INTRODUCTION
Natural conditions have played and continue to play an important role in the life and development of human society.
Natural conditions are understood as a set of the most important natural characteristics of the territory, reflecting the main features of the components of the natural environment or local natural phenomena. ecological energy war poverty
Natural conditions directly affect life and economic activity population. On them depend: the resettlement of the population, the development and distribution of productive forces, their specialization. They determine the cost and, consequently, the competitiveness of manufactured products, which is especially important for countries with a significant distribution of extreme natural features, including Russia.
INFLUENCE OF NATURAL CONDITIONS ON THE ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES OF PEOPLE
Natural conditions are objects and forces of nature that are essential at a given level of development of society for the life of management, but are not directly involved in material activity.
The influence of various natural conditions on different branches of economic activity is changeable. It manifests itself in different ways in different sectors of the economy, in different economic conditions. In any particular situation, favorable or unfavorable conditions can accelerate or delay the pace of economic development, promote the formation of certain types of activity or slow it down. Natural conditions have a direct impact on open-air industries, agriculture and forestry, the efficiency and specialization of which are largely related to soil fertility, climate, and water regime. Many other activities are also influenced by them. So, in the extraction of minerals, not only the reserves and quality of ores are taken into account, but also the totality of the conditions for their occurrence, which affect the method, scale and cost of extraction.
It may turn out that not the richest, but poorer deposits located in favorable conditions will be the most economical. The cost of capital construction largely depends on the strength and watering of the soil, the degree of seismicity or swampiness of the territory, the presence permafrost and mountainous terrain. Nature also influences the organization of communal services.
The main elements of natural conditions, in terms of their impact on the economy, can be considered:
- Territory, its position on the mainland, size;
- the climate
- Relief (geological and geomorphological conditions);
- soil cover;
- · water resources;
- vegetable and animal world.
Natural conditions of Russia. Within Russia, natural zonality is distinguished, manifested in differences in soil cover, vegetation and wildlife. The boundaries of the zones are mainly elongated along the parallels (sublatitudinal). On the vast territory of the country, the following natural zones are sequentially presented from north to south (Figure 1): arctic desert, tundra, forest-tundra, forest, forest-steppe, steppe, semi-desert and desert zone. Altitude zonation is clearly expressed in mountainous regions.
Significant restrictions on economic activity in Russia are:
- seasonal climate with large temperature fluctuations;
- · permafrost (on 2/3 of the territory of the Russian Federation);
- seismic and volcanic activity(for mountainous areas, including volcanic for the Kamchatka Peninsula).
- · The combination of river basins with the main forms of the surface formed large natural and geographical regions on the territory of the country, which, in turn, acquired common economic features during the history of development and settlement of the country. These regions are: East European (or the European part of Russia), West Siberian, Central Siberian (in economic geography it is called East Siberian) and Far East.
The concept of natural conditions is always associated with one or another type of human activity, but it is not at all constant, it changes from one era to another, it strongly depends on the nature and level of production. For a long time, the study of natural conditions was associated mainly with the assessment of their impact on various branches of economic activity. For example, mining can start sooner at deposits located in more favorable natural conditions, as it will be more economical. The cost of capital construction largely depends on the strength and water content of the soil, the degree of waterlogging of the territory, the presence of permafrost and the mountainous terrain. The cost of water supply, heating, lighting of dwellings and their construction is different in areas of warm and cold, humid and dry climates, in conditions of short and long daylight hours.
The natural environment must be "weighed in economic terms." The influence of natural conditions, reflecting on the productivity of social and individual labor, largely determines the amount of material costs.
Natural conditions also need to be assessed from the standpoint of the living conditions of the population. They are one of the most important factors facilitating or hindering the settlement and development of a territory, largely determining the scale, ways and forms of using its natural resources and economic opportunities. The favorable or unfavorable of these conditions, both in their natural form and those changed as a result of anthropogenic transformations of nature, has a strong and diverse effect on all aspects of the life of the population: its way of life, work, rest, and health. The solution of many socio-economic and economic problems largely depends on the correct assessment of natural conditions. According to experts, the cost of arranging one person in different regions of Russia can vary by 7-10 or even more times. Features of the settlement of people from the first steps of the formation of human society were limited by environmental factors.
The total assessment of the natural conditions of people's lives lies in the level of comfort. To determine the level of comfort, it is possible to evaluate about 30 parameters of the natural environment (the duration of various climatic periods with comfortable and uncomfortable temperatures relative to the season, assessment of the thermal insulation required for each season, clothing, the presence of natural foci of infectious diseases, etc.).
