characteristic features of science. Objectivity, depth of knowledge, number of researchers, impact on public consciousness and usefulness. What are the main features of big science? What are the main features of big science in brief

With the transformation of science into a direct productive force, the transition from "small science" to "big science" is connected, becoming the leading factor in the development of social production.
The term “big science”, which has entered into world use, is characterized by scientists as a new vast area of scientific and scientific-technical activity, theoretical and applied research and development. The attraction of scientists to production laboratories and design departments of enterprises and firms, where they solve specific problems dictated by the needs of the time, is becoming widespread. These needs are a constant source of new ideas that point the way to scientific and technological progress (STP) - a single, interdependent progressive development of science and technology.
Here are some data that characterize modern science. At the beginning of the XX century. in the world there were 100 thousand, and at the end of the century - more than 5 million scientists. Such high rates have led to the fact that about 90% of all scientists who have ever lived on Earth are our contemporaries.
World scientific information in the XX century. doubled in 10-15 years, several hundred thousand magazines are constantly published (about 10 thousand in 1900), 90% of all objects created by man and surrounding us were invented in the 20th century. The volume of world industrial production at the end of the XX century. was 20 times higher than at the beginning of the century.
Within the framework of “big science”, a classical scheme of transition from an idea to a final product, from the emergence of new knowledge to its practical use, has taken shape. This scheme is as follows: fundamental science - applied science - experimental design. The new product is then introduced into mass production. So, along with the generation of new knowledge, science began to generate new technologies. The principle of the unity of truth and benefit was further developed.
The greatest importance is acquired by research aimed at ensuring innovative development. Innovation is an innovation, that is, the creation, use and distribution of new means, products, processes: technical, economic, cultural, organizational.
Let us give some examples of research solutions to important problems of post-industrial society. Discoveries in electronics, optics, chemistry made it possible to create and develop a powerful system of printed and electronic means mass media that have a profound impact (positive and negative) on the minds and feelings of the individual, on the life of mankind.
Relatively recently, few people knew the word "laser". But after the discoveries made by the Nobel Prize winners A. M. Prokhorov and N. G. Basov, it became known to many. The development of problems related to the laser, its diverse applications in biology, astronomy, communications and other fields, required the transition to completely new technologies that did not previously exist in any country in the world.
The commonwealth of fundamental and applied sciences and production ensured the success of such major innovations as nuclear energy, astronautics, the creation of electronic computers, and informatics.
Researches of scientists give grounds to single out, in addition to functions, the most generally significant features of modern science. One of them, according to a number of scientists, was the inclusiveness of science. “Science,” said the naturalist, member of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences K. M. Baer, “is eternal in its source, not limited in its activity by either time or space, immeasurable in its scope, infinite in its task.” There is no area that could fence itself off from it for a long time. Everything that happens in the world is subject to observation, consideration, research. This position, according to other scholars, has limitations. The invasion of science in a number of areas can cause Negative consequences. These include attempts to clone a person, a number of studies in the field of biotechnology. Therefore, supporters of this point of view believe that some areas of scientific research should be banned.
Another feature of science is that it is fundamentally incomplete. Awareness of the incompleteness of science contributes to the emergence of various scientific schools, overt and covert competition for efficient and fast research.
The productive development of science requires an optimal combination of individual research and the activities of large creative teams. New fundamental problems were often solved alone by prominent scientists (for example, A. Einstein's theory of relativity), and sometimes by a small group of researchers. Here the initiative of the scientist, his insight is especially important. Search for a new, connected
ny with talent is an important factor in advancement in science. But the vast majority of scientific research in the modern era requires the organization of large teams and thoughtful coordination of research, as well as the availability of high-tech equipment.
Modern science is differentiated. It has about 15 thousand disciplines. This is due to the variety of phenomena studied by science. real world, the growth of information, the specialization of scientists in narrowing research areas. The differentiation of scientific knowledge must be combined with its integration. “The spread of the river of knowledge is inevitable,” wrote the Russian scientist, academician N. N. Moiseev, “it is dictated by the need for high professionalism, detailed knowledge ... but integration studies are no less necessary, since a comprehensive diverse analysis based on data is needed. various sciences requiring the synthesis of knowledge.
In the past century, domestic science has taken a leading position in the world in a number of leading areas: space research, quantum physics, mathematics, etc.
IN recent decades Russian science is experiencing significant difficulties: insufficient funding, outdated equipment, low wages for scientists, the outflow of personnel in foreign countries. Entrepreneurs, government agencies do not provide quick and efficient use of the latest innovative developments of Russian scientists. All this leads to the fact that Russia in the field of world science is losing its previously won positions. Overcoming these difficulties is the immediate task of the state, teams of scientists and society as a whole. The main thing is to increase the efficiency of science, strengthen its role in the creation of innovative products, coordinate the activities of scientific institutions and universities, increase funding for science, ensure a significant increase in the salaries of scientists, and create favorable conditions for attracting young people to science. It is useful to bring together the interests of business and applied science: science must meet the production needs of large firms, and they must replenish its budget.
Modern social development indicates that science forms promising directions for the development of civilization and concentrates its own forces on them. Evidence of this is the transition to a post-industrial, information society, which would be impossible without the latest scientific achievements.

Considering such a multifaceted phenomenon as science, we can single out three of its functions: a branch of culture; way of knowing the world; special institution (this concept includes not only higher educational institution, but also scientific societies, academies, laboratories, journals, etc.).

Like other areas of human activity, science has specific features.

Versatility- communicates knowledge that is true for the entire universe in which they are obtained by man.

