History of the relationship of sciences. Unity and interconnection of natural sciences and humanities (cultures)

The division of science into separate areas was due to the difference in the nature of things, the laws that the latter obey. Various sciences and scientific disciplines develop not independently, but in connection with each other, interacting in different directions. One of them is the use of knowledge obtained by other sciences by this science.

Already at the "dawn" of science, mechanics was closely connected with mathematics, which subsequently began to actively invade other - including the humanities - sciences. The successful development of geology and biology is impossible without relying on the knowledge gained in physics, chemistry, etc. However, the laws inherent in higher forms the motions of matter cannot be completely reduced to the lower ones. The regularity of the development of science under consideration was very figuratively expressed by Nobel laureate, one of the creators of synergetics I. Prigozhy: “The growth of science has nothing to do with the uniform deployment scientific disciplines, each of which is further subdivided into more waterproof compartments. On the contrary, the convergence of various problems and points of view contributes to the depressurization of the formed compartments and nooks and crannies and the effective “mixing” of scientific culture.”

One of the important ways of interaction between sciences is the interchange of methods and techniques of research, i.e., the application of the methods of one science in another. Especially fruitful was the application of the methods of physics and chemistry to the study of living matter in biology, the essence and specificity of which, however, were not "captured" by these methods alone. For this, they needed their own - biological methods and techniques for their study.

It should be borne in mind that the interaction of sciences and their methods is hampered by the uneven development of various scientific disciplines.

areas and disciplines. Methodological pluralism is a salient feature modern science, thanks to which the necessary conditions are created for a more complete and deep disclosure of the essence, the laws of qualitatively different phenomena of reality.

The most rapid growth and important discoveries should now be expected precisely in the areas of "junction", interpenetration of sciences and mutual enrichment of their methods and methods of research. This process of joining forces various sciences to solve important practical problems gets everything more development. This is the main way to form a "single science of the future".

What will we do with the received material:

If this material turned out to be useful for you, you can save it to your page on social networks:

All topics in this section:

Philosophies of science
Creating an image of the philosophy of science, one should clearly define what is at stake: about the philosophy of science as a direction of Western and domestic philosophy, or about the philosophy of science as

On the variety of forms of knowledge. Scientific and non-scientific knowledge
Cognition is not limited to the sphere of science, knowledge in one form or another exists outside of science. The advent of scientific knowledge did not abolish or render useless other forms of

Scientific knowledge as a system, its features and structure
Science is a form of spiritual activity of people, aimed at producing knowledge about nature, society and knowledge itself, with the immediate goal of comprehending the truth and discovering

Relationship between science and philosophy
To the question "What is philosophy?" - you can hear the answer: "This is the science of all sciences." And it's very convenient. This status of philosophy - to be the science of all sciences - inspires a priori respect for it.

Specifics of the Conceptual Apparatus of Philosophy and Science
Philosophy seeks to find the ultimate foundations and regulators of any conscious relationship of man to reality. Therefore, philosophical knowledge appears not in the form of a logical

On the status of scientific philosophy
Numerous textbooks and teaching aids according to the so-called diamat (dialectical materialism), with which our domestic philosophical school is so rich, philosophy was defined

On the practical significance of philosophy and science
The division of science and philosophy is often made with reference to the fact that science has direct practical significance, while philosophy does not. Based on the discoveries and achievements of science, it is possible to

On the prospects for the relationship between philosophy and science
The relationship between philosophy and science is an acute problem for modern philosophers. Thus, the American thinker Richard Rorty argues that “the gradual separation of philosophy from science has become

Science and art
Art is a form public consciousness associated with the over-empirical translation of the experience of mankind through artistic images. The concept of "art" in addition to the designation

The role of science in modern education and personality formation. The functions of science in the life of society
Science is woven into all spheres human activity, it is also being introduced into the basic foundations of the relations of the people themselves. Its role in education is especially significant. At the foundation of modern

The genesis of science and the problem of periodization of its history. Pre-science and science in the proper sense
As a peculiar form of cognition - a specific type of spiritual production and a social institution - science arose in Europe, in modern times, in the 16th-17th centuries. in the era of the formation of capital

The culture of the ancient polis and the formation of the first forms of theoretical science
The origin of the first forms theoretical knowledge traditionally associated with antiquity. Although the Ancient East, India, China surprise us with wonderful inventions, knowledge here is carried with

medieval science
The era of the Middle Ages is attributed to the beginning of the II century. n. e., and its completion by the XIV-XV centuries. The knowledge that is formed in the era of the Middle Ages in Europe is inscribed in the system of the medieval world