Target:
Form and generalize knowledge about the relationship environment and public health. Show examples of development of territories with extreme living conditions
I. Organizing time
II. Learning new material
The study of new content includes two generalizing blocks:
- Interaction between the environment and human health.
- Development of territories with extreme conditions.
1. Getting Started first block Students' attention is drawn to the question: What do we know about the relationship between nature and human health?;
a) As a result of a conversation with students, the following scheme emerges
Part of nature with which humanity interacts in its life and production activities -
Natural factors affecting human health
Temperature and humidity. Atmosphere pressure
- Proximity or distance from water bodies, quality of drinking water;
- The condition of landscapes and the sanitary condition of the soils on which edible vegetables and fruits are grown
The beauty of the surrounding landscapes
- sea coasts
- clean air
- healing mud and mineral waters
b) Practical work"Study of the degree of favorable natural conditions for human life." (see Appendix No. 1)
This practical work allows us to conclude that unfavorable conditions for the life and economic activity of the population prevail on the territory of Russia. Russia is the most cold country planets (excluding Antarctica).
Territory with favorable conditions for people to live in Russia occupy only 1/3 of its area.in) Work with the textbook.
The analysis of bar graphs makes it possible to compare the territory of Russia in terms of the availability of areas with favorable conditions with
other leading countries of the world.Area favorable for the life of the population of territories by country of the world
(in million sq. km)
Conclusion:
Difficult natural conditions create great difficulties in the development of territories, require significant material costs for the construction and maintenance of a certain standard of living.
G) Working with cartographic material.
Comparison of the map-scheme of the textbook (p. 266, fig. 108) "Natural conditions of life of the population" and the map of the atlas "Population density in Russia". Identification of the degree of influence of natural conditions on the distribution of the population throughout the country.
The result of the work is the determination of the resettlement of people in connection with natural conditions.
The maximum population density is observed in areas with favorable natural conditions for life:
- North Caucasus and South-West of the European part of Russia (the most favorable conditions);
- The central regions of the East European Plain, the south of Western Siberia, the foothills of the mountains of Southern Siberia, the extreme South of Central Siberia and Far East(favorable conditions).
The minimum population density is typical for areas with extreme natural conditions (64% of Russia's territories).
e) Computer work, (see Appendix No. 2)
2. Studying the material of the second block.
"Development of territories with extreme conditions"a) Conversation with students(discussion)
"Attention! Problem."
“Can a person completely free himself from the influence of the natural environment on his life and work”b) Teacher's explanation- systematization and generalization of knowledge.
Students must justify their point of view.
As a result of the discussion of this problem, students conclude that it is necessary to develop new territories, despite the fact that human life is difficult there due to the presence of extreme natural conditions (low or very high temperatures, strong winds, the presence of animals or insects - carriers of life-threatening diseases etc.).
A person cannot completely free himself from the influence of the natural environment, but he adapts adapts to the conditions in which he lives and engages in economic activities.in) Computer work.
"The influence of natural conditions on the lifestyle of the population of different regions of Russia" (see Appendix No. 3)
III Fixing the material.
1) Work in notebooks. Building a diagram reflecting the results of the work
students in the lesson.
EnvironmentWednesday |
Ways to protect againstadverse environmental impact |
Medicalgeography |
Nosogeography |
Recreational geography |
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The study of the natural features of the territories in order to clarify their impact on the health of the population |
Studying the patterns of the spread of diseases associated with the characteristics of the environment | The science of the influence of natural factors on recreational activities, the territorial organization of recreation |
IV Homework Section 46
Natural conditions affect almost all aspects of the daily life of the population, the features of its work, leisure and life, people's health and the possibility of their adaptation to new, unusual conditions.
The total assessment of natural conditions is determined by the level of their comfort for a person. For its measurement, up to 30 parameters are used (the duration of climatic periods, temperature contrast, climate humidity, wind regime, the presence of natural foci of infectious diseases, etc.).
According to the level of comfort stand out:
extreme territories(polar regions, high mountains
areas of high latitudes, etc.);
uncomfortable areas areas with severe natural
conditions that are unsuitable for the life of an unadapted population;
subdivided into cold humid(arctic deserts, tundra), arid
territories (deserts and semi-deserts), as well as mountainous areas;
hyper-comfortable areas - areas with limited
favorable natural conditions for the resettled population,
subdivided into boreal(temperate forests) and semiarid(steppes
temperate zone);
comfortable areas - areas with little
deviations from the natural optimum for the formation of a permanent
population;
comfortable areas - areas with almost ideal
environmental conditions for the life of the population, are characteristic of
southern part of the temperate zone, in Russia are represented by minor
areal areas.