Fragmentation- studies not being as a whole, but various fragments; itself to share scientific disciplines.

Validity- the knowledge gained is suitable for all people; the language of science is unambiguous, fixing terms and concepts, which contributes to the unification of people.

Systematic- science has a certain structure, and is not an incoherent collection of parts.

incompleteness although scientific knowledge grows without limit, it cannot reach absolute truth, after the knowledge of which there will be nothing to investigate.

Continuity- new knowledge in a certain way and according to strict rules correlate with old knowledge.

Criticality - a willingness to question and reconsider one's own, even fundamental, results.

Reliability — scientific findings require, allow and pass the test according to certain formulated rules.

immorality — scientific truths are neutral in moral and ethical terms, and moral assessments can refer either to the activity of obtaining knowledge, or to the activity of its application.

Rationality - obtaining knowledge based on rational procedures and laws of logic, the formation of theories and their provisions.

Sensuality - scientific results require verification using perception and only after that are recognized as reliable.

In addition, science is characterized by its own special methods and structure of research, language, and equipment.

Characteristics of science

It can be said about such a multifunctional phenomenon as science that it is: 1) a branch of culture; 2) a way of knowing the world; 3) a special institute (the concept of an institute here includes not only a higher educational institution, but also the presence of scientific societies, academies, laboratories, journals, etc.).

For each of these nominations, science is correlated with other forms, methods, industries, institutions.

In order to clarify these relationships, it is necessary to identify the specific features of science, primarily those that distinguish it from the rest. What are they?

2. Science is FRAGMENTAL - in the sense that it does not study being as a whole, but various fragments of reality or its parameters, and is itself divided into separate disciplines.

In general, the concept of being as a philosophical concept is not applicable to science, which is a private knowledge. Each science as such is a certain projection onto the world, like a searchlight that highlights the areas of interest to scientists at the moment.

4. Science is IMPERSONAL - in the sense that neither individual characteristics scientist, nor his nationality or place of residence are in any way represented in the final results of scientific knowledge.

Science is SYSTEMATIC - in the sense that it has a definite structure, and is not an incoherent collection of parts.

6. Science is INCOMPLETE - in the sense that although scientific knowledge grows without limit, it still cannot reach absolute truth, after which there will be nothing to investigate.

Science is CRITICAL in the sense that it is always ready to question and revise even its most fundamental results.

9. Science is RELIABLE - in the sense that its conclusions require, allow and pass verification according to certain rules formulated in it.

All this determines the specific scientific research and the meaning of science.

Science and religion

Mind predominates in science, but faith also takes place in it, without which knowledge is impossible - faith in sensory reality, which is given to a person in sensations, faith in the cognitive capabilities of the mind and in the ability to scientific knowledge reflect reality. Without such faith, it would be difficult for a scientist to embark on scientific research. Science is not exclusively rational; intuition also takes place in it, especially at the stage of formulating hypotheses.

On the other hand, reason, especially in theological studies, was used to justify faith, and not all church leaders agreed with Tertullian's aphorism: "I believe because it is absurd."

The scientific picture of the world, limited to the sphere of experience, is not directly related to religious revelations, and a scientist can be both an atheist and a believer.

Another thing is that in the history of culture there are cases of sharp confrontations between science and religion, especially in those times when science gained its independence, say, at the time of the creation of the heliocentric model of the structure of the world by Copernicus. But it doesn't have to be that way all the time.

Science and philosophy

Generally speaking, this is not required. It can be believed that Someone or Something transmits sensory information to people, and scientists read, group, classify and process it. Science rationalizes this information and issues it in the form of laws and formulas, regardless of what lies at its basis.

Therefore, a scientist may well be both a spontaneous materialist or idealist, and a conscious follower of some philosophical concept. Scientists such as Descartes and Leibniz were also prominent philosophers of their time.

Characteristic features (properties) of science

1. Do universal - it communicates knowledge that is true for everyone, taking into account the conditions under which they were obtained

2. Fragmentary - it studies being not as a whole / general, but individual properties / parameters, is divided into separate disciplines

It is generally significant - the knowledge it receives is suitable for all people, and the language of science is unambiguous

4. Science is impersonal - the personal qualities of a scientist do not affect the final result

Systematic - has a certain structure, is not an incoherent collection of any parts

6. Incomplete - scientific knowledge obtained on certain stage cannot reach absolute truth

Continuity - the new knowledge gained is consistent with the old knowledge obtained earlier

8. Critical - she is always ready to question and revise her even the most fundamental results

Reliable - its conclusions require, allow and pass the test, according to certain rules that it formulated

10. Extramoral - scientific truths are neutral in moral and ethical terms, and moral assessments refer to the scientist himself

11. Rational - it receives knowledge on the basis of rational approaches and laws of logic and eventually comes to the formulation of theories and provisions that go beyond the empirical level empirical fact

12. Sensible - its results require empirical verification using perception, only after that they are recognized as reliable

Science is characterized by its own special methods and structure of research, as well as language and equipment.

This is what determines the specificity of scientific knowledge and the significance of science. Science is different from mythology, mysticism, religion, philosophy, art, ideology, technology - it is a theoretical knowledge of reality.

Natural science is a branch of science based on the reproducible empirical testing of hypotheses and the creation of theories or empirical generalizations that describe natural phenomena.

The subject of natural science is facts and phenomena that are perceived by the senses.

The basic principle of natural science is that knowledge about nature must allow, assume empirical verification, that is, experience is the decisive argument in accepting or not accepting truth.