Formation of experimental science in the new European culture
The formation of experimental science is associated with the changing ideas of man about his relationship with nature. Man must present himself as an active principle in the study of nature,

Science in the proper sense: the main stages of formation
In accordance with our concept of the genesis of science and the periodization of its history (Chapter II, §1), let us consider the main features of the main stages in the formation of science in the proper sense. Last history

Formation of science as a professional activity. The emergence of disciplinary organized science
Those great discoveries and ideas that characterize the progressive development of science, which were discussed in the preceding paragraphs, belong, so to speak, to its cutting edge. There is a certain

Technological application of science. Formation of technical sciences
The emergence of technical sciences had sociocultural preconditions. It took place in the era of the entry of technogenic civilization into the stage of industrialism and marked the acquisition of new functions by science - b

Empiricism and scholastic theorizing
In the history of knowledge, two extreme positions have developed on the issue of the relationship between the empirical and theoretical levels of scientific knowledge: empiricism and scholastic theorizing. Storo

Features of empirical research
Scientific knowledge is a process, that is, a developing system of knowledge, which includes two main levels - empirical and theoretical. Although they are related, they are different from each other.

Specificity of theoretical knowledge and its form
The theoretical level of scientific knowledge is characterized by the predominance rational moment- concepts, theories, laws and other forms of thinking and "thinking operations". Living contemplation, sensuous

Structure and functions of scientific theory. Law as its key element
Any theory is an integral developing system of true knowledge (including elements of delusion), which has a complex structure and performs a number of functions. In the modern methodology of science in

And theoretical, theory and practice. The problem of materialization of the theory
For all their differences, the empirical and theoretical levels of cognition are interconnected, the boundary between them is conditional and mobile. Empirical research, revealing through observation

Foundations of science and their structure. Ideals and Norms of Research
Science, acting as an integral, developing system of knowledge, has numerous definitions. It is understood as a specific form of spiritual activity, as a system or set of disciplines.

Scientific picture of the world, its historical forms and functions
The scientific picture of the world in the structure of the worldview of our contemporary occupies a dominant position. Since science is aimed at studying the objective laws of the development of the universe, science

The Dynamics of Scientific Knowledge: Models of Growth
The most important characteristic of knowledge is its dynamics, i.e. its growth, change, development, etc. This idea, not so new, was already expressed in ancient philosophy, and Ge

Formation of primary theoretical models and laws
Models make it possible to visualize objects and processes that are inaccessible to direct perception: for example, a model of an atom, a model of the Universe, a model of the human genome, etc. Theoretical

Formation of a developed scientific theory
The sphere of scientific knowledge is divided into empirical and theoretical levels (see the previous chapter). Experience, experiment, observation are the components of the empirical level of knowledge. Ab

Problem situations in science
Traditional classical epistemology describes the movement of the scientific-cognitive process as a course of thinking, stretching from a question to a problem, then to a hypothesis, which, after its sufficient

The problem of incorporating new theoretical concepts into culture
The problem of incorporating new theoretical concepts in culture is associated with ensuring continuity in the development of scientific thought. It affects two planes: firstly, the material embodiment

Continuity in the development of scientific knowledge
This regularity expresses the continuity of all knowledge of reality as an internally unified process of changing ideas, principles, theories, concepts, methods of scientific research. At the same time, each

Unity of quantitative and qualitative changes in the development of science
The continuity of scientific knowledge is not a monotonous, monotonous process. In a certain section, it acts as a unity of gradual, calm quantitative and fundamental, qualitative (jumps, n

Science differentiation and integration
The development of science is characterized by the dialectical interaction of two opposite processes - differentiation (singling out new scientific disciplines) and integration (synthesis of knowledge,

Deepening and expanding the processes of mathematization and computerization
One of the important regularities in the development of science is the strengthening and growth of the complexity and abstractness of scientific knowledge, the deepening and expansion of the processes of mathematization and computerization of science as a basis for scientific knowledge.

