of a person (learning the norms accepted in society), has an impact on the mental state, helps to carry out joint activities.

Doctrine - the acquisition of knowledge, skills and abilities by a person. It can be organized (in educational institutions) and unorganized (as an additional result), it can have the character of self-education.

Work - aimed at achieving a practically useful, pre-expected result is carried out with certain knowledge, intelligence

Activities (by objects and results):

Material (creation of wealth)

    Material and production (transformation of nature)

    Socially transformative (transformation of society)

Spiritual (creation of cultural values)

    Cognitive

    Value-indicative (the formation of a positive or negative attitude of people to the phenomena of the surrounding world)

    predictive (planning or foresight) possible changes reality)

Creation - this is a type of activity that generates something qualitatively new, which has never existed before (for example, a new goal, a new result, or new means of achieving the goal). It can be a component of any activity, or an independent activity (for example, the activity of scientists, inventors, writers, artists).

Human cognitive activity

Cognition - human activity. The result of which is the acquisition of new knowledge about the world around.

Knowledge has two levels:

1) Sensory cognition - is carried out by the senses (sight, hearing, smell, touch, taste)

2) Rational knowledge - inherent only to man, carried out through thinking

Types of knowledge:

1) Scientific (reliable generalization of facts)

2) Unscientific:

* mythology * life experience * folk wisdom * parascience (near-scientific knowledge)

True - correspondence of our knowledge about the subject to the subject itself

    Absolute (exhaustive reliable knowledge)

    Relative (incomplete, inaccurate knowledge)

Individual. Individuality. Personality.

Individual - a single representative of the human race.

Individuality - the uniqueness of a person.

Personality - a subject of conscious activity, possessing a set of socially significant features that he implements in public life.

The formation of personality is influenced by: family (upbringing), environment (communication), society, historical era, a person’s personal desire for self-improvement.

The personality has the following features: an active life position, willpower, responsibility, realistic self-esteem (neither low nor high).

Personality is formed in the process of socialization. Socialization - the process of assimilation of norms accepted in society and the development of social roles. Socialization is primary (childhood) and secondary (lasts a lifetime).

self-knowledge - a process during which each person comprehends his abilities, desires, opportunities, interests.

Self-realization - the process of the most complete identification and implementation by the individual of his abilities to achieve the intended goals in solving personally significant problems, which allows the fullest possible realization of the creative potential of the individual.

Spiritual world of man

The structure of the human spiritual world:

1) Cognition (based on intelligence)

2) Emotions - short-term experiences about situations and phenomena of reality (surprise, joy, anger, fear)

3) Feelings - emotional states, more durable than emotions (friendship, love, longing, patriotism)

4) Worldview - a system of general views on the world. Worldview can be: religious, ordinary, scientific.

Freedom and responsibility

freedom - the ability to act on the basis of choice, realizing responsibility for it.

The freedom of a person in society is limited by the freedom of other people. Freedom is manifested in the ability to control one's behavior. The regulator of such behavior is conscience.

In a broad sense - part of the world isolated from nature.

In a narrow sense - a circle of people united by a common goal, interests, origin; - historical periods of development of society.

Main areas of public life

Activities of people and relationships between them

Institutions

(organizations)

Economic

(provides satisfaction of material needs)

Production, distribution, exchange and consumption of material goods, and related relations

Factories, firms, exchanges, banks.

Social

(provides satisfaction of the needs for communication, collectivity)

Relations between classes, estates, nations, professional and age groups; state activities to ensure social guarantees

Health systems, social welfare, utilities

Political

(ensures the satisfaction of the need for organization, discipline, peace, law and order)

Organization of state power, relations between civil society and the state, between the state and political parties

Parliament, government, parties, public organizations

Spiritual

(provides satisfaction of the need for self-realization, moral improvement, knowledge)

Relations arising in the process of creating spiritual values, their preservation, distribution, consumption

Schools, universities, theaters, museums, libraries, archives, churches.

Society- a complexly organized, self-developing system (the system includes separate individuals and social groups, there are coordinated connections between them), which is characterized by dynamism, alternativeness and incompleteness of development. Society is characterized by unpredictability, non-linearity of development.

Nature:

In a broad sense - the whole world.

In a narrow sense -the entire material world, with the exception of society.

The relationship of nature and society:

Society

1) with the help of tools, it affects nature, changing it, i.e. purposefully

2) the development of science enhances the influence of society on nature

3) the impact can be improving (creation of nature reserves, tightening environmental legislation) or worsening (depletion of natural resources)

Nature: 1) creates the conditions for the existence of society

2) natural conditions affect the economy and lifestyle of society

3) in response to human actions, nature can also “deteriorate”

community life (natural disasters)

Typology of societies

comparisons

Agricultural

(traditional)

Industrial

post-industrial

(informational)

Economy

The main value is land, 75% of the population is engaged in agriculture

The main value is capital, 85% of the population is employed in industry, mass industrial production

The main value is knowledge, 66% of the population is employed in the service sector, automation of production, computerization of society

social structure

Society is divided into estates, estates are closed (difficulty of transition)

Society is divided into classes, they are open and mobile

The division of society into classes in accordance with the level of knowledge, qualifications, the growth of the middle class

Politics

Monarchies prevail, human rights and freedoms are absent

Political rights and freedoms, equality before the law, elective power

Political rights and freedoms, equality before the law, elective power,

Strong civil society

Spiritual life

Traditional values ​​(family, religion) dominate, few educated people

Values ​​of progress, personal success, science is developing, mass culture is spreading

High level of education (and its continuation throughout life), the special role of science, the leading role of information

Society can develop in the following ways:

1) Evolution- gradual development, reforms are the way of transformation.

2) The revolution- a radical, qualitative change in all or several aspects of public life (a scientific and technological revolution leads to a transformation in the production sphere, a revolution in politics leads to a change in the form of government).

Progress- the direction of development, which is characterized by a transition from the lower to the higher, moving forward to a more perfect one. (Regress - reverse movement)

hallmark development of modern society is globalization.