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Characteristics of science

For each of these nominations, science is correlated with other forms, methods, industries, institutions. In order to clarify these relationships, it is necessary to identify the specific features of science, primarily those that distinguish it from the rest.

What are they?

1. Science is UNIVERSAL - in the sense that it communicates knowledge that is true for the entire universe under the conditions under which they are obtained by man.

2. Science is FRAGMENTAL - in the sense that it studies not being as a whole, but various fragments of reality or its parameters, and is itself divided into separate disciplines. In general, the concept of being as a philosophical concept is not applicable to science, which is a private knowledge. Each science as such is a certain projection onto the world, like a searchlight that highlights the areas of interest to scientists at the moment.

Science is GENERAL - in the sense that the knowledge it receives is suitable for all people, and its language is unambiguous, since science seeks to fix its terms as clearly as possible, which contributes to the unification of people living in various parts of the world.

Science is IMPERSONAL - in the sense that neither the individual characteristics of a scientist, nor his nationality or place of residence are in any way represented in the final results of scientific knowledge.

5. Science is SYSTEMATIC - in the sense that it has a definite structure, and is not an incoherent collection of parts.

Science is UNCOMPLETE - in the sense that although scientific knowledge grows without limit, it still cannot reach absolute truth, after which there will be nothing to investigate.

7. Science is CONTINUOUS - in the sense that new knowledge in a certain way and according to certain rules correlates with old knowledge.

8. Science is CRITICAL in the sense that it is always ready to question and revise even its most fundamental results.

Science is RELIABLE - in the sense that its conclusions require, allow and are tested according to certain rules formulated in it.

10. Science is OUT-MORAL - in the sense that scientific truths are neutral in moral and ethical terms, and moral assessments can relate either to the activity of obtaining knowledge (the ethics of a scientist requires him to be intellectually honest and courageous in the process of searching for truth), or to activities for its application.

Science is RATIONAL - in the sense that it receives knowledge on the basis of rational procedures and laws of logic and comes to the formulation of theories and their provisions that go beyond the empirical level.

12. Science is SENSITIVE - in the sense that its results require empirical verification using perception, and only after that they are recognized as reliable.

These properties of science form six dialectical pairs that correlate with each other: universality - fragmentation, general significance - impersonality, systematicity - incompleteness, continuity - criticality, reliability - out-of-morality, rationality - sensibility.

In addition, science is characterized by its own special methods and structure of research, language, and equipment.

All this determines the specifics of scientific research and the significance of science.

Science and religion

Let us dwell in more detail on the relationship between science and religion, especially since there are different points of view on this issue. In atheistic literature, the opinion was propagated that scientific knowledge and religious faith are incompatible, and each new knowledge reduces the area of \u200b\u200bfaith, up to the assertion that since the astronauts did not see God, therefore, he does not exist.

The watershed between science and religion runs in accordance with the ratio in these branches of the culture of reason and faith.

Without such faith, it would be difficult for a scientist to embark on scientific research.

Science is not exclusively rational; intuition also takes place in it, especially at the stage of formulating hypotheses. On the other hand, reason, especially in theological studies, was used to justify faith, and not all church leaders agreed with Tertullian's aphorism: "I believe because it is absurd."

So, the realms of reason and faith are not separated by an absolute barrier. Science can coexist with religion, since the attention of these branches of culture is focused on different things: in science - on empirical reality, in religion - mainly on the extrasensory.

The scientific picture of the world, being limited to the sphere of experience, is not directly related to religious revelations, and a scientist can be both an atheist and a believer. Another thing is that in the history of culture there are cases of sharp confrontations between science and religion, especially in those times when science gained its independence, say, at the time of the creation of the heliocentric model of the structure of the world by Copernicus.

But it doesn't have to be that way all the time.

There is also an area of superstition that has nothing to do with either religious faith or science, but is associated with the remnants of mystical and mythological ideas, as well as with various sectarian offshoots from the official religion and everyday prejudices.

Superstitions, as a rule, are far from both true faith and rational knowledge.

Science and philosophy

It is also important to correctly understand the relationship between science and philosophy, since many times, including in recent history, various philosophical systems have claimed to be scientific and even to the rank of “higher science”, and scientists have not always drawn a line between their own scientific and philosophical statements.

The specificity of science is not only that it does not undertake the study of the world as a whole, like philosophy, but is a private knowledge, but also that the results of science require empirical verification.

Unlike philosophical statements, they are not only confirmed by special practical procedures or are subject to strict logical derivation, as in mathematics, but also admit the fundamental possibility of their empirical refutation. All this makes it possible to draw a demarcation line between philosophy and science.

Scientists have sometimes been presented as so-called "spontaneous materialists" in the sense that they have an inherent belief in the materiality of the world.

Generally speaking, this is not required. It can be believed that Someone or Something transmits sensory information to people, and scientists read, group, classify and process it.

Science rationalizes this information and issues it in the form of laws and formulas, regardless of what lies at its basis. Therefore, a scientist may well be both a spontaneous materialist or idealist, and a conscious follower of some philosophical concept. Scientists such as Descartes and Leibniz were also prominent philosophers of their time.

The functions of science. Specific features of science


2. Worldview
3. predictive	The essence of the predictive function of science is to foresee the consequences of changes in the surrounding world. Science allows a person not only to change the world according to their desires and needs, but also to predict the consequences of such changes. With the help of scientific models, scientists can show possible dangerous trends in the development of society and give recommendations on how to overcome them.