The largest part of our country - the coldest in the world (the average annual temperature of the territory of Russia as a whole is below -5 degrees Celsius) - belongs to extreme and uncomfortable territories. However, the bulk of the population lives in regions with pre-comfortable and comfortable conditions. Within their limits - in Central Russia, in the North Caucasus, in the Middle Volga region - there are 25 subjects of the Russian Federation, most of the largest urban agglomerations.
concept "natural conditions" already in itself presupposes one or another type of economic activity. It is natural conditions that often predetermine the economic diversity of human activity, the sectoral specialization of individual regions, the pace of economic and social development. At the same time, it is essential that the influence of natural conditions on the national economy is ambiguous and largely depends on the level of development and economic situation country or region.
Natural conditions are of paramount importance for those industries National economy that operate outdoors. First of all, it is agriculture, forestry and water management. Their specialization and efficiency of development are directly related to soil fertility, climate, and the water regime of the territory. They also influence transport and many other industries and
economic spheres.
It is known, for example, that when organizing the extraction of minerals, not only their reserves and qualitative characteristics are taken into account, but also the conditions of their occurrence, which directly affect the method, scale and cost of extraction. In the practice of the mining industry, it often happens that not the richest, but relatively poor, but located in more favorable natural conditions, become the most economical deposits.
Almost all types of construction are in great dependence on natural conditions. Its cost is predetermined by such terrain parameters as soil strength and watering, the degree of seismicity, swampiness of the territory, the presence of permafrost, mountainous terrain, etc. The creation of the same type of functional facility in the northern and northeastern regions of Russia can be an order of magnitude more expensive than in the south of the European territory of the country.
The natural parameters of the territory have a significant impact on the organization of urban utilities. Thus, the cost of heating, water supply, sewerage, lighting of dwellings, as well as their construction, also differ significantly depending on the climate and engineering and geological conditions. In the northern regions of Russia, the heating season lasts up to 10 months a year compared to 4-5 months in the south of the country. Correspondingly, the costs also increase.
In the north and in other regions with extreme natural conditions, there is a need to create special technical equipment adapted to these conditions, for example, with an increased margin of safety. In the northern version, this is the ability to withstand low temperatures, in the southern version, high temperatures, and for regions with a monsoon climate, the ability to work normally in especially humid conditions. For Russia, most of the territory is located in precisely such - extreme natural conditions - this is especially significant.
Special attention deserves the question of the natural conditions for agriculture, where they have played and are playing a decisive role. The specialization and efficiency of the agricultural sector of the economy, especially for Russia, are directly related to the natural fertility of soils, climate, and the water regime of the territory.
The way different crops are grown and farm animals are raised depends on agro-climatic conditions - resources of Shmat in relation to the interests (requests) of agriculture. The influence of climatic conditions on agricultural production can be quantified through agro-climatic indicators. Agricultural assessment of the climate is based on a comparison of the agro-climatic conditions of the territory with
requirements of ecologically different cultivated plants to their life factors.
Obviously, agro-climatic conditions have significant differences from place to place. Understanding the patterns of agro-climatic differentiation is necessary not only for managing the agricultural sector of the national economy, but also for the purposes of political and economic analysis. It has been calculated, for example, that the agro-climatic potential of the United States is approximately 2.5 times higher than that of Russia. It follows from this natural scientific fact that, at equal costs, the productivity of US agriculture will always be higher by at least the same amount than in our country.
When assessing agro-climatic conditions, as, indeed, for a number of other practical purposes, they use data on zonal differences in the country's territory. On the territory of Russia, there is a change of natural zones from north to south: arctic deserts, tundra, forest tundra, forests (subdivided into subzones of taiga and mixed and broad-leaved forests), forest-steppes, steppes, semi-deserts and subtropics.
Natural conditions are a set of natural factors that characterize the influence of the natural environment on the life and activities of people. In addition, natural conditions can be defined as "bodies" and forces of nature, essential for the life and economic activity of society, but not directly included in the final product of consumption. This concept, along with the concept of "natural resources", is an integral part (and in a narrower sense and use is a synonym) of such concepts as "nature", "natural environment", "human habitat", "environment".
Long time Soviet science gave preference to the study of the influence of natural conditions on various sectors of the economy. However, in the process of humanization scientific knowledge more and more preference is given to the assessment of natural conditions in terms of their favorableness for human life. The problem of human adaptation to the natural conditions of the environment deserves special attention.