Globalization- a process during which mutual influence and interdependence of peoples and states increase in different areas activities (economy, culture…)

Global problems humanity:

1) Caused by the activities of people around the world.

2) Create a threat to the continued existence of mankind

3) Can be solved by joint efforts

Global problems:

    Environmental (depletion of natural resources, environmental pollution)

    Uneven development of individual regions (backwardness of developing countries)

    Demographic (population growth)

    The problem of peace and disarmament, preventing a new world war

    The threat of international terrorism

RIGHT

A set of generally binding, formally defined rules of conduct established by the state and provided by its coercive force

Public Law - area of ​​public affairs (constitutional, administrative, criminal, financial)

Private right– the sphere of private affairs (civil, family, labor)

Law system- the internal structure of law. Includes:

1) Branches of law 2) Sub-branches of law 3) Institutions of law 4) Legal norms

The main branches of the Russian law system:

1 ) Constitutional (fixes the form of government, state-territorial structure, rights and obligations of citizens)

2 ) Administrative (regulates public relations in the field government controlled, organization and activities of executive authorities)

3 ) Civil (regulates property, as well as related personal non-property relations)

4 ) Family (regulates relations between spouses, as well as between parents and children)

5 ) Labor (regulates labor relations)

6 ) Criminal (determines the criminality and punishability of acts)

Sources of law:

1) Laws and regulations ( differ in legal force, has the highest legal power Constitution)

2) Legal custom

3) Legal precedent

4) An agreement with a normative content (based on the mutual will of the parties)

Offenses: crimes and misdemeanors

The main types of legal liability:

1 ) Disciplinary (violation of labor, academic discipline)

2 ) Civil law (causing property damage)

3 ) Administrative (for administrative offenses)

4 ) Criminal (for crimes)

5 ) Material (for damage caused to an enterprise, institution, organization)

The legal culture of an individual is a set of legal knowledge, values, legal behavior of an individual.

PROTECTION OF HUMAN RIGHTS

The way to protect the rights, freedoms and legitimate interests is judicial protection

In case of violation of rights, a person turns to the “main link” – general courts jurisdiction- district courts, which hear the majority of court cases. Judicial power is exercised through civil, administrative and criminal proceedings.

Sentences in criminal justice and solutions in civil proceedings are taken on behalf of Russian Federation. If a person is not satisfied with the decision of the court of general jurisdiction, he can apply to the Supreme Court of Russia, in case of disagreement with its decision - to the supranational court - the European Court of Human Rights, which is the last instance. The decision of this Court is binding on all member states of the Council of Europe.

Directly aimed at protecting the individual in armed conflicts of an international and internal nature INTERNATIONAL HUMANITARIAN LAW, War crimes against humanity in accordance with international law have no statute of limitations.

.

Social sphere of society covers the relationship between people, groups, associations. Society has a social structure - an internal structure.

Elements of the social structure of society:

I. Social groups- stable populations of people who have distinctive, only their inherent characteristics ( social status, interests, value orientations).

Types of social groups:

by number:

    small group(from 2 to 30 people). In a small group, people know each other well (personally know each other), are engaged in some common business. The presence of emotionally colored interpersonal relationships, stability and constancy of the composition. For example - a family, a school class, an airplane crew.

    Big group. A large set of people occupying the same position in the structure of society and having, as a result, common interests. For example - nation, class.

for interaction:

    Formal(official). Its activities are determined through regulatory documents (school class, football team "Zenith")

    informal(unofficial). Its activities are determined by the personal interests of its participants (poetry circle, organization of fans of the Zenit football team, a group of friends)

Family- a small social group based on marriage or consanguinity, whose members are connected by a common life, moral and legal responsibility.

Family Functions:

1) Reproductive (biological reproduction of the population)

2) Socialization (upbringing of children, formation of the individual as a person)

3) Economic and economic (material support for minors and disabled members of society, housekeeping)

4) Emotional (psychological support)

5) Spiritual and moral (personality development)

Family types:

according to the nature of the distribution of household duties:

    Traditional (patriarchal) - household duties are performed by a woman, a man earns money and is the head of the family.

    Partnership - duties are not shared, they are performed jointly or in turn, the most important issues of family life are resolved together.

related structure:

    Nuclear, small (married couple with children)

    Extended, multigenerational (married couple with children and one of the relatives living with them)

    Incomplete (single parent with child or children)

by number of children

*Large * Few * Childless

II. Social communities- sets of people characterized by relative integrity and acting as independent subjects of historical and social action.

    ethnic communities- exist in a certain territory, have a common historical experience, historical memory, language and cultural traditions. Varieties: tribe, nationality, nation

    Classes- differ in place in the system of social production, in relation to the means of production, role in the social organization of labor, methods and amounts of wealth received. For example: the bourgeoisie, the working class, or the upper class, the middle class, the lower class.

    socially-demographic communities (elderly people, teenagers)

The youth- a group of people from 16 to 25 years old, problems - it is difficult to find a place in life, get interesting job offers due to lack of life experience.

    Socio-territorial(townspeople, rural population, Siberians)

    Professional(miners, teachers, doctors)

Different social groups and communities occupy different social positions.

In society since primitive times there has been inequality- uneven distribution of scarce resources (money, power, education and prestige) between different segments of the population.

Indicators of social status can be: wealth, income power, profession, education, prestige, lifestyle.

social status- the position of a person in society, which he occupies in accordance with his age, gender, origin, profession, marital status. (A person can have many statuses, this will be called a status set. Among them, there may be basic and non-basic)

    Prescribed status - does not depend on the merits of the individual (sex, nationality)

    Achievable status - acquired as a result of free choice, personal effort and is under the control of a person

social role- the behavior of a person expected by society, associated with his position in society and typical of his social group. (One person can have many roles, collectively they are called a role set. For example: at work - an employee, at home - a husband, visiting parents - a son, in a company of friends - a friend, on election day - a voter, etc. )

It is customary to distinguish between two main forms of social interaction:

1) Cooperation - mutual interest, the benefits of interaction for both parties, the interaction is aimed at achieving joint goals. Relationships of friendship, partnership, support.