5. Social strength

Specific features of science:

Versatility

Fragmentation- science does not study being as a whole, but various fragments of reality or its parameters; itself is divided into separate disciplines. The concept of being as a philosophical one is not applicable to science, which is a private knowledge. Each science as such is a certain projection onto the world, like a spotlight that highlights the areas of interest to scientists at the moment.

Validity

Impersonality

Systematic

incompleteness

Continuity

criticality

Reliability

immorality

Rationality

Sensuality

All this determines the specifics of scientific research and the significance of science.

Natural science and its role in culture

Culture is expressed in the types and forms of organization of life and activities of people. It is natural science and functioning on its basis Technical science to a large extent provide a person with basic knowledge of how to modern conditions satisfaction of physiological and protective needs is achieved.

Natural science is not only an integral part of culture, but also its most important source. It was natural science in all ages that created the conditions for the formation and preservation of civilization, the transfer of acquired knowledge - both in time and within contemporary society. It was natural science, together with the technical sciences, that solved all the urgent problems of mankind in the process of its development. The main factor in modernizing production and making a profit is a person, his intellectual (intelligence is the ability of rational thinking) and creative capabilities.

As a result, the role of natural science knowledge that can influence production is increasing in society.

Levels of Scientific Research

Two levels of knowledge empirical And theoretical. They are carried out with the help of observations and experiments, as well as hypotheses, laws and theories.

There are also meta-theoretical levels of scientific knowledge in philosophy, which are represented by the philosophical attitudes of scientific research and depend on the style of thinking of the scientist. Empiric ur.-. in the first place is the factual material, which is carefully studied and analyzed, and on this basis the systematization and generalization of the results obtained are made.

This level operates with sensual methods and the studied object is displayed, first of all, in external manifestations that are accessible to contemplation. Signs - collection of facts, their description, systematization and generalization of data in the form of classification. Theoretical ur.- draws conclusions based on the reflection of phenomena from all sides, including internal connections and patterns, as well as external indicators obtained empirically.

Scientific knowledge in this case is carried out with the help of concepts, inferences, laws, principles, etc. and it turns out to be objective and specific, more complete and meaningful. The techniques of abstraction, creation of ideal conditions and mental structures, analysis and synthesis, deduction and induction together make cognition aimed at achieving objective truth that exists regardless of the activity of the cognizing subject.

The concept of "pseudoscience"

Pseudoscience- a set of beliefs about the world, mistakenly considered as based on the scientific method or as having the status of modern scientific truths.

It is necessary to distinguish pseudoscience from the inevitable scientific errors and from parascience as a historical stage in the development of science. The main difference between science and pseudoscience (non-science) is the repeatability of results. The salient features of pseudoscientific theory are:

Ignoring or misrepresenting facts, known to the author of the theory, but contradicting his constructions
Non-falsifiability(inconsistency with Popper's criterion), that is, the impossibility of setting up an experiment (at least a mental one), one of the fundamentally possible results of which would contradict this theory;
Rejection of attempts to verify theoretical calculations with the results of observations, if possible, replacement of checks with appeals to "intuition", " common sense or "authoritative opinion"
Use in the basis of the theory of unreliable data(those.

not confirmed by a number of independent experiments (researchers), or lying within the measurement errors), or unproven positions, or data resulting from computational errors. This paragraph does not include a scientific hypothesis that clearly defines the basic provisions;

Introduction to the publication or discussion of scientific work of political and religious attitudes.

This point, however, requires careful clarification, since otherwise Newton, for example, falls into the category of pseudoscientists, and precisely because of the "Principles", and not because of later theology.

A softer formulation of this criterion of "unscientificity" could be the fundamental and strong inseparability of the scientific content of the work from its other components. However, for modern science, it is customary, as a rule, for the author to independently isolate the scientific component and publish it separately, without explicitly mixing it with religion or politics.

Types of scientific theories.

1) Logical and mathematical- not based on experience.

In particular, uninterpreted axiomatic theories do not assert anything about the world. For example, the concepts of “point”, “straight line”, “plane” do not mean anything by themselves. And, for example, in physics, having received an interpretation, they have some meaning.

For example, a straight line is a ray of light.

2) Empirical- based on experience.

3) Descriptive- ordering, systematization of facts. Describe a specific group of objects. Theory of Darwin, Pavlov, etc.

4) Hypothetical-deductive- based on general provisions, from which the quotients are derived.

Example: Newtonian mechanics.

Matter and its properties

Everything in the world is made up of matter. Matter is made up of atoms. The complete absence of matter is called vacuum. Matter exists in three basic states - solid, liquid and gaseous.

The state of matter can change: solid can become a liquid, and a liquid can become a gas, and so on. One of the main properties of matter is its state.

Another property is the kind of atoms it is composed of. Atoms of the same kind are called chemical element. The third property, density, is the amount of matter contained in a certain volume.

The functions of science. Specific features of science

1. Cognitive and explanatory	is to know and explain how the world works and what are the laws of its development.
2. Worldview	helps a person not only to explain the knowledge known to him about the world, but also to build them into an integral system, to consider the phenomena of the surrounding world in their unity and diversity, to develop his own worldview
3. Predictive	The essence of the predictive function of science is to foresee the consequences of changes in the surrounding world. Science allows a person not only to change the world around him according to his desires and needs, but also to predict the consequences of such changes. With the help of scientific models, scientists can show possible dangerous trends in the development of society and give recommendations on how to overcome them.
4. Production (catalyst for development)	Direct productive force Accelerates the process of improving production.
5. Social strength	Science is included in the processes social development and its management in the interaction of the humanities and technical sciences (decision global problems, EEC development)

Specific features of science:

Versatility- scientific knowledge is true for the entire universe under the conditions under which it was obtained by man.