There are direct and indirect effects of natural conditions on people's lives. Thus, the influence of weather and climatic conditions 1 on the state of health and working capacity (labor productivity) of a person is divided into direct - direct and indirect - indirect (Fig. 3.1). The direct or immediate influence of weather and climate is manifested in the impact primarily on the thermal state of a person, meteorological reactions and psychophysical state; indirect impact - through landscape and vegetation conditions, meteorological potential of atmospheric pollution (PAP), self-cleaning capacity of the atmosphere (SCA) and through the epidemiological situation.
1 The climatic component of natural conditions includes the following components: temperature (its contrast), wind regime, amount of precipitation, amount of solar radiation.
According to anthropologists, natural conditions (or rather, a warm climate) had a decisive influence on the emergence and settlement of man as a biological species, as well as geographical position ancient civilizations. The settlement of people in areas with more severe climatic conditions was associated with population growth, as well as the need to meet growing needs. The first mass migrations of the population are associated with sharp fluctuations in climate, such as periods of glaciation. Currently, the problem of climate warming raises the question of the resettlement of people from coastal and island settlements.
The climatic component of natural conditions includes the following components: temperature (its contrast), wind regime, precipitation, solar radiation. Assessment of the climate in terms of its impact on the human body can be presented in the form of anthropoclimatic zoning.
In addition to the great role of the climatic component for a person as a biological species and, therefore, a direct participant in the food (trophic) chains, geochemical conditions are essential - the content (as well as concentration) in water and soil chemical elements who have vital importance for human health. Territory zoning in terms of this component of natural conditions (geochemical zoning) makes it possible to identify so-called geochemical anomalies.
Biotic natural conditions, or plant and animal components of the environment, should also be considered in terms of their potential health hazard (as pathogens and vectors of infections or factors that depress vital activity). On the basis of medical-geographical zoning, natural foci of diseases are identified.
Natural conditions have an indirect impact on certain aspects of human life through characteristics dwellings (the degree of isolation of housing from the natural environment), the nature of food (caloric content), clothing (source material, cut). These features of the life of the population are associated primarily with the climatic characteristics of the natural environment.
Great theoretical and constructive importance is attached to the zoning of the territory on the basis of a comprehensive assessment of the natural living conditions of the population. Such an assessment was carried out for the territory of Russia (within the borders former USSR) by the Soviet geographer O. R. Nazarevsky (1974). In his work, 30 indicators were analyzed, most of which are climatic (Fig. 3.2). The assessment made it possible to introduce the concept of the degree of favorable (comfortable) natural conditions for the life of the population.
Based on this type of zoning, areas with extreme habitat conditions are distinguished. Human life in these territories is associated with the need for adaptation - adaptation of a person to the natural environment. Adaptation takes place in various directions. It can be associated with changes in the morphological and functional characteristics of the human body: body structure, skin color, etc. - biological adaptation. In addition, the process can be of a non-biological nature (non-biological adaptation) and be expressed in the adaptation of a person to adverse environmental conditions by isolating a dwelling from it, as well as changing some characteristics of the natural environment in the desired direction (for example, changing the wind regime of desert territories with the help of artificial forest plantations or decrease in relative air humidity by drainage of marshy areas, etc.). The process of non-biological adaptation is called culture, investing in this concept everything that has been created by human civilization. At the same time, the totality of the transformed elements of the natural environment in their spatial combination is called the cultural landscape.
It is necessary to point out the special effect of the process of mutual influence of man and the natural environment. Adapting and at the same time transforming (cultivating) the natural environment, human society subsequently continues to adapt in its behavior, economic activities aimed at life support, to another natural environment that it has changed. This natural environment is scientific research was called the quasi-natural environment (“second nature”) and artenatural environment (“third nature”) 1 .
Consider the impact of natural conditions on individual sectors of the economy. Obviously, the impact of natural conditions on the development of sectors of the primary sector of the economy (primary sectors): agriculture, forestry, hunting and trade, water management. As you know, the productivity of plants is determined by the amount of heat and moisture, soil quality. Thus, in the well-known model of the "isolated state" by I. Tyunen (1826), the factor of soil fertility and plant properties is decisive for the location of agriculture.