2) Rivalry - the absence of a common goal, but the presence of a similar goal with respect to an indivisible object (economic, political competition). Relationships of envy, hostility, anger.

When incompatible views, positions and interests collide, rivalry can develop into conflict.

Conflict- a clash of two people or social groups for the possession of something that is equally highly valued by both parties.

Kinds social conflicts:

1) Economic 2) Interethnic 3) Political 4) Family and household

Experts identify the following solutions social conflicts:

    Negotiations (peaceful conversation of the parties to solve the problem)

    Compromise (solving a problem through mutual concessions)

    Mediation (using a third party to resolve a problem)

    Use of force, authority, law (unilateral use by the side that considers itself stronger)

Social conflicts have both negative consequences (stress, unrest, victims) and positive consequences (removal of social tension, stimulation of social changes).

Human behavior in society can be:

1) Relevant norms (conformist)

2) Deviant (does not meet the standards - deviant)

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5. Culture and spiritual sphere.

I. Culture (from lat. - "culture" - "cultivation, education")

Culture Traits : functionality, quality, value, normativity, creativity (creativity).

Broadly speaking, culture- all types of transformative activity of a person and society, as well as its results.

In a general sense, culture- a set of achievements of people in the material and spiritual spheres.

material culture- is created in the process of material production (buildings, equipment, tools).

Spiritual culture -includes the process of spiritual creativity and created spiritual values ​​in the form of works of art, scientific discoveries, religion.

Structure of culture:

the form - the embodiment of cultural achievements content - Significance for the individual and society.

Culture Functions:cognitive, informative, communicative, normative, humanistic.

Types of crops: dominant (dominant) elite (for the elite), mass (for the majority, commercial, through the media), folk (on traditions, folklore, anonymous), donor (from which elements are borrowed), recipient (which borrows elements from another culture), dead (outdated content).

Subculture - the culture of social groups.

Counterculture - a subculture that is hostile to the dominant one.

Terms:

Accumulation of culture – replenishment of culture with new elements, knowledge.

cultural transmission- transmission of culture through education.

cultural diffusion- Interpenetration of cultures.

Culture acculturation- the process of mutual influence of two or more cultures.

Assimilation of culture- the absorption of a small culture by a larger one.

Culture adaptationadaptation of cultures to each other.

II. Spiritual realm.

The structure of the spiritual realm:

1. Spiritual needs- the need of society and man in the creation and development of spiritual values. Spiritual needs are not set biologically, from birth. Formed in the process of socialization.

2. Spiritual activity (production)- the activity of people to create spiritual values.

Types of spiritual activity:

1. Cognitive - scientific, religious, artistic

2. Value-oriented - attitude to the phenomena of reality

3. Prognostic - foreseeing and planning changes in reality

3. Spiritual values ​​(goods) -what is created in the process of spiritual production:works of art, teachings, scientific discoveries etc.

Types of spiritual production: religion, morality, art, science.

Religion.

Religion - a form of social consciousness and worldview based on the belief in the existence of a supernatural principle.

Elements: faith, doctrine, religious activity, religious institutions.

Functions : worldview, compensatory, communicative, regulatory, educational.

Religions:

World: Buddhism, Christianity, Islam ( big number followers, outside the nation)

National: Confucianism (China), Taoism (China), Judaism (Israel), Shintoism (Japan), Zoroastrianism (Iran).

Atheism - denial of the existence of God

Confessional- church, denomination - religion

Morality.

Moral - a form of social consciousness that reflects ideas about good and evil, justice and injustice and the type of social relations, a set of norms of people's behavior towards each other.

Moral functions: regulatory, educational, communicative, cognitive, worldview.

The fulfillment of moral norms is sanctioned by the norms of spiritual influence (evaluation, approval, condemnation).

Art.

Art - a form of social consciousness and a type of human activity, which is a reflection of the surrounding realityin artistic images.

Art is the core of aesthetic culture.

Theories about the origin of art: game (G. Spencer), labor (G. Plekhanov), biological(Ch. Darwin), magical.

Art Functions:aesthetic, cognitive, creative, cleansing, communicative, educational, compensatory, hedonistic (pleasure function).

Kinds of art : literature, architecture, music, cinema, theater, painting, graphics, arts and crafts, dance, sculpture, photography.

Art features:is figurative, visual; the presence of specific ways of reproduction, the huge role of imagination, fantasy.

The science.

The science - the sphere of people's cognitive activity, the system of objectively true knowledge about natural and social reality, about man.

Elements of Science : scientific knowledge, scientific activity, scientific self-awareness.

Models for the development of science:

1. Gradual development

2. Through scientific revolutions.Scientific revolution -the process of a radical, qualitative change in the dominant system of ideas and theories (paradigm), which serves as a standard of thinking in a particular historical period.

Functions of Science : cognitive, ideological, prognostic.

Functions modern science : productive, social, cultural and ideological.

Science classification:

natural technical public (humanitarian)

Education.

Education - purposeful cognitive activity to acquire knowledge, skills and abilities and improve them.

self-educationis the process of acquiring knowledge on one's own.

Functions of Education: economic, social, cultural, conservation and transfer of cultural heritage.

Education in the Russian Federation:

preschool general professional additional

Features of modern education:integration of knowledge areas, development of continuous education, informatization (computerization), development distance education(via the Internet), humanization (attention to the individual), humanization (increased attention to the social sciences, internationalization (creation of a single system for different countries).

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1. Society.

Social SciencesKeywords: economics, philosophy, sociology, political science, ethics (about morality), aesthetics (about beauty).

Society:

In a narrow sense: A group of people connected by common interests and goals.

In a broad sense: Separated from nature, but closely connected with it, part of the material world, including all ways of interaction between people and forms of their unification.