Scientific laws operate throughout the universe, such as the law gravity.

Fragmentation- science does not study being as a whole, but various fragments of reality or its parameters; itself is divided into separate disciplines.

The concept of being as a philosophical one is not applicable to science, which is a private knowledge. Each science as such is a certain projection onto the world, like a spotlight that highlights the areas of interest to scientists at the moment.

Validity- scientific knowledge is suitable for all people; the language of science - unambiguously fixing the terms, which contributes to the unification of people.

Impersonality- neither the individual characteristics of a scientist, nor his nationality or place of residence are represented in any way in the final results of scientific knowledge.

For example, in the law of universal gravitation there is nothing of Newton's personality.

Systematic- science has a certain structure, and is not an incoherent collection of parts.

incompleteness- although scientific knowledge grows without limit, it cannot reach absolute truth, after which there will be nothing to investigate.

Continuity- new knowledge in a certain way and according to certain rules correlate with old knowledge.

criticality- science is ready to question and revise its (even fundamental) results.

Intra-scientific criticism is not only possible, but necessary.

Reliability- scientific conclusions require, allow and are subject to mandatory verification according to certain formulated rules.

immorality- scientific truths are morally and ethically neutral, and moral assessments can relate either to the acquisition of knowledge (the ethics of a scientist requires intellectual honesty and courage in the process of searching for truth), or to its application.

Rationality- science acquires knowledge on the basis of rational procedures.

The components of scientific rationality are: conceptuality, i.e. the ability to define terms by identifying the most important properties this class items; consistency - the use of the laws of formal logic; discursiveness - the ability to decompose scientific statements into their component parts.

Sensuality- scientific results require empirical verification using perception and only after that are recognized as reliable.

In addition, science is characterized by its own, special methods and structure of research, language, and equipment.

All this determines the specifics of scientific research and the significance of science.

The science- the sphere of human activity, the purpose of which is to study the objects and processes of nature, society and thinking, their properties, relationships and patterns.

Science is one of the forms of social consciousness. Over the two and a half thousand years of its existence, science has turned into a complex, systematically organized education with a clearly visible structure. Main elements of scientific knowledge are:

1) firmly established facts;

2) regularities that generalize groups of facts;

3) theories, as a rule, which are systems of patterns that together describe a certain fragment of reality;

4) methods as specific techniques and ways of studying reality, based on the features and patterns of the objects under study;

5) scientific pictures of the world, drawing generalized images of all reality, in which all theories that allow mutual agreement are brought together into a kind of systemic unity.

There are the following functions of modern science:

1) descriptive - identifying the essential properties and relationships of reality;

2) systematizing - embedding objective knowledge into the system;

3) explanatory - an explanation of the essence of the phenomenon under study, the reasons for its occurrence and development;

4) production and practical - the possibility of applying the acquired knowledge in practice;

5) prognostic - the possibility of scientific prediction of phenomena in the future;

6) worldview - the introduction of the acquired knowledge into the existing picture of the world.

Correlation between science and non-scientific knowledge. The general trust in science is so great that we sometimes simply equate the concepts of "knowledge" and "scientific knowledge", considering them almost synonymous. But there are many types of knowledge, the source of which is not science, but worldly experience, aesthetic impressions, religious revelation, etc. There are the following forms of extra-scientific knowledge:

1) unscientific, understood as disparate non-systematic knowledge, which is not formalized and not described by laws, is in conflict with the existing scientific picture of the world;

2) prescientific, acting as a prototype, prerequisite base of scientific;

3) parascientific, incompatible with the existing epistemological standard; it includes teachings or reflections on phenomena, the explanation of which is not convincing from the point of view of scientific criteria;

4) pseudoscientific, deliberately exploiting conjectures and prejudices. It is believed that the pseudo-scientific reveals itself and develops through the quasi-scientific;

5) quasi-scientific knowledge is looking for supporters and adherents, relying on methods of violence and coercion (Lysenkoism, defamation of genetics, cybernetics, etc.);

6) anti-scientific, utopian and deliberately distorting the idea of reality;

7) pseudoscientific knowledge is an intellectual activity speculating on the totality popular theories, for example, stories about ancient astronauts, about Bigfoot, about a monster from Loch Ness;

8) everyday practical knowledge - elementary information about nature and the surrounding reality. Experience is its foundation Everyday life, which, however, has a fragmented, non-systematic character, which is a simple set of information. Ordinary knowledge, although it fixes the truth, does it unsystematically and without evidence. Its first feature is that it is used by a person practically unconsciously and in its application does not require any preliminary systems of evidence. Another feature of it is its fundamentally unwritten character. Those proverbs and sayings that the folklore of each ethnic community has, only fix its fact, but in no way prescribe the theory of everyday knowledge;

9) game cognition, which is built on the basis of conditionally accepted rules and goals. It is educational and developmental in nature, reveals the qualities and capabilities of a person, allows you to expand psychological boundaries communication;

10) personal knowledge is made dependent on the abilities of a particular subject and on the characteristics of his intellectual cognitive activity.

11) folk science, which has now become a matter of separate groups or individual subjects: healers, healers, psychics, and previously was the privilege of shamans, priests, elders of the clan. As a rule, folk science exists and is transmitted from teacher to student in an unwritten form. Sometimes you can highlight its condensate in the form of covenants, signs, instructions, rituals, etc.