Theorization and dialectization of science
Science (especially modern) is developing along the path of synthesis of abstract-formal (mathematization and computerization) and concrete-content aspects of cognition. The second of these sides is expressed in

Accelerated development of science
Speaking about the important role of science in the life of society, F. Engels in the middle of the XIX century. drew attention to the fact that science moves forward in proportion to the mass of knowledge inherited from its predecessor

Freedom of criticism, inadmissibility of monopoly and dogmatism
Criticism is a way of spiritual activity, the main task of which is a holistic assessment of a phenomenon with the identification of its contradictions, strengths and weaknesses, etc. There are two main forms of kri

Method and methodology
As the modern American philosopher of science M. Thompson emphasizes, this discipline solves two cardinal problems. First, it is "principally concerned with the study of the methods and principles on which

Basic models of correlation between philosophy and special sciences
The solution to the question of the relationship between philosophy and particular sciences can be reduced to two main models (types): a) absolutization of one of these sides (metaphysical approach): b) relationship, interaction

The functions of philosophy in scientific knowledge
1. The integrative (synthetic) function of philosophy is a systemic, holistic generalization and synthesis (combination) of various forms of knowledge, practice, culture - the entire experience of mankind as a whole

General scientific methods and research techniques
As already mentioned, the most general, "upper level" methods are philosophical - metaphysical, dialectical, phenomenological, hermeneutic, etc. As for general scientific methods

Methods of empirical research
one . Observation is a purposeful study of objects, based mainly on the data of the sense organs (sensations, perceptions, ideas). Through observation, we gain knowledge not only

Methods of theoretical knowledge
1. Formalization - displaying meaningful knowledge in a sign-symbolic form (formalized language). The latter is created for the exact expression of thoughts in order to exclude the possibility of

General logical methods and techniques of research
1. Analysis - real or mental division of an object into its component parts, and synthesis - their combination into a single organic whole, and not into a mechanical unit. The result of the synthesis is

Understanding and explanation
The problem of understanding and its relationship with cognition (and explanation) has been discussed for a long time and today is relevant and largely debatable. So, if Dilthey has an understanding of

The Problem of Scientific Traditions
This problem has always attracted the attention of scientists and philosophers of science, but only T. Kuhn (one of the leaders of the modern post-positivist philosophy of science) for the first time considered traditions as the main consti- tution

The Diversity of Scientific Traditions
Domestic philosophers of science are trying to improve Kuhn's concept. This improvement is connected, first of all, with the development of the concept of the diversity of scientific traditions, which

The emergence of new knowledge
The question of how new knowledge arises in science is the main one in the history of both foreign and domestic philosophy of science. It was shown above how T. Kuhn solved this issue. In terms of

Scientific revolutions as a restructuring of the foundations of science
The stages in the development of science associated with the restructuring of research strategies, given the foundations of science, are called scientific revolutions. The main components of the foundation of science are

Global revolutions and changing types of scientific rationality
The restructuring of the foundations of science, which occurs in the course of scientific revolutions, leads to a change in the types of scientific rationality. And although the historical types of rationality are a kind of abstract

The discovery of rationality in the philosophy of antiquity
Hidden or explicit basis of rationality is the recognition of the identity of thinking and being. This identity itself was first discovered by the Greek philosopher Parmenides, who expressed it this way: “Thought in

The first scientific revolution and the formation of a scientific type of rationality
We will explain all types of rationality, relying not only on the facts and ideas of natural science, but also on philosophy, which justified these ideas, substantiated them with arguments or, conversely, critically

The second scientific revolution and changes in the type of rationality
Second scientific revolution occurred in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. Despite the fact that by the beginning of the XX century. the ideal of classical natural science has not undergone significant changes, yet there is everything about

The third scientific revolution and the formation of a new type of rationality
The third scientific revolution covers the period from the end of the 19th century to the end of the 19th century. until the middle of the 20th century. and is characterized by the emergence of non-classical natural science and the corresponding type of rationality. Revolutionary pr

The Fourth Scientific Revolution: Tendencies to return to ancient rationality
The fourth scientific revolution took place in the last third of the 20th century. It is associated with the emergence of special objects of study, which led to radical changes in the foundations of science. rozhpaetsya

Development of self-developing synergetic systems and new strategies for scientific research
In the modern post-non-classical picture of the world, orderliness, structure, as well as chaos, stochasticity, are recognized as objective, universal characteristics of reality. They are

And the modern scientific picture of the world
One of the central places in modern philosophy science is occupied by the concept of global (universal) evolutionism. The whole world is a huge, evolving system. Global

Understanding the links between social and intrascientific values as a condition for the modern development of science
The value, axiological approach to science is not an indisputable phenomenon. Science focuses on objectivity, and therefore, at first glance, it is free from values and measurements in the evaluation scale.