Other types of economic activity are related to natural conditions more or less indirectly. This influence has a specific economic expression, which is determined by an increase in the costs of extraction, production, and transportation of products compared to benchmark indicators. For example, the cost and timing of the construction of industrial and residential buildings and structures depend on the features of the relief, the degree of seismicity, swampiness of the territory, the presence of permafrost and other indicators; location, power, features of the work of the energy sector are associated with climatic indicators, daylight hours; extraction of minerals requires additional costs due to the unfavorable conditions of their occurrence - high swampiness, location in the permafrost zone, on the shelf northern seas etc.
To organize and optimize the production process, certain climatic conditions are necessary: temperature, humidity and air purity. For example, a sharp fluctuation in temperatures in the shipbuilding industry is viewed as a negative phenomenon. Due to the difference between the high temperatures in the steel structures of ships and low temperatures
"Reimers N.F. Nature Management: Dictionary-Reference. M., 1990. S. 493.
of the ambient air in winter, US shipbuilding was moved to the northwest of the country, where there are no sudden changes in temperature. Individual industries have requirements for air humidity (for example, in the production of photographic films - an increase in air humidity above a certain level increases the risk of film coating with a layer of water). The natural humidity of the air is important in the textile industry, especially in the wool industry (as the air humidity increases, the moisture content of the yarn increases, which facilitates the spinning process). The UK is famous for its island location. high quality woolen fabrics. Low humidity has an adverse effect on the strength of natural fibers. However, for artificial fibers (viscose), the opposite relationship is observed: with higher air humidity, their strength decreases.
One of the technological requirements in the tanning industry (leather dressing) is low air humidity (relative air humidity in the tannery should not exceed 40%; otherwise, the leather becomes moldy and loses its elasticity).
The food, perfumery, pharmaceutical industries have certain requirements for air purity: it must be free from dust, toxic substances, odors and bacteria (for example, pharmaceutical enterprises should not be adjacent to construction industry enterprises, cement production).
Environmental consequences negative impact industrial complexes on the environment are one of the reasons for the separation of production cycles and the weakening of ties in the territorial production complexes (TPC). The environmental factor of industrial location is currently becoming increasingly important for production as a whole, not only for technological reasons, but also in terms of its impact on the places of life (stay) of people. Economically we are talking about the costs associated with possible harmful industrial emissions, which in many cases significantly exceed operational ones. In this regard, the financing of a new production can be opened only with a positive conclusion of the environmental impact assessment. When reconstructing, expanding the economic activities of existing facilities, an environmental audit procedure is carried out.
Not only the location of enterprises within the same territory is important, but also their relative position and combination with others. natural features, such as relief. Thus, the combination of metallurgical and chemical industries in Novokuznetsk with their location in the river valley results in frequent smog as a result of temperature inversion. In valleys, as a result of temperature inversion, the upper layers of air are warmer than the lower ones. Smoke, dust clouds may not dissipate, because the warm air layer does not let them through and they accumulate over the entire inversion region. Under certain climatic conditions When there is fog for a long time in calm weather, the mixture of emissions can reach concentrations that are life-threatening. There are known facts of mass poisoning of people by industrial emissions into the atmosphere in the valley of the Meuse River in Belgium in 1930, in the American city of Donore in 1948. In general, respiratory diseases are characteristic of residents of areas with constant air pollution.
Air pollution causes significant harm to agricultural production: the volume of milk and meat production, as well as crop yields, are declining. In emergency cases, as practice shows, the probability of death of animals and plants is high. Industrial issues of dust and gas often lead to the destruction of forest areas. Thus, in the United States, waste from copper mining at a mine in the Ducktown area caused the death of previously abundant vegetation on an area of 100 km 2. Soil erosion that followed this process spread over large areas, and the once flourishing region turned into a desert. Similar processes can be observed in the mines of Australia.
An increase in the content of dust and gases in the air - industrial waste - has other undesirable consequences. In heavily polluted air, the permeability for solar radiation decreases, the dose of ultraviolet radiation, which has great importance for human health. The most polluted atmosphere in places open development coal, placement of chemical plants and thermal power plants. The presence of treatment facilities at such enterprises is, as a rule, insufficient.
A special place belongs to industries that have an extremely adverse effect on the natural environment. For example, in the event of an accident at a nuclear power plant, vast areas become life-threatening.
It is necessary to note the role of natural conditions in the spread of various types of pollution. During the transfer of air masses, industrial emissions, being involved in the general circulation of the atmosphere, can have an adverse effect on territories that are far from the source of pollution.
The size of the air pollution area depends on the wind speed. The higher the wind speed, the higher the turbulence of the air flow, the closer to the source of pollution the particles of emissions settle. Consequently, the radius of influence of harmful emissions is reduced. When the wind speed is low, dust and other particles settle at a considerable distance from the pipes.