12) Vera- the most important component of the internal spiritual world a person, a mental act and an element of cognitive activity. It reveals itself in the direct acceptance of certain provisions, norms, and truths that does not require proof. Faith manifests itself in a state of conviction and is associated with a feeling of approval or disapproval, requires a person to comply with those principles and moral precepts in which he believes.

Scientific knowledge is different from other forms of knowledge by the following signs:

1) scientific knowledge is characterized systematic, as well as the logical derivation of some knowledge from others;

2) the objects of scientific (theoretical) knowledge are not the objects and phenomena of the real world in themselves, but their peculiar analogues - idealized objects(for example, a point, a straight line in geometry, ideal gas, absolutely black body in physics);

3) an important feature of scientific knowledge is conscious control over the very procedure for obtaining new knowledge, fixing and presenting strict requirements for methods knowledge;

4) a scientific description of the objects under study requires rigor and unambiguity of the language, clearly fixing the meaning and meaning of concepts;

5) scientific knowledge claims to generality and objectivity revealed truths, i.e. their independence from the cognizing subject, unconditional reproducibility;

6) science does not study all phenomena in a row, but only those that are repeated, and therefore its main task is to look for laws on which these phenomena exist.

At various times in history, there have been different combination and subordination of science to various spheres of human activity. In the ancient period, science was part of philosophy and acted in conjunction with all forms of social consciousness. In the Middle Ages, science was dominated by religion, which significantly hindered its development. In the Renaissance, science begins to develop rapidly, but retains the place of the leading element in the worldview for philosophy.

In the 19th century in connection with the successes of natural science, science began to dominate in culture and worldview. At the same time, a conflict broke out between science and philosophy, which continues to this day. The essence of the conflict is the struggle for the right to possess the ultimate truth. In the 19th century science, not realizing its limits, tried to answer all the questions of being. This is how the ideology scientism as faith in science as a single indisputable truth.

Anti-scientists believe that science (scientific knowledge), of course, is one of the forms of comprehension of being, but it expresses only limited knowledge, compared to philosophy, since it does not concern being as a whole. Science cannot claim to be a "pure" description of the world, just because it, like any constructive activity of the mind, is based on certain values and represents, first of all, a special worldview orientation. This orientation is based on the premise of a complete comprehension of the world with the help of specific scientific methods. But there can be no question of any completeness of the comprehension of being here, since it is always objectively limited. Thus, according to antiscientism, science is only one of the means of ordering (designing, interpreting) the world.

Classification of sciences. To date, science has become a very complex, multifaceted and multilevel system of knowledge. The main way of its organization is disciplinary. Newly emerging branches of scientific knowledge have always been separated by subject matter - in accordance with the involvement of new fragments of reality in the process of cognition. At the same time, in the system of "division of labor" of scientific disciplines there is also a small "privileged" class of sciences that perform integrating functions in relation to all other sections of scientific knowledge - mathematics, logic, philosophy, cybernetics, synergetics, etc. Their subject area is extremely wide, as if “cross-cutting” for the entire system of scientific knowledge, which allows them to act as the methodological basis of scientific knowledge.

According to the subject originality, all scientific disciplines are divided into three large groups: natural, social and technical.

Subject area natural sciences (physics, chemistry, biology, geology, etc.) covers all natural processes accessible to man, occurring independently of the will and consciousness of people.

Social Sciences they deal with that part of being that includes all manifestations of social life: the activities of people, their thoughts, feelings, values, emerging social organizations and institutions, etc. In the totality of the social sciences, it is customary to single out socio-scientific And humanitarian disciplines. This division is not strict and unambiguous, but nevertheless it has a good reason.

Social-scientific systems of knowledge (economics, sociology, political science, demography, ethnography, anthropology) are guided by the standards of the natural sciences. These sciences prefer to deal with quantitative (mathematically expressible) research methods. Empirical (actual) base humanities are, as a rule, texts (in the broad sense of the word) - historical, religious, philosophical, legal, drawn, plastic, etc. Therefore, the methods of humanitarian and scientific knowledge are dialogical: the researcher of the text conducts a kind of dialogue with its author. The interpretations of texts that are born as a result of such a dialogue, i.e. the established meanings of the manifestations of human life activity recorded in them cannot, of course, be strictly unambiguous.

In the disciplinary structure of scientific knowledge, sciences occupy a special place. technical. These include electrical engineering, electronics, radio engineering, energy, materials science, metallurgy, chemical technology, etc. The subject of their research is engineering, technology, materials, i.e. the material and procedural aspects of human activity. Main Feature technical sciences, it is believed that their ultimate goal is not the knowledge of the truth about natural processes, but the effective use of these processes in production and other human activities. Therefore, most of the technical knowledge can be classified as applied, which is usually distinguished from knowledge fundamental.

The ratio of fundamental and applied sciences is usually expressed by contrasting "knowledge that" "knowledge how". The task of the applied sciences is to provide practical use fundamental knowledge, to bring its final product to the consumer.

What are the main features of big science?

Big science is characterized by the fact that it is speculative in the first place, that is, a lot of theoretical reasoning, hypotheses, theories. And only after some time, some moments go down to the application level.

Big science is not limited only to the collection of scientific material: this material is systematized, hypotheses are put forward, and, if necessary, mathematical models, hypotheses and mathematical models are tested experimentally.

science deals with the fundamental questions of the universe. Its achievements, unlike applied science, can be applied in practice both in a year and in a century. And some never. For example, string theory.