Ethical problems of science in the XXI century
The ethical problems of modern science are extremely relevant and significant. They can no longer remain on the periphery scientific research. A new discipline - the ethics of science - studies HP

Scientism and anti-scientism
The cult of science in the XX century. led to attempts to proclaim it as the highest value of development human civilization. Scientism (from Latin Scientia - knowledge, science), considering science culturally

The role of science in overcoming modern global crises
Science has become one of the sources of global crises of modern civilization, and it has also taken responsibility for overcoming them. Increasing anthropogenic impact on the environment, technologies

The concept of social cognition. The role of philosophy in the formation of scientific knowledge about society
Speaking about the concept of "social cognition", one should keep in mind two of its main aspects: a) any cognition is social, since it arises and functions in society and is determined by social

Science and scientific method
Weber proceeds from the fact that it is difficult for a researcher to count on "efficient work" in science, on obtaining valuable results, if he "lacks a reliable working method." Therefore, objectively, and

Specificity of social cognition and its methods
In solving this issue, the German thinker proceeded from the following methodologically important position: “The division of sciences is based not on “actual” connections of “things”, but on “mental” connections of problems

Features of modern social cognition
Above, we have already spoken about some peculiar features of social and humanitarian knowledge in comparison with natural science, we have cited the statements of thinkers of different directions in this regard. System

The specifics of the methods of social sciences and the humanities. On the new paradigm of social methodology
In the field of social and humanitarian research (as long as it is scientific), all philosophical and general scientific methods and principles (which were discussed in Chapter V) can and should be used. However, they are here

Science as a sociocultural phenomenon
Science, having numerous definitions, appears in three main hypostases. It is understood either as a form of activity, or as a system or set of disciplinary knowledge, or as a social

Institutional forms of scientific activity
Science should not be identified only with hypotheses and theories. It is strong in its institutional side. The emergence of science as social institution associated with cardinal and

Evolution of ways of translation of scientific knowledge
Human society needs ways to transfer experience and knowledge. The synchronous method indicates operational targeted communication, the possibility of coordinating activities

Science and Economics. Science and power. The problem of state regulation of science
The relationship between science and economics has always been a big problem. Science is not only an energy-intensive enterprise, but also financially costly to a large extent. She demands a

The division of sciences, which led to the emergence of the fundamental branches of natural science and mathematics, unfolded in full swing starting from the Renaissance (second half of the 15th century). At first, the unification of sciences was almost completely absent. It was important to investigate particulars, and for this it was necessary, first of all, to tear them out of their general connection. However, already in the XVII century. general systems began to be proposed in order to unite all sciences into one whole. However, no internal connection between the sciences was revealed; the sciences were simply applied to one another by chance, in an external way. Therefore, there could be no transitions between them.

In natural science itself, for the first time, one of the transitions between previously disparate sciences was created by the discovery spectral analysis. It was the first intermediate branch of science, linking physics (optics), chemistry and astronomy. As a result of their linking, astrophysics and, to some extent, astrochemistry arose.

The emergence of such sciences of an intermediate character can take place when the method of one science is applied as a new means of research to the study of the subject of another science. So, in our time, radio astronomy arose as a part of modern astrophysics.

Shortly after spectral analysis arose chemical thermodynamics, which connected chemistry with previously interconnected mechanics and the theory of heat (in the form of thermodynamics). Then the doctrine of dilute solutions and electrochemistry joined them, as a result of which physical chemistry arose.

Using the methods of physical chemistry and mathematical apparatus, Sechenov I.M. studied the dynamics of the respiratory process and at the same time established the quantitative laws of the solubility of gases in biological fluids. He also suggested calling the field of this kind of research molecular physiology.

In the same period, the famous physicist Helmholtz (1821-1894), while developing the problems of thermodynamics, tried to understand the energy of living systems. In his experimental work, he studied in detail the work of the organs of vision, and also determined the speed of conduction of excitation along the nerve.

This was the state of affairs towards the end of the first half of the 20th century. In subsequent decades, there was an increase in the interaction of sciences and the achievement of its new, higher and more complex forms.

Natural science opens up fundamentally new possibilities for the interaction of man with nature and, at the same time, reveals the limits of human intervention in the course of natural processes that are permissible for one or another parameter. As for the technical sciences, their interests include, first of all, the creation and improvement of the means of interaction between society and nature, and such means that would not only be economically efficient, but also acceptable from a social and environmental point of view.