If several sources of pollution are located in relative proximity, then depending on the wind speed, its direction, and distance from the source, the areas of pollution overlap. Thus, air pollution will be observed in the direction of the prevailing winds, but its magnitude reaches a maximum where the winds are weak or where air pollution areas overlap.
Water movement also has an impact on the transport of pollutants and their placement in the natural environment, since the circulation includes surface and groundwater runoff containing various types of pollutants. A significant part of the pollutants returns to the surface as part of precipitation (acid rain). The spread of acid rain has increased due to the increase in the height of chimneys of industrial facilities emitting dioxers (SO 2). Increasing the height of the pipes reduces pollution near the plant, but the pollutant lingers longer in the atmosphere and water-bearing clouds, resulting in more sulfuric acid that falls to the ground with the so-called acid rain. Industrial wastes discharged into water bodies, as well as placed on the surface, are able to penetrate into contact media and change the properties of the natural habitats of living organisms. For example, radioactive waste dumped in the seas causes changes quality characteristics habitats for fish and marine animals. The storage of chemical (including radioactive) substances causes their penetration into the environment and in the long run leads to a change in its geochemical conditions.
3.2. anthropogenic impact. Pollution and its types
Under the anthropogenic impact on the natural environment is understood the direct or indirect influence of human society on nature, leading to its point, local or global changes. The essence of the anthropogenic impact on the biosphere is the consumption by mankind in the process of life of primary biological products in order to survive. The consequences of anthropogenic impact can be interpreted as the formation of waste - primary (immediate "remains" of the unused product of the biosphere, including disturbed ones) and secondary (contamination of various types). Secondary waste includes substances synthesized by man, but alien to natural ecosystems. At present, man is able to synthesize about 10 million substances, he produces 50 thousand substances on a large scale, and 5 thousand substances on especially large scales. Anthropogenic impact is characterized by the concept of anthropogenic load - the degree of direct or indirect anthropogenic impact on the natural environment as a whole or on its individual components. According to experts, the anthropogenic load on the natural environment doubles every 10-15 years.
Anthropogenic impact is associated with the environmental risk of human life and civilization, since the imperfection of knowledge about the biosphere, the patterns of its dynamics leads to a distorted assessment of the magnitude of the permissible impact on it from the point of view of resource consumption.
It should be noted that crises of anthropogenic origin are fundamentally different from local natural disasters, which are organic for the process of the Earth's evolution ( volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, forest fires, etc.). Their consequences are fairly quickly eliminated due to the natural processes of the biosphere - the circulation of matter and energy.
The value of energy consumption per unit of territory is used as an indicator of the anthropogenic impact on ecosystems (the contribution of economic activity to their destruction). There is a close correlation between the magnitude of anthropogenic pressure, population density and economic structure.
Pollution of the natural environment is the entry into it of completely new or known (solid, liquid, gaseous) substances, b logical agents, various types of energy in quantities and concentrations exceeding the natural level for living organisms. There are several approaches to the classification of environmental pollution (Fig. 3.3).
1. By origin, natural and anthropogenic pollution are distinguished.
Natural pollution is environmental pollution that occurs without human intervention or as a result of its remote influence on nature. main sources natural pollution- spontaneous, catastrophic natural processes: mudflows, volcanic eruptions, floods, fires, etc.
Anthropogenic pollution is any pollution caused by human activity.
2.
According to the objects of pollution, there are: pollution of water, atmosphere, soil, landscape.
3.
According to the duration and scale of distribution, pollution is temporary and permanent; local, regional, transboundary and global.
4.
According to the sources and types of pollutants, the following types of pollution are distinguished: physical, chemical, biological, biotic, mechanical.
Let us dwell on their characteristics in more detail. Physical pollution - pollution, manifested in deviations from the norm of temperature-energy, wave, radiation and other physical properties environment. This type of pollution can be represented in various forms:
thermal (thermal) pollution, characterized by a periodic or prolonged increase in the temperature of the environment above the natural level. characteristic of air and water environment(as a result of emissions (discharges) of heated gases and waste water);
light pollution associated with periodic or prolonged excess of the level of natural illumination of the area due to the use of artificial lighting sources.