Society and nature interact and influence each other. economic interaction - consumption of natural resources, ecological - protection of natural resources.

Noosphere (V. Vernadsky ) is the habitat (biosphere) controlled by the human mind.

Society - dynamic system.

Systemic qualities of society:integrity, dynamism, historicity, openness, hierarchy.

There are 4 spheres (subsystems) in the structure of society:

1. Economic - material production and industrial relations.

2. Political - politics, state, law, their relations and functioning, mass media, army.

3. Social - relations between classes, groups, nations, etc.

4. Spiritual - forms of social consciousness: religion, morality, science, art.

The spheres interact and are interconnected.

Public relations- relations and forms that arise in the process of life between social groups, classes, nations, as well as within them.

Public relations

Spiritual Material

The most important component of societysocial institution -a historically established form of organizing people, which, on the basis of a set of norms and statuses, regulates their activities and satisfies fundamental human needs.

Social institutions: property, state, political parties, family, church, labor organizations, educational and upbringing institutions, science, mass media, etc.

Types of societies (according to Daniel Bell, Alvin Toffler)

Types of societies (according to O. Toffler)

social change- the transition of social systems, communities, organizations from one state to another (natural, demographic, social, spiritual changes, etc.).

Directed Development

progress stagnation regression

Progress criterion – the degree of freedom that society gives a person for its optimal development. Progress is controversial (both positive and negative processes)

Progress Forms:revolution and reform. Evolution - gradual development.

Scientific and technological progress (NTP) -a qualitative change in the productive forces of society under the influence of the scientific and technological revolution.

Scientific and technological revolution (NTR)- a leap in the development of the productive forces of society on the basis of fundamental changes in the system of scientific knowledge.

historical process – chronological sequence events that affect the development of society.Subjects of the historical process: individuals, social groups, masses.historical factis a social event.

Civilization - the totality of material, spiritual and moral means possessed by a given society in a given historical period.

The term was put forward by N. Danilevsky, called civilizationscultural and historical types.Civilizations were distinguished by 4 features: economic, cultural, political, religious. To characterize civilizations, the concept of mentality is also singled out.

mentality - way of thinking, worldview inherent in a certain group, individual

Two theories: the theory of stage development (study development as a single process) and the theory of local civilizations(study large historically established communities).

Approaches to the study of the historical process:

Formative approach

(K. Marx)

Civilization approach

(A. Toynbee)

Cultural approach (O. Spengler)

The basis of the transition from one formation to another.Socio-economic formations:primitive communal, slaveholding, feudal, capitalist, communist.

There are two main components in the socio-economic formation - the basis and the superstructure. Basis - the economy of society, the components of which areproductive forces and relations of production(method of production of material goods).

Superstructure - state, political, public institutions.

Changes in the economic basis lead to the transition from one socio-economic formation to another. Plays a big roleclass struggle.

Civilizations - stable communities of people united by spiritual traditions, a similar way of life, geographical, historical boundaries.At the heart of the change of civilizations. The development of the whole story is built according to the "challenge - response" scheme. Each civilization in its destiny goes through four stages: origin; growth; break; disintegration, culminating in death and the complete disappearance of civilization.

The central concept of this approach is culture. Culture is the totality of religion, traditions, material and spiritual life. Culture is born, lives and dies. Civilization within the cultural approach -the highest level of cultural development,the final period of the development of culture, preceding its death.

Global problems of our time -a complex of social and natural contradictions affecting the whole world as a whole. I are an indicator of integrity and interconnection modern world, pose a threat to humanity, require joint efforts to solve.

Main problems:

1. Environmental: pollution, extinction of species, "ozone holes", etc.

The term "Ecology" was introduced E. Haeckel.

2. Demographic;

3. The problem of security and prevention of world war;

4. The problem of resources;

5. North-South problem: developing and highly developed countries.

Globalization - Strengthening integration ties in various fields between states, organizations, communities.

International organizations:UN (United Nations); IAEA (International Atomic Energy Agency); UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization); WIPO (World Intellectual Property Organization); WTO (World Trade Organization); NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization); OSCE (Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe); European Union; OPEC (Organization of Petroleum Producing and Exporting Countries); CIS (Commonwealth of Independent States); SCO (Shanghai Cooperation Organization) and others.

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3. Cognition.

Cognition is a process of acquiring knowledge.

Knowledge - an objective reality given in the human mind. Knowledge is the result of cognitive activity.

Subject of knowledge- the one who knows. Object of knowledge - that to which knowledge is directed.

Epistemology - the science of knowledge.

Gnosticism (gnostics)- they believe that the world is cognizable (Plato, Socrates, K. Marx, G. Hegel).

Agnosticism (agnostics)- the world is cognizable within limited limits or unknowable (I. Kant).

Types of cognition: sensual and rational.

Forms of sensory cognition:

Feeling - a reflection of individual properties and qualities of objects and phenomena that arise when exposed to the senses.

Perception - a holistic sensual image of an object, phenomenon.

Performance - a sensual image of an object or phenomenon that arises with the help of memory without direct contact with the object.

Forms of rational knowledge:

Concept - a form of thinking in which the general and essential properties of an object are fixed.

Judgment - a form of thinking in which something is affirmed or denied.

Inference -a form of thinking in which new judgments are derived from existing judgments.

Two theories on types of cognition:

1. Empiricism (empiricists)- recognize sensory experience as a source of knowledge (T. Hobbes, D. Locke).

2. Rationalism (rationalists)– knowledge can be obtained with the help of reason (R. Descartes, I. Kant)

Intuition - a kind of cognition outside the process of sensory familiarization and without deliberation.

Features: suddenness, thoughtlessness, secrecy of the mechanism.

The purpose of knowledge is to obtain the truth.

Truth - knowledge corresponding to reflected reality.Truth is objective in content and subjective in form.

absolute truth- complete, exhaustive knowledge, not refuted by the further development of science.

Relative truth- incomplete, inaccurate knowledge, refuted by the further development of science.