The strengthening of the interaction between the social, natural and technical sciences already today poses new problems for science, both methodological and socio-organizational.

One of the important and indicative results of the increasing interaction of sciences is the emergence and spread in modern knowledge of broad scientific approaches and methods (cybernetics, information theory, systems research, etc.), which are used in the most different areas science, in the study of objects of very different content. The further development of such scientific approaches and methods, their introduction into everyday life is another way to strengthen the relationship between the social, natural and technical sciences.

History of the interaction of sciences.

The division of sciences, which led to the emergence of the fundamental branches of natural science and mathematics, unfolded in full swing starting from the Renaissance (second half of the 15th century). At first, the unification of sciences was almost completely absent. It was important to investigate particulars, and for this it was necessary, first of all, to tear them out of their general connection. However, in order to avoid that all scientific knowledge would not crumble into separate, unrelated branches, like beads when the thread on which they were strung breaks, already in the 17th century. general systems began to be proposed in order to unite all sciences into one whole. However, no internal connection between the sciences was revealed; the sciences were simply applied to one another by chance, in an external way. Therefore, there could be no transitions between them.

In principle, this was the case until the middle and even until the end of the third quarter of the 19th century. Under these conditions, the division of sciences, which continued at an increasing pace, their fragmentation into smaller and smaller sections and subsections, was a trend that was not only opposite to the trend towards their unification, but also made this latter more difficult and complicated: the more new sciences appeared and the more fragmented their own became. structure, the more difficult and difficult it became to combine them into a common unified system. As a result, the trend towards their integration could not be realized to a sufficiently noticeable degree, despite the fact that the need for its implementation made itself felt with ever-increasing force.

Since the middle of the XIX century. the tendency to unite the sciences for the first time acquired the possibility, from a simple addition to the opposite tendency (toward their differentiation), to acquire a self-contained significance, to cease to be subordinate. Moreover, from a subordinate, it more and more quickly and more fully became dominant, dominant. Both opposite tendencies seem to have changed their places: earlier, the integration of the sciences acted only as a desire to simply retain all branches of the fragmented scientific knowledge; now the further differentiation of the sciences appeared only as a preparation for their true integration, their real theoretical synthesis. Moreover, the growing unification of the sciences began to be carried out by itself through their further differentiation and thanks to it.

This was explained by the fact that analysis and synthesis act not as opposing methods of cognition abstractly opposed to each other, but as merged organically into one and capable of not only complementing each other, but also mutually conditioning each other and passing, turning one into the other. In this case, analysis becomes a subordinate moment of synthesis and is absorbed by it as its presupposition, while synthesis incessantly relies on analysis in the course of its implementation.

The first simplest form of interaction between sciences is their "cementation". In the second half of the XIX century. for the first time, a trend in the development of the sciences from their isolation to their linkage through intermediate sciences was determined. As a result of this trend in the evolution of sciences from the second half of XIX in. the gradual filling of the previous gaps and gaps between different and, above all, related sciences in their common system began. In connection with this movement of sciences from their isolation to the emergence of sciences of an intermediate, transitional nature, connecting links (“bridges”) began to form between previously broken and outwardly juxtaposed sciences. The basis for the newly emerging intermediate branches of scientific knowledge was the transitions between various forms of the motion of matter. In inorganic nature, such transitions were discovered due to the discovery of the processes of mutual transformation of various forms of energy. The transition between inorganic and organic nature was reflected in Engels' hypothesis about the chemical origin of life on Earth. In connection with this, Engels put forward the concept of the biological form of motion. Finally, Engels elucidated the transition between this latter and the social form of movement (history) in his labor theory of anthropogenesis.

In natural science itself, for the first time, one of the transitions between previously disparate sciences was created by the discovery of spectral analysis. It was the first intermediate branch of science, linking physics (optics), chemistry and astronomy. As a result of their linking, astrophysics and, to some extent, astrochemistry arose.

In the general case, the emergence of such sciences of an intermediate nature can take place when the method of one science is applied as a new means of research to the study of the subject of another science. So, in our time, radio astronomy arose as a part of modern astrophysics.

Soon after spectral analysis, chemical thermodynamics arose, combining chemistry with the previously interconnected mechanics and the theory of heat (in the form of thermodynamics). Then the doctrine of dilute solutions and electrochemistry joined them, as a result of which physical chemistry arose.