Big science, it seems to me, is those scientific fields that are directly capable of changing the world. For example, work on alternative energy resources, the search for antimatter, the search for the end of the universe or the root cause of all existence.

In the concept of big science you can make an ambiguous meaning. Probably, each person understands it in his own way. If we consider this term as a combination of many sciences, then the main features include a detailed or superficial study questions of those sciences that are included in the so-called big science. And if we understand this term as something archaic, then the main features of big science are a deep study (in every sense) of questions, with the resulting answers to the tasks set, using all kinds of methods and previously accumulated knowledge

Big science, if we consider it not from an organizational point of view, is the foundation, the basis from which new ones grow further. scientific directions, which, in turn, are applied in nature and can be closely related to the life of people.

Great scientific discoveries are the goal of great science.

Concepts such as small science and big sciencequot ;, were first considered in the course of lectures by the American scientist at Columbia University Derek John de Solla Price, who published a book in 1963 called Small Science, Big Science at Columbia University Press. This book laid the foundation for science of science - the science of science.

The main idea of the book is that there were two periods in the history of science: small science since ancient times and big sciencequot ;, when scientific societies appeared, scientific schools and scientific institutions, and science has become a professional activity.

Science is a sphere of human activity aimed at the continuous collection of facts about reality, critical analysis, development theoretical knowledge, their systematization and constant updating.

The main features of big science could be seen in modern society since the beginning of the 20th century.

The main feature of big science is the presence of scientific societies and scientific institutions. Science has become a controlled professional process of human activity.

Truth is something that can be tested and confirmed in practice. Experiment, practice are the criterion of truth. One experience is no experience. To confirm the truth, at least three experiments are required.

To standardize the scientific method, it is necessary to reproduce the developed methodology in different laboratories and by different experimenters.

The main features of modern big science:

presence of separation and cooperation scientific work;
availability of scientific institutions, experimental and laboratory equipment;
availability of research methods;
the presence of a conceptual and categorical apparatus (each science has its own concepts and categories);
the presence of a coherent system of scientific information;
availability of a base of previously obtained and accumulated scientific knowledge.

Big science is oriented towards the fundamentally new; blind worship of the old is alien to it. It has a clear understanding that the existing knowledge is correct within certain limits and is not absolute. It is not focused on momentary profit.
Big science deals with global, not minor issues. Achievements Big Science are not always applied immediately after opening. Sometimes years of preparation may be needed for implementation.
I believe the main features are as follows.
Firstly, the so-called Big Science is the locomotive for all science as a whole, it opens up new horizons for applied science.
Secondly, it requires considerable financial injections and is usually financed by the state or venture funds.
Thirdly, the results fundamental research more inertial and less subject to conjuncture and dynamic changes.

What are the main features of big science?

The main features of modern big science: 1)
existence of division and cooperation of scientific work; 2) availability of scientific institutions, experimental and laboratory equipment; 3) availability of research methods; 4) the presence of a conceptual and categorical apparatus (each science has its own concepts and categories); 5) the presence of a coherent system of scientific information; 6) the presence of a base of previously obtained and accumulated scientific knowledge.

1) Describe the social, national and confessional composition of the population in our country (Belarus).
2) What are the main features of the Belarusian socio-economic model of development. What are the priorities of the socio-economic development of the Republic of Belarus in the early 21st century? ? Name the main factors of sustainable development of our country.
3) what are the main directions of innovative development of the Republic of Belarus on present stage? What factors ensure the successful innovative development of our country? Describe the contribution of science and education to the country's innovative development.

1. About 9.6 million people live in our country. In terms of population, the Republic of Belarus ranks fifth among the CIS countries. The average population density is 48 people per 1 sq. km. km. - about the same as in many other European countries.
Approximately 74% of the population of our country lives in cities, respectively 26% is the rural population. Urban population concentrated in 112 cities and 96 urban-type settlements. 13 cities have a population of more than 100 thousand people; about 1 million 800 thousand citizens live in the capital of our country, Minsk. There are about 1145 women per 1000 men; in groups older than 50 years, this difference increases.
Our country is ethnically heterogeneous. According to the 1999 census, representatives of more than 130 nationalities live in the country. 81% of citizens of the Republic of Belarus recognized themselves as Belarusians, 11% - Russians, almost 4% - Poles, 2% Ukrainians, 0.3% - Jews

. In what century was it born modern science? What sciences appeared then?
2. Classification of sciences
1-On the subject and method of cognition - the sciences of nature, society, cognition, technical sciences, mathematics
2-In connection with practice - fundamental (there is no direct orientation to practice) and applied (the results of scientific knowledge are used to solve production and social problems)
3. What, according to A. Smith, is the arbiter of all the actions of a scientist?
4. Give an example of harm scientific discovery?
5. What are the main features of big science?
6. What is the connection between science and education?
7. The purpose of the national educational program in Russia at the beginning 21st century
8. Why education is the national wealth of the country?
9. What is special continuing education?
!

4. Example of harm-creation atomic bomb. On the one hand, it was a breakthrough in science, and on the other hand, this bomb posed (and still poses) a huge threat to all mankind.
8. An educated person in our time is a very important resource for the state. (Intellectual resource). An educated person is able, with the help of his abilities, to contribute to the development of any field of activity, for example, in science or economics, etc. And it is very bad for the state if the country is left educated people.
9. Continuing education is education throughout life. That is, in our time, education is not limited to school or university. Nowadays, a person has enough opportunities for self-education, so people can gain knowledge not only in their youth, but throughout their lives. For example, attend some courses, study foreign language etc.