Criterion of truth - a way to distinguish between true and untrue in the totality of knowledge.

The main criterion of truth is practice.

The antipodes of truth are lies, disinformation, delusion.

Lie - the deliberate erection of deliberately incorrect ideas into the truth.

Disinformation - transmission false knowledge as true or true as false.

Delusion - unintentional inconsistency of judgments or concepts with an object.

Types of knowledge.

I. Non-scientific knowledge:

Ordinary (everyday)

Practical (folk wisdom)

religious

mythological

Artistic (by means of art).

II. Scientific knowledge -knowledge aimed at obtaining objective knowledge. Target - description, explanation, prediction of the phenomena of reality. Signs: objectivity, consistency, validity, reliability, a special language, the need for special devices and specialists.

2 levels of scientific knowledge: empirical and theoretical.

Empirical level:

Observation - purposeful perception of the phenomena of objective reality.

Description - fixation by means of a natural or artificial language of information about an object.

Measurement - comparison of an object by some similar properties or sides.

Experiment - observation in specially created and controlled conditions, which allows you to restore the course of the phenomenon when the conditions are repeated.

Theoretical level:

Hypothesis - assumptions put forward in the course of scientific research.

Theory - a system of interrelated statements.

Law - conclusions about significant, recurring relationships between phenomena.

Scientific methods:

1. General : dialectic (dialectical studies phenomena in motion) and metaphysics (metaphysical studies phenomena at rest).

2. General scientific: Analysis is the real or mental division of an object into its component parts. Synthesis is the combination of constituent parts into a single whole. Induction - the movement of thought from the individual to the general. Deduction is the ascent of the process of cognition from the general to the individual. Analogy (correspondence, similarity) - the establishment of similarities in some aspects, properties and relationships between non-identical objects.

3. Private scientific: questioning, examination, interviewing, graphic method.

III. social cognition -knowledge aimed at studying the nature of social ties, social groups, the social structure of society.

Peculiarity - the subject and object of knowledge coincide, the knowledge obtained is always associated with the interests of individuals, the subjectivity of conclusions and assessments.

Target: identification of historical patterns of development of society, social forecasting.

Methods: content analysis (analysis of statistical data, documents), survey, observation, experiment.

IV. Self-knowledge - self-knowledge, self-esteem, the creation of a "I-concept" - the image of I.

Feature - the object is the subject itself.

Purpose: knowledge of one's physical, mental, spiritual capabilities, one's place among other people.

Self-knowledge is accomplished:

1. In the analysis of the results of their own activities, their behavior, relationships with others.

2. Awareness of the attitude of others towards oneself (qualities of one's personality, character traits), through the opinions of others

people and relating to others.

3. Self-observation of one's states, experiences, thoughts.

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2. Man.

Man

Individual

Individuality

Personality

The highest level of living organisms on earth, the subject of social historical activity and culture

The only representative of the human race

Unique, original features and qualities inherent in a person (biological, psychological, social)

A set of socially significant features that characterize a person as a member of a given society, a person as a subject of relations and conscious activity

Origin theories:religious, evolutionary(C.Darwin), Marxist (labor made man)

biosocial problem- the problem of the relationship between the biological and the social in man.

At the time of birth, a person is an individual. Personality becomes in the process of socialization.

Socialization - the process of assimilation by a person of social experience, forms of behavior acceptable for a given society.

Primary socialization: agents (relatives, teachers) and institutions of socialization (family, school).

Secondary socialization: agents (colleagues, teachers, officials) and institutions (universities, army, church).

Desocialization -the process of moving away from old values, norms, rules, roles.

Resocialization - the process of learning new values, norms, rules, roles.

Freedom of the individual- the ability to create oneself and the world of other people, to make choices, to be responsible. "Freedom is a recognized necessity" - G. Hegel.

Interpersonal relationships -relationships between different individuals on different grounds.

Interpersonal relationships

Personal worldview- a set of principles, views, beliefs and attitudes towards objective reality and a person's place in it.

Worldview:

mundane, religious, mythological, scientific, philosophical, humanistic.

Activity - human activity aimed at changing and transforming the world around us and ourselves. Subject - the one who carries out the activity. An object - what the activity is aimed at.

Activity structure:

Motive - goal - means - action - result.

Motive - a material or ideal object that prompts action.

Target - a conscious image of the expected result.

Activities:

1. According to the content: work, play, communication, study.

Work - a type of human activity aimed at achieving a practically useful result.

Communication- the process of interaction between people, which consists in perception and understanding and in the exchange of information (communication)

2. By direction: spiritual , practical , creative , managerial .

Creation - an activity that generates something new that has never existed before.

Heuristic is the science that studies creativity.

human needs- experienced or perceived need for something.

Needs:

biological, social, ideal.

Needs according to A. Maslow.

1.Physiological, 2.Existential, 3. Social, 4. Prestigious, 5. Spiritual

Primary, congenital Secondary, acquired

The needs of each level become urgent when the previous ones are satisfied.

Interest – conscious need, which characterizes the attitude of people to objects and phenomena that have important social development for them. Interests are incentives for various activities.

Capabilities - individual characteristics of a person, on which the success of various activities depends.

Abilities are biologically based.

Talent - a set of abilities that allows you to get a product of activity that is distinguished by novelty and significance.

Genius - the highest stage of talent development, which allows to make fundamental changes in a particular field of activity.

Genius is a cultural phenomenon of human nature.

"Conscious" and "Unconscious"- these are correlative concepts expressing the features of the work of the human psyche. A person thinks about situations and makes decisions. Such actions are called conscious . However, often a person acts thoughtlessly, and sometimes he himself cannot understand why he did so.Unconsciousactions suggest that a person acts on an internal impulse, without any analysis of the situation, without clarifying the possible consequences. ( Z. Freud).

Being - something that exists, existing in general (being studies the section of philosophy ontology).

Forms of being : material being, spiritual being, human being, social being.

Spiritual world of man(microcosm) - a complex system the inner world of a person, the elements of which are spiritual needs, thoughts, feelings, worldview, emotions, values, etc.