In more detail I would like to tell about the history of biophysics. Biophysics as a science began to take shape in the 19th century. Many physiologists of that period were already working on questions that are currently the object of biophysical research. For example, the outstanding physiologist I.M. Sechenov (1829-1905) was a pioneer in this field.

Using the methods of physical chemistry and mathematical apparatus, he studied the dynamics of the respiratory process and at the same time established the quantitative laws of the solubility of gases in biological fluids. He also suggested calling the field of this kind of research molecular physiology.

With the development of physical and colloidal chemistry, the field of work in the field of biophysics is expanding. There are attempts to explain from these positions the mechanism of reactions of a living organism to external influences. The Loeb school played an important role in the development of biophysics. In the works of Loeb (1859-1924), the physicochemical foundations of the phenomenon of parthenogenesis and fertilization were revealed. The phenomenon of ion antagonism received a concrete physicochemical interpretation. Loeb's generalizing book "Dynamics of Living Matter" was published in many languages. In 1906 the translation of this book was published in Russia. Later, Schade's classical studies appeared on the role of ionic and colloidal processes in the pathology of inflammation. In 1911-1912. in Russian translation comes out his fundamental work " Physical chemistry in internal medicine.

The First World War suspended for some time the rapid development of science. However, in Russia, already in the first years after the Great October Revolution, the development of science was given great attention. In 1922, the "Institute of Biophysics" was opened in the USSR, headed by P.P. Lazarev. In this institute, he manages to unite a large number of outstanding scientists. Here S.I. Vavilov dealt with the issues of the limiting sensitivity of the human eye, P.A. Rebinder and V.V. Efimov studied the physicochemical mechanisms of permeability and the relationship between permeability and surface tension. S.V. Kravkov studied the physical and chemical foundations of color vision, etc. N.K.Koltsov's school played an important role in the development of biophysics. His students developed questions of the influence of physical and chemical environmental factors on cells and their structures. On the initiative of N.K. Koltsov, the Department of Physical and Chemical Biology was opened at Moscow University, headed by his student S.N. Skadovsky.

In the late 1930s, the physicochemical trend in biology was developed at the AN Bach Institute of Biochemistry of the USSR Academy of Sciences. In the All-Union Institute of Experimental Medicine named after A.M. Gorky there was a large Department of Biophysics, in which P.P. Lazarev, G.M. Frank, D.L. Rubinshtein worked; he was the last to write a number of study guides and monographs.

In the early 50s. was organized by the Institute of Biological Physics and the Department of Biophysics at the Biology and Soil Faculty of Moscow State University. Later, departments of biophysics were created at Leningrad and some other universities.

This process of filling the gaps between the sciences continued later, and on an increasing scale. As a result, the newly emerging scientific directions of a transitional nature acted as cementing the previously disparate, isolated basic sciences, like physics and chemistry. This communicated an ever greater coherence to all scientific knowledge, which contributed to the process of its integration. In other words, the further differentiation of sciences (the appearance of many intermediate - interdisciplinary - scientific branches) directly resulted in their deeper integration, so that this latter took place directly through the continuing differentiation of sciences.

Mechanisms of communication between science and practice.

Until recently, the main type of interaction between science and practice was the introduction of certain results of scientific research already obtained into industry, Agriculture and other areas of practice. In this case, the entire cycle, from the fundamental idea to its practical implementation, turns out to be predominantly unidirectional. As a result, sometimes not what the consumer needs is developed and implemented, but what is more profitable or easier for those who create new technology.

This significantly complicates the optimal use of the achievements of scientific and technological progress. During the practical implementation of the idea, and sometimes even after that, unforeseen - and not always desirable - effects begin to emerge. They are, as a rule, the greater, the narrower and one-sided the problem is considered and solved. The elimination of such effects diverts a significant part of the scientific and technical potential.

Of course, today we may not know exactly what the undesirable consequences of the practical implementation of new scientific and technological achievements will be in each specific case. But there is already sufficient experience to foresee the very possibility of their occurrence and to be ready for their elimination. It is clear that for this it is necessary to rely on the data of the entire complex of sciences. A special role here belongs to the social sciences, which are called upon to evaluate (and not only in general, but also at the level of individual, specific scientific and technological innovations) the results and trends of scientific and technological progress from the point of view of the interests of the development of society and the individual.