Typical for industrial centers, large cities, agglomerations. This form of pollution alone or in combination with other forms can lead to anomalies in the development of living organisms, cause their migration;
noise pollution, characterized by exceeding the level
natural background noise. Its main source is technical
devices, transport, etc. It is especially typical for cities, the vicinity of airfields, and industrial facilities. Leads to fatigue stressful conditions development of neuropsychiatric diseases. When the noise level reaches 90 decibels, hearing loss is possible. Even relatively low but prolonged noise pollution natural ecosystems leads to their change (resettlement of certain species, disruption of reproduction processes, etc.);
Nuclear pollution associated with excess natural radiation background and the level of content in the natural environment of radioactive elements and substances (at the same time it can be considered as chemical pollution). The main sources are
nuclear installations, tests, accidents, artificial transuranic
elements, nuclear fission products of radioactive isotopes, etc. It is one of the most dangerous pollution for humans, animals and plants due to the negative impact of high doses of radiation on the genetic apparatus and biological structures of organisms;
electromagnetic - associated with a change in the natural electromagnetic properties of the environment. The main sources are high-voltage lines, television and radio installations, etc. It is classified as especially dangerous pollution, since it can induce disturbances in the fine biological structures of living organisms 1 , in addition, it leads to geophysical anomalies.
Chemical pollution is formed as a result of changes in natural chemical properties environment or when chemicals enter it that are not characteristic of the environment, as well as in concentrations exceeding the background (natural). According to the UN definition, chemical pollutants are all substances and compounds found in the wrong place, at the wrong time and in the wrong amount. The main sources of pollution are industry, transport, and agriculture.
Among chemical substances a special place is occupied by substances of the 1st hazard class, either extremely dangerous or highly toxic, for which the minimum values of presence in the environment are established, since the very fact of the presence of these substances that have the ability to accumulate in a living organism requires special attention. These include: beryllium, vanadium, cobalt, nickel, zinc, chromium, lead, mercury and some others heavy metals, organometallic compounds, oil waste, cyanide compounds, pesticides, radioactive elements.
Among the highly hazardous substances synthesized by man is a group of dioxidins, which have a powerful mutagenic, carcinogenic, embryotoxicological effect. Dioxidins also have
1 Most dangerous electromagnetic fields are microwave fields
ability to bioaccumulate; the various deviations in human development caused by them can be inherited.
Biological pollution is the introduction into ecosystems of species of living organisms that are uncharacteristic for them, worsening the conditions for the existence of natural biocenoses or negatively affecting human health and economic activity. This type of pollution occurs as a result of accidental natural introduction of organisms alien to the area, but it is more often associated with human activities (as a result of mechanical introduction of alien species and the creation of biotechnological products). Biological pollution is promoted by changes in the natural conditions of habitats as a result of physical and chemical influences.
The form of biological pollution - microbiological pollution - is associated with the mass reproduction of microorganisms on anthropogenic or human-modified natural substrates. Microorganisms pathogenic for humans, animals and plants that are associated with humans through food chains (microbial contamination) are especially dangerous.
Biological (especially microbiological) pollution of anthropogenic origin leads to an undesirable change in the biotic qualities of the human environment. This is evidenced by the emergence of new, life-threatening viral diseases, some of which are transmitted at the gene level.
Man like biological organism can exist in a fairly wide range of natural and climatic characteristics; on this basis it is called a super-eurybiont. However, the types and forms of its activities, as well as their effectiveness, are significantly differentiated under the influence of the natural factor. The natural conditionality of the forms and characteristics of economic activity is later reflected in the socio-psychological characteristics of the country's population, and in the peculiarities of the mentality.
Biotic pollution is an excess in the environment (soil, water, air) of the content of certain types of nutrients or the appearance of new types of them for a given territory, which is undesirable from a human point of view. The main sources of this type of pollution are the washout of mineral and organic fertilizers into water bodies, the accumulation of sewage, excretions, dead organisms in the environment, the influx of artificially synthesized organic substances.
Mechanical pollution is pollution of the environment by relatively inert physical and chemical household and industrial waste (construction and household waste, packaging materials, etc.). Soils and water bodies are most affected by this type of pollution.
Clogging of the environment is one of the forms of mechanical pollution, which significantly worsens the aesthetic and recreational qualities of the environment. This type of pollution also includes clogging of near-cosmic space. According to modern data, there are about 3000 tons of space debris in near space.
Nesterova I.A. The influence of natural conditions and natural resources on the territorial organization of society // Encyclopedia of the Nesterovs
The territorial organization of society is influenced by many factors. One of them is the presence of certain natural resources and the peculiarities of the climate and other natural conditions.
The concept and types of natural factors
Despite evolution, natural factors continue to play a significant role in human life. Natural factors is a broad concept that includes such important elements as natural resources and natural conditions. In addition to them, it also includes such concepts as the sustainability of landscapes and the ecological situation.