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4. Social sphere

Sociology - the science of the laws, formation, functioning, development of society and social relations.(O.Kont).

Structure social sphere includes:

I. Social connections -dependence of social groups and people on each other (there are formal and informal).Social connections:

1. Social contacts -unstable connections arising on specific occasions (for example, subway passengers).

2. Social interactions- stable, regular connections based on joint activities (for example, colleagues at work).

3. Social relationships- ultra-stable, self-renewing connections that are systemic in nature (for example, friends).

II. Social groups -communities of individuals united on some basis.(T. Hobbes).

Signs:

number: small groups (differ in direct contact and informal communication), medium, large

demographic:gender, age, education, marital status

settlement criterion:townspeople, villagers

confessional:Catholics, Orthodox, Muslims

by ethnicity, professional etc.

III. Social communities-groups capable of self-reproduction.

Ethnosocial communities: clan (tribe), nationality, nation.

Genus - association of people on the basis of kinship ties, tribe - union of clans nationalities - associations of people on the basis of territorial and linguistic characteristics, nation - large groups of people united by economic space, language, culture, traditions, national identity.

IV. Social institution -see chapter Society.The main social institution is the family.

Function family as a social institution: childbirth.The family is also a small group. Family functions: educational, socialization, leisure, creating a sense of security, economic and economic. Family: matriarchal, patriarchal, partnership.Nuclear family- consisting of 2 generations.

V. Social culture– social norms and social values ​​on the basis of which social relations.

VI. social values- the goals that people in society aspire to.Core Values– vital to society (health, well-being, family, etc.)

VII. social norms - rules of social behavior.

social norms(there are written and unwritten):

Moral norms, ethical norms, norms of traditions and customs, religious norms, political norms, legal norms.

Functions of social norms:regulating, unifying, educational.

Conformist behavior -in line with accepted standards.

Behavior that does not conform to social norms deviant.

Deviant Behavior:

Deviant behavior -violation that does not comply with the rules.

Deviation can be positive (heroes) and negative (drug addicts, murderers)

Delinquent behavior -committing crimes.

Compliance is ensured by the use sanctions - the reaction of society to the behavior of an individual or group. Function of sanctions - social control.

Sanctions:

positive (rewarding) and negative (punishing)

Official and unofficial.

social stratification

Social stratification (differentiation) -stratification and hierarchical organization of society.(P. Sorokin).

Differentiation criteria: income(economic), amount of power (political), education (type of activity.), also distinguish prestige - society's assessment of the social significance of a person's status. Prestige depends on the real usefulness of the activity and the value system of society.

Social layers:

castes - strictly closed layers of traditional societies.

Estates - groups of people with different rights and responsibilities.

Classes - social groups distinguished by the way they participate in social production and distribution, their place in the social division of labor.

strata - informal groups with a relatively equal social status, the criteria of which are income, access to political power, education.

Status

Status - a position in the social structure of society, associated with other positions through a system of rights and obligations.

personal status - the position that an individual occupies in a small group

social status- the position of the individual in the social group.

status set - a set of statuses of one person.

Prescribed (born) status: gender, age, nationality, kinship

Acquired (achieved) status: profession, education, position, marital status, religion.

social role - some pattern of behavior recognized for people of a certain status.

social mobility

social mobility(P. Sorokin ) - the transition of an individual or group from one position in the hierarchy of social stratification to another.

social mobility: horizontal -within one layer and vertical – transition from one layer to another. Vertical mobility can bedescending and ascending.

Channels of social mobility ("social lifts") -education, army, schools, family, property.

Marginal - an individual who has lost his former social status, unable to adapt to a new social environment (“on the edge”).

Marginality - the intermediate position of the individual between social groups, associated with his movements in the social space.

Lumpens - people who have sunk "to the bottom" of public life.

social conflict.

social conflict(G. Spencer ) - a clash of opposing interests, goals, views, ideologies between individuals, groups, classes in society.

Structure of the conflict: conflict situation--incident--active actions--completion

Types of behavior in conflict: adaptation, compromise, cooperation, ignoring, rivalry.Most scholars consider conflict to be a natural, progressive phenomenon.

Conflict types:internal, external, global, local, economic, political, family, national.

National conflictsassociated with exacerbationthe national questionabout the self-determination of peoples and overcoming ethnic inequality, as well as trends in the modern world.

Two trends in the modern world:

1. International - integration, rapprochement of nations.

2. National - differentiation, the desire for independence.

Social policy of the state- purposeful activity of the state to improve the social sphere of society. Directions: 1. improvement of the social structure of society, 2. regulation of relationships between different layers, 3. development of human potential (programs for the development of education, pensions, health care, ecology).

Social politics: active - direct influence of the state (sometimes centralized and decentralized) and passive - mediated by economic factors

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8. Right

Right

1. A system of rules and norms of behavior established and protected by the state.

2. The ability to do something, carry out, have (the right to work, education).

Signs of law (and rules of law):normativity, obligation, general character, formal certainty.

Theories of the origin of law: the theory of natural law (T. Hobbes), the liberal tradition (first the law - then the state), the statist tradition (first the state - then the law), Marxist, sociological. Statism - the theory that state the highest result and goal of social development

Functions of law - regulatory, educational, protective.

Legal culture:legal knowledge, attitude to law, law enforcement.

Differences between law and morality:

Source (form) of law- specific types of social phenomena that form the law and the result of state lawmaking.Sources (forms) of law:

1. Legal custom- patterns of behavior that have taken root in society as a result of their repetition, which have turned into rules of conduct.

2. Judicial practice.

3. Legal (judicial) precedent- a legal decision made earlier in a specific legal case and served as an example for subsequent decisions.

4. Normative contract- an agreement between the parties containing the rules of law

5. Legal act- an act of law-making by public authorities, establishing or repealing the rules of law.

Legal act: laws and regulations.