When science becomes more and more a necessary condition for the development of both production, the economy, and other spheres of public life, the very process of practical use (and, to a certain extent, obtaining) of scientific and technical knowledge should become clearly planned and socially organized. In order to solve this problem, many experiments, including large-scale ones, have been set up. However, what we have so far found and put into action is by no means always satisfactory.

We have examples of the connection between science and production: LOMO and Elektrosila in Leningrad, the E.O. Paton Institute in Kyiv, the I.A. Likhachev Moscow Automobile Plant.

It is clear that the problem of implementation, or rather, the problem of creating a modern mechanism for the interaction of science and practice deserves - and for a long time! - deep and comprehensive comprehensive research. It needs to be organized and started as soon as possible, because each year won will result in many billions of dollars saved. And not only those that still settle in science as dead capital, but also those that are many times greater, which could be given to us by an increase in the utilization of practically significant scientific results.

History of the interaction of sciences.

The division of sciences, which led to the emergence of the fundamental branches of natural science and mathematics, unfolded in full swing starting from the Renaissance (second half of the 15th century). At first, the unification of sciences was almost completely absent. It was important to investigate particulars, and for this it was necessary, first of all, to tear them out of their general connection. However, in order to avoid that all scientific knowledge would not crumble into separate, unrelated branches, like beads when the thread on which they were strung breaks, already in the 17th century. general systems began to be proposed in order to unite all sciences into one whole. However, no internal connection between the sciences was revealed; the sciences were simply applied to one another by chance, in an external way. Therefore, there could be no transitions between them.

The first simplest form of interaction between sciences is their "cementation". In the second half of the XIX century. for the first time, a trend in the development of the sciences from their isolation to their linkage through intermediate sciences was determined. As a result of this trend in the evolution of sciences from the second half of the 19th century. the gradual filling of the previous gaps and gaps between different and, above all, related sciences in their common system began. In connection with this movement of sciences from their isolation to the emergence of sciences of an intermediate, transitional nature, connecting links (“bridges”) began to form between previously broken and outwardly juxtaposed sciences. The basis for the newly emerging intermediate branches of scientific knowledge was the transitions between various forms of the motion of matter. In inorganic nature, such transitions were discovered due to the discovery of the processes of mutual transformation of various forms of energy. The transition between inorganic and organic nature was reflected in Engels' hypothesis about the chemical origin of life on Earth. In connection with this, Engels put forward the concept of the biological form of motion. Finally, Engels elucidated the transition between this latter and the social form of movement (history) in his labor theory of anthropogenesis.

AT general case the emergence of such sciences of an intermediate nature can take place when the method of one science is applied as a new means of research to the study of the subject of another science. So, in our time, radio astronomy arose as a part of modern astrophysics.

With the development of physical and colloidal chemistry, the field of work in the field of biophysics is expanding. There are attempts to explain from these positions the mechanism of reactions of a living organism to external influences. The Loeb school played an important role in the development of biophysics. In the works of Loeb (1859-1924), the physicochemical foundations of the phenomenon of parthenogenesis and fertilization were revealed. The phenomenon of ion antagonism received a concrete physicochemical interpretation. Loeb's generalizing book "Dynamics of Living Matter" was published in many languages. In 1906 the translation of this book was published in Russia. Later, Schade's classical studies appeared on the role of ionic and colloidal processes in the pathology of inflammation. In 1911-1912. his fundamental work "Physical Chemistry in Internal Medicine" is published in Russian translation.

NATURAL SCIENCE AND HUMANITARIAN CULTURE

Culture is one of the most important characteristics of human life. Each individual is a complex biosocial system that exists through interaction with the environment. The necessary natural connections with the environment determine its needs, which are important for its normal functioning, life and development. Most human needs are met through labor.

Thus, the system of human culture can be understood as the world of things, objects created by man (his activity, labor) in the course of his historical development. Leaving aside the question of the complexity and ambiguity of the concept of culture, we can dwell on one of its simplest definitions. Culture is a set of material and spiritual values created by man, as well as the very human ability to produce and use these values.

As we can see, the concept of culture is very broad. It essentially covers infinite set a wide variety of things and processes associated with human activity and its results A diverse system modern culture depending on the goals of the activity, it is customary to subdivide into two large and closely related areas - material (scientific) and spiritual (humanitarian) culture.

Subject area first - pure natural phenomena and properties, connections and relations of things, "working" in the world of human culture in the form natural sciences, technical inventions and adaptations, production relations, etc. The second type of culture (humanitarian) covers the field of phenomena in which the properties, connections and relations of the people themselves, both social and spiritual (religion, morality, law, etc.) are presented.