Consider each element that makes up natural factors. First of all, let us turn to the interpretation of the concept of "natural conditions.
Under natural conditions It is customary to understand the totality of the most important natural characteristics of the territory, reflecting the main features of the components of the natural environment or local natural phenomena.
It is natural conditions that have a direct impact on life and way of life population. Details of what depends on natural conditions are shown in the figure below.
The components of the natural environment are: climate, geological environment, surface and ground waters, soils, biota, and landscapes. Separately, it is necessary to highlight the spread of local natural phenomena. What it is? Local natural phenomena are especially dangerous natural phenomena and anomalies, as well as foci of infections.
Of no less interest are climatic conditions. They influence through the ratio of heat and moisture. Thermal resources determine the energy of plant growth.
The territory of Russia is the largest in the world and is 17,125,191 km². On the territory of the Russian Federation there is a climatic diversity. However, most of the territory is in cold climates. This has an impact on the characteristics of economic activity.
At the same time, it should be emphasized that Russia as a whole is the northernmost and coldest country in the world, which affects its economy, economy and the development of society. 10 million km2 is occupied by permafrost.
The fact is that the specifics of permafrost must be taken into account when building and laying cables, when installing power lines, etc.
The second climatic factor is moisture. Precipitation Frequency affects agriculture, housing and communal services and other important elements of the life of the territories.
No less important are relief features and geological structure. Influencing all components of the natural environment, the relief contributes to the emergence of differences in landscapes and at the same time is itself affected by natural zonality and altitudinal zonality.
Engineering-geological conditions of the area include factors such as interconnection of layers earth's crust, condition upper layers. These factors affect the engineering and economic activity of the territories, as they perform the following tasks, presented below.
Accounting mining and geological conditions vital in all areas of economic activity, but especially in urban planning, transport and hydraulic engineering construction.
Separately, the soil factor should be mentioned. The soil is important for agriculture and construction. In this aspect, we single out the structure, chemical composition and soil density. The value of soil lies in its ability to supply plants with nutrients.
Let's take a look at biota. Biota is understood as a historically established set of living organisms living in any large area, i.e. fauna and flora of this area. The characteristic of the natural conditions of the area also includes an assessment of vegetation and wildlife.
So, natural factors play an important role in human life. They determine his life, leisure and state of health. Based on this, we can safely say that natural factors affect territorial division and local government.
Classification of territories according to the level of comfort
Now we will consider each type of territory separately from the point of view of its features of potential. As you can see in the figure, the territories are:
- extreme territories;
- uncomfortable areas;
- comfortable areas;
- hyper-comfortable areas;
Let's start, of course, with extreme territories. They are the most difficult to economic development regions. These include: polar regions, alpine regions of high latitudes, etc.
Then come the territories that are less difficult for life and economic life, which are called uncomfortable areas. They are characterized by harsh conditions, a harsh climate, which is unsuitable for the life of an unadapted population. Such territories include: arctic deserts, tundra, arid territories and mountainous regions.
For life, hyper-comfortable territories are considered more or less comfortable. These are areas where natural conditions are limitedly favorable. The settlers feel quite comfortable in such territories. Hypercomfortable territories boreal and semiarid.
And finally, the most comfortable for life are precomfortable areas and comfortable areas. Precomfortable areas include areas with minor deviations from the natural optimum for the formation of a permanent population. Comfortable areas are those areas where conditions are almost ideal for the life of the population. Such territories are located in the southern part of the temperate zone; in Russia, they are represented by small areas.
Natural conditions are very important for those branches of the national economy that operate in the open air. This is, first of all, agriculture, as well as water and forestry. Construction is very dependent on natural conditions. Hence the difference in financing of the same objects in different territories.
Natural disasters and cataclysms
Various cataclysms and disasters have a strong influence on the development of territories. natural disasters. They act as a specific form of natural conditions.
The following natural disasters are considered the most common and dangerous for humans:
- earthquakes,
- floods,
- tsunami,
- hurricanes and storms
- tornadoes,
- typhoons,
- collapses.
- landslides,
- sat down,
- avalanche,
- forest and peat fires.
Typical examples of adverse natural phenomena are droughts, frosts, severe frosts, thunderstorms, heavy or prolonged rains, hail and some others.
Many areas need protection from natural disasters. This greatly increases the cost of construction and maintenance. municipalities and communications. In addition, the cost of technologies adapted to increased loads or capable of preventing dangerous impacts is much higher.