I. Laws - regulatory legal acts adopted by the highest legislative body of the state (or by referendum), fixing the most significant social relations. There areFederal Laws and Laws of the subjects of the Federation.

Laws are divided into:

1. Constitutional laws(1. Constitutions, 2. Laws amending the Constitution.

3. Laws provided by the Constitution).

2. Ordinary laws– normative-legal acts of the current legislation. They are current (valid for a specified period) andcodified(codes of laws - codes).

II. Regulations– normative-legal acts specifying the provisions of laws. - Decrees, resolutions, decrees.

Legal system (family) - association of states on the basis of legal regulation.

1. Romano-Germanic- the main source is a legal act. (Russia).

2. Anglo-Saxon– main source – legal precedent

3. Muslim - the main source is the legal custom.

The right is shared to private lawserves private interests (family, civil) andpublic law(constitutional, criminal).

Realization of the right – implementation of the law.Forms of realization of the right:

1. Exercise of the right -use of rights

2. Exercise of law- performance of duties

3. Respect for the law- not a breach of law

4. Application of law- carried out with the help of officials.

Law system - a set of interconnected norms, institutions and branches of law.

System elements -1. Legal regulation(rule of law) is a unit of the system.2. Institute of Law- a small group of rights governing one type of relationship. (For example, the institution of gift in civil law, the institution of marriage in family law). 3. Branch of law - a set of homogeneous legal norms.

Rule of law - the main element of the legal system, the rule of conduct established and protected by the state.

The structure of the rule of law:

1. Hypothesis - part of the norm, indicating the conditions for the emergence of rights and obligations.

2. Disposition - part of the norm, indicating the content of the norm

3. Sanction - part of the norm, indicating the legal consequences of the violation.

Types of rules of law

1. By function: regulatory (establish rights and obligations) and protective (measures against violators)

2. By industry:family, civil, etc.

3. By content:1. binding norms(What do we have to do)2. norms prohibiting(what not to do)3. norms authorizing(what can be done).

Branches of law.

1. Constitutional (state) law -regulates socially significant public relations, the structure of the state.

2. Family law- Regulates issues of marriage and family relations, kinship.

3. Civil law- regulates property and related non-property relations.

4. Administrative law- regulates public relations in the field of management, is associated with the activities of the executive branch.

5. Labor law- regulates the relationship between the employee and the employer

6. Criminal lawregulates relations connected with the commission of criminal acts.

legal relationship– types of social relations regulated by the rule of law.

To become participants in legal relations, legal entities and individuals (subjects of public relations) must have legal capacity and capacity.

Legal capacity -the ability of subjects of legal relations to have legal rights and bear obligations. Comes from birth and ends with death.

legal capacity- the ability of subjects of legal relations to independently exercise their rights and obligations.1. Complete- from the age of 18.2. Partial- (in criminal cases from the age of 16, for some crimes from the age of 14, in the family from the age of 16, in the civil - from the age of 14, in the administrative - from the age of 16)3. Limited- by the court.

legal fact- living conditions in connection with which legal relations arise.

legal facts- 1. Law-formers. 2. Changers. 3. Terminators.

Legal Facts:1. Events(do not depend on the will of people), 2. Actions(depending on the will of the people).

Actionsthere arelegitimateandillegal(offences).

Offenses- acts that are contrary to the prescriptions of legal norms are expressed asaction, andinaction.

Offensesare divided intomisdeedsandcrimes.

Misdemeanors (torts) and legal liability.

1. Administrative(in the field of state and local regulation) –administrative responsibility (warning, fine, deprivation of rights, confiscation of the object, corrective labor, administrative arrest)

2 . Disciplinary(in the field of service relations) -disciplinary responsibility(remark, reprimand, dismissal),material liability(damage)

3. Civil(in the field of property and non-property relations) – civil liability.

crimes– socially dangerous illegal acts causing special harm or threat. Comingcriminal responsibility.

Signs of an offense:guilt, wrongfulness, public danger.

The legal structure of the offense:

1. The object of the offense -what the action is directed at.2. The subject of the offense -who committed

3. The objective side of the offense- a characteristic that includes signs of illegality, public danger, socially dangerous consequences.

4. Subjective side of the offense- internal characteristics of the offense (motive and purpose).

5. Motive of the offense- a conscious urge to do something.

6. Purpose of the offense- the mental result to which the subject aspired.

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What does social science study?

The object of study of social science issociety.Society is a very complex system that obeys various laws. Naturally, there is no one science that could cover all aspects of society, so several sciences study it. Each science studies any one side of the development of society: the economy, social relations, development paths, and others.

Social science -a generalizing name for the sciences that study society as a whole and social processes.

Every science hasobject and subject.

Object of science -phenomenon objective reality who studies science.

The subject of science -A person, a group of persons, cognizing an object.

The sciences are divided into three groups.

Sciences:

Society is studied by social sciences (humanities).

The main difference between the social sciences and the humanities:

Social (humanitarian) sciences that study society and man:

archeology, economics, history, cultural studies, linguistics, political science, psychology, sociology, law, ethnography, philosophy, ethics, aesthetics.

Archeology- a science that studies the past according to material sources.

Economy- the science of economic activity society.

Story- the science of the past of mankind.

Culturology- a science that studies the culture of society.

Linguistics- the science of language.

Political science- the science of politics, society, the relationship between people, society and the state.

Psychology- the science of the development and functioning of the human psyche.

Sociology- the science of the laws of formation and development of social systems, groups, individuals.

Right -a set of laws and rules of conduct in society.

Ethnography- a science that studies the life, culture of peoples and nations.

Philosophy- the science of the universal laws of the development of society.

Ethics- the science of morality.

Aesthetics -the science of beauty.

Sciences study societiesnarrow and broad sense.

Society in the narrow sense:

1. The entire population of the Earth, the totality of all peoples.

2. The historical stage in the development of mankind (feudal society, slave-owning society).

3. Country, state (French society, Russian society).

4. Association of people for any purpose (club of animal lovers, society of soldiers

mothers).