Page 7

The phenomena of human consciousness, psyche (thinking, knowledge, evaluation, will, feelings, experiences, etc.) belong to the ideal, spiritual world. Consciousness, spiritual is very important, but only one of the properties complex system, which is a person. However, a person must exist materially in order to manifest his ability to produce ideal, spiritual things. The material life of people is an area of human activity that is associated with the production of objects, things that ensure the very existence, human life and satisfy his needs (food, clothing, housing, etc.).

Throughout human history, a colossal world has been created by many generations material culture. Houses, streets, plants, factories, transport, communication infrastructure, household institutions, the supply of food, clothing, etc. - all these are the most important indicators of the nature and level of development of society. Based on the remains of material culture, archaeologists manage to quite accurately determine the stages of historical development, the characteristics of societies, states, peoples, ethnic groups, and civilizations.

Spiritual culture is associated with activities aimed at satisfying not the material, but the spiritual needs of the individual, that is, the needs for development, improvement of the inner world of a person, his consciousness, psychology, thinking, knowledge, emotions, experiences, etc. The existence of spiritual needs and distinguishes man from animal. These needs are satisfied in the course of not material, but spiritual production, in the process of spiritual activity.

The products of spiritual production are ideas, concepts, ideas, scientific hypotheses, theories, artistic images, moral norms and legal laws, religious beliefs, etc., which are embodied in their special material carriers. Such carriers are language, books, works of art, graphics, drawings, etc.

Analysis of the system of spiritual culture as a whole makes it possible to single out the following main components: political consciousness, morality, art, religion, philosophy, legal awareness, and science. Each of these components has a specific subject, its own way of reflection, performs specific social functions in the life of society, contains cognitive and evaluative moments - a system of knowledge and a system of assessments.

Page eight

Science is one of the most important components of material and spiritual culture. Its special place in spiritual culture is determined by the value of knowledge in the way of being of a person in the world, in practice, in the material and objective transformation of the world.

Science is a historically established system of knowledge of the objective laws of the world. scientific knowledge, obtained on the basis of cognition methods tested by practice, is expressed in various forms: in concepts, categories, laws, hypotheses, theories, a scientific picture of the world, etc. It makes it possible to predict and transform reality in the interests of society and man.

Modern science is a complex and diverse system of individual scientific disciplines, of which there are several thousand and which can be combined into two areas: fundamental and applied sciences.

Fundamental sciences are aimed at the knowledge of the objective laws of the world, existing regardless of the interests and needs of man. These include mathematical sciences, natural (mechanics, astronomy, physics, chemistry, geology, geography, etc.), humanitarian (psychology, logic, linguistics, philology, etc.). Fundamental sciences are called fundamental because their conclusions, results, theories determine the content of the scientific picture of the world.

Applied sciences are aimed at developing ways to apply the knowledge obtained by fundamental sciences about the objective laws of the world to meet the needs and interests of people. The applied sciences include cybernetics, Technical science(applied mechanics, technology of machines and mechanisms, strength of materials, metallurgy, mining, electrical engineering, nuclear energy, astronautics, etc.), agricultural, medical, pedagogical sciences. In applied sciences, fundamental knowledge is acquired practical value, are used for the development of the productive forces of society, the improvement of the objective sphere of human existence, material culture.

The concept of "two cultures" is widespread in science - the natural sciences and the humanities. According to the English historian and writer C. Snow, there is a huge gap between these cultures, and scientists studying the humanities and exact branches of knowledge increasingly do not understand each other (disputes between "physicists" and "lyricists").

There are two aspects to this problem. The first is connected with the patterns of interaction between science and art, the second - with the problem of the unity of science.

Page nine

In the system of spiritual culture, science and art do not exclude, but presuppose and complement each other where we are talking about the formation of a holistic, harmonious personality, about the completeness of the human worldview.

Natural science, being the basis of all knowledge, has always influenced the development humanities(through methodology, worldview ideas, images, ideas, etc.). Without the application of the methods of the natural sciences, the outstanding achievements of modern science about the origin of man and society, history, psychology, etc. would be unthinkable. New prospects for the mutual enrichment of natural science and humanitarian knowledge open up with the creation of the theory of self-organization - synergetics.

Thus, not the confrontation of different "cultures in science", but their close unity, interaction, interpenetration is a natural trend of modern scientific knowledge.