1. What are the characteristics of a nation as the most developed form of a community of people?
2. What is tolerance in interethnic relations?
3. Expand the functions of historical memory and national identity in the formation and consolidation of modern life nation.
4. Describe the main features of modern interethnic cooperation.
5. What are the most typical causes of ethnic conflicts?

1) Indigenous territory, mutual language, culture, economic and political activity, similarity of mentality, self-awareness as a community.

2) acceptance, understanding of a different way of life, behavior, customs, feelings, opinions, ideas, beliefs without feeling uncomfortable

3) Look on the Internet, now I can’t find a book from where I would give an exact answer.

5) uneven development, mismatch of territorial boundaries, social contradictions, infringement of rights small nations,

! Question: What is free trade and what are its main features.

Free trade - trade without import tariffs and quantitative restrictions, except for strictly defined cases when they can be introduced.

1) mass distribution of products.

2) range of any goods.

3) government intervention is not as big as in team trading.

What does free trade mean and what are its main features?

Free trade-direction to economic theory, politics and economic practice,
proclaiming freedom of trade and non-interference of the state in the private business sphere of society. In practice, free trade usually means the absence of high export and import duties, as well as non-monetary restrictions on trade, such as import quotas for certain goods and subsidies for local producers of certain goods. Supporters of free trade are liberal parties and currents; Opponents include many left-wing parties and movements (socialists and communists), human rights and environmentalists, and trade unions.
2-as opponents of free trade, competition and policies to strengthen the domestic market. (import was
extremely limited)
3The price is higher, the quality is better, the packaging is stronger and more aesthetic (goods not from China and Turkey). Preference-import.
Free trade is a direction in economic theory, politics and economic practice,

Proclaiming freedom of trade and non-interference of the state in the private business sphere of society. In practice, free trade usually means the absence of high export and import duties, as well as non-monetary restrictions on trade, such as import quotas for certain goods and subsidies for local producers of certain goods. Supporters of free trade are liberal parties and currents; Opponents include many left-wing parties and movements (socialists and communists), human rights and environmentalists, and trade unions.

ANSWER AT LEAST ONE. . VERY
1. Why is a person forced to choose ways to use resources to meet their needs?
3. What helps the manufacturer to rationally solve the main issues of the economy? What is the principle of the "invisible hand" of the market?

For question 4

The presence of the main share of private ownership of the means of production in the national economy of the country (more than 50%);
consumer demand for goods, products and services;
offer of goods, products and services by manufacturers;
free prices for goods and services;
competition based on the interaction of supply and demand;
legal (legislative) support of market mechanisms;
democratization of society, granting all citizens the right to entrepreneurial activity in any sphere of the economy.

1. Why is a person forced to choose ways to use resources to meet their needs?
2. Which economic system provides a more efficient allocation of limited resources and why?
3. What helps the manufacturer to rationally solve the main issues of the economy? What is the principle of the "invisible hand" of the market?
4. What are the characteristics of a market economy?

1. In order not to exhaust these resources, so that a person is not left without his portability. it is necessary to choose such methods so as to satisfy the human good and not to exhaust the resources. Thus, it turns out that special people have worked out such a trick: how to make some (which are really valuable) things expensive, so that not every person can afford it, and this is how resources are not exhausted.

2. Commodity economy

Russian historian and philosopher L.P. Karsavin on the philosophy of history.
The philosophy of history is determined by its three main tasks. Firstly, it explores the fundamental principles of historical existence, which at the same time are the basic principles of historical knowledge, history as a science. Secondly, it considers these fundamental principles in the unity of being and knowledge, that is, it indicates the significance and place of the historical world in the whole and in relation to absolute Being. Thirdly, its task is to cognize and depict a specific historical process as a whole, to reveal the meaning of this process. Insofar as the philosophy of history limits itself to the first task, it is a "theory" of history, that is, a theory of historical being and a theory of historical knowledge. Insofar as it pursues the solution of the second task, it is the philosophy of history in the narrow and special sense of the term "philosophy". Finally, in the area defined by the third task, it appears before us as the metaphysics of history, and, of course, in the term "metaphysics" I do not conceive of an abstraction from concrete empiricism, but concrete knowledge of the historical process in the light of the highest metaphysical ideas.
At first glance, the deep organic, indissoluble connection between the problems of the theory of history and the philosophy of history is obvious. It is impossible to define the foundations of history otherwise than through their relation to the foundations of being and knowledge in general, and, consequently, without clarifying their connection with absolute Being. Any theorist of history, unless he artificially closes himself in the circle of questions of the so-called technical methodology, must inevitably find out: what is the specificity of historical being and whether this specificity exists, what are the main categories of historical knowledge, the main historical concepts, whether they are the same as in the field of knowledge of nature, or others, etc. All this makes it imperative to consider theoretical-historical and philosophical-historical problems in interconnection.
Questions and tasks: 1) What, according to the author, are the tasks of the philosophy of history? How do you understand the meaning of each of the tasks? 2) How do historical being and historical knowledge relate? 3) What task is the philosophy of history called upon to solve in the narrow sense? 4) Why does the author combine consideration of theoretical and philosophical problems of history? 5) What is the connection between the study of a specific historical process and the philosophy of history? 6) Which of the tasks of the philosophy of history can be attributed to the issues discussed in this paragraph?

To find out what it all started with, mentally decide to analyze the solution and give the truth as it really is and not from any points, the task of this is only for the fact that the world is so mixed up and not everyone will like it, but the truth is the truth, it does not change itself, it only changes reading it