5. A circle of people united by a common position, origin, interests (high society).

6. Ways of interaction between the authorities and the population of the country (democratic society, totalitarian society)

Society in the broadest sense -part of the material world, isolated from nature, but closely connected with it, which includes the ways of interaction between people and the forms of their unification. Politics: microlevel, macro level (state level), mega level (between states).

Political system- a set of elements in which political power is realized.

The type of political system determines the political and legal regime: democratic, totalitarian, authoritarian.

Elements of the political system (spheres or subsystems):

1. Institutional:state, parties, movements (institutions)

2. Communicative- a set of relationships between groups about power

3. Regulatory– rules and regulations

4. Cultural and ideological– ideology, political culture, views, emotions.

Power– the ability to exercise their will, to have an impact.

Power structure:

1. Subjects of power– state, political leaders, parties

2. Objects of power- individuals, groups, masses

3. Foundations of power- legal, economic, power, social, information

4 . Power resources- coercion, persuasion, law, tradition, fear, encouragement, myths

5. Functions of power- domination, leadership, regulation, control, management, coordination, organization, mobilization.

Power is legal- legal authoritylegitimate authority- that which is not imposed by force is accepted by the people voluntarily.

Legitimacy or domination of power (M. Weber)

1. Traditional dominance- driven by tradition

2. Legal domination- on the recognition of legal norms

3. Charismatic dominance- based on the authority of the leader.

Political power is divided into:state and public authority.

Theories of the origin of the state:

1. Patriarchal theory - Aristotle2. Religious theory – Thomas Aquinas3. Contract theory – D. Locke, T. Hobbes4. Organic theory – G. Spencer5. Class theory – K. Marx

State- a special organization of power and administration, which has a special apparatus of coercion and is able to give its orders binding force for the whole country.

Signs of the state

1. The presence of a special public authority

2. The presence of a special control apparatus

3. Territorial organization

4. Taxes

5. Sovereignty of power

6. Monopoly on lawmaking.

State functions – the main, socially significant areas of state activity.

Functions:

1. By objecty: internal and external

2. By content: political, economic, social, cultural and educational, legal, organizational, environmental.

3. By the nature of the impact:protective (ensuring the protection of public relations) and regulatory (development of public relations).

State shape- a set of basic ways of organizing, organizing and exercising state power, expressing its essence.

State forms:

1. Form of government -way of organizing government.

Form of government: 1. Monarchy- power is concentrated in the hands of one head and is inherited.2. RepublicPower is exercised by elected bodies elected for a fixed term.Monarchy:1 . absolute, 2. parliamentary, 3. dualistic.Republic:1. presidential, 2. parliamentary, 3. mixed.

2. Form of government – method of national and administrative-territorial structure.Forms: 1. unitary state, 2. federation, 3. confederation.

3. Political and legal regime – a set of political and legal means and ways of exercising power.Regime: 1. democratic, 2. anti-democratic (1. authoritarian, 2. totalitarian, 3. military).

Democracy – recognition of the principle of equality of all people, the active participation of the people in political life.

Signs of democracy:1. recognition of the people as a source of power and sovereignty,2. the existence of rights and freedoms, 3. pluralism, 4. separation of powers(legislative, executive, judicial), 5.publicity. 6. elective power, 7. developed system of local governments.

Forms of democracy: 1. direct (direct), 2 indirect (representative).

Institutions of Direct Democracy: 1. elections, 2. referendum (popular vote).

Electoral system(includes the right to vote, the electoral process and the procedure for recalling deputies) –the procedure for the formation of elected bodies.

Suffrage- principles and conditions for the participation of citizens in elections.Suffrage: 1. active(right to vote)2. passive(the right to be elected).signs: 1. universal, 2. equal, 3. vowel, 4. open.Determination of results takes place on two systems: 1. majoritarian electoral system -The winner is the candidate who receives the most votes.2. proportional electoralsystem - voting on party lists and the distribution of mandates between parties is strictly proportional to the number of votes cast.Mandate- a document certifying the rights of a deputy.

Civil society(G. Hegel)- this is a non-state part of socio-political life, protected from direct state intervention, equality of rights and freedoms of all people;Signs of civil society:1. the presence in society of free owners of the means of production; 2. development and branching of democracy; 3. legal protection of citizens; 4. a certain level of civic culture.

Constitutional state- the state, which in its activities is subject to law.Signs of the rule of law: 1. law supremacy, 2 . observance of rights and freedoms, 3. separation of powers, 4. mutual responsibility of the state and citizens.

Political Party- an institution of the political system, a group of adherents of certain goals, uniting to fight for power.Party features: 1. power struggle, 2. programwith goals and strategy, 3.charter, 4. organizational structure, 5. the presence of governing bodies.

Party types: 1. By methods:revolutionary, reformist. 2. By the nature of membership:personnel, mass3. By ideology: conservative, liberal, social democratic, communist.4. By representation in power: ruling, opposition.5. By the nature of the actions:radical, reactionary, moderate, extremist, conservative.

Political culture (G. Almond, S. Verba) - a set of systems of opinions, positions, values ​​that prevail in a society or group.

Types of political culture:

1. Patriarchal- Orientation of citizens to local values,2. subject- passive attitude of citizens in the political system.3. political culture of participation (activist) - active participation of citizens in political life.Absenteeism- non-participation, avoidance of political life.

Political ideology- system of ideas. Types of ideologies:

1. Conservatism- maintaining order. 2.liberalism- freedom of individuality, entrepreneurship, rights. 3.Socialism- a fair structure of society. 4.anarchism- elimination of the state 5.nationalism- superiority of the nation 6.extremism- Violent methods.

Constitution of Russia– 1918 (first), 1925, 1937, 1978,1993 (12 December). The first in the world1787 - US Constitution.December 10, 1948- "Universal Declaration of Human Rights", 1966 - "International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights" and "International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights".1959 – "Declaration of the Rights of the Child"1989 – "Convention on the Rights of the Child".


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