When organizing a training session, all types of educational communication, various combinations of frontal, group, collective and individual forms of activity are used. In frontal work, the relation “teacher’s activity — student’s activity — class activity” is realized; in the collective form, the relation “teacher’s activity — class activity” is realized — activity of the student”, with the group form of activity - “the activity of the teacher - the activity of the group - the activity of the student”, and with the help of the individual form of activity the relationship “the activity of the teacher - the activity of the student” is realized.

Every teacher wants to have as many bright students as possible in his class (we call them “strong” students).

Practice has shown that "strong" students in any system of education - developing or traditional - are more quickly included in the educational process. For example, when there is frontal work, “strong” students are the most active, they are the first assistants in the lesson. The “weak” just listen, often not understanding what is being said, i.e. they are passive. Some of them do nothing at all.

Different children come to school to learn: “capable” and “less capable”, “strong and weak”, and every teacher wants all of them to be active in the lesson. But... the question arises how to include each student in the lesson - both "strong" and "weak". It turns out that this problem can be solved through the organization of collective classes.

Collective training sessions are not just the work of students in pairs: permanent or shift composition. Here, each student takes turns working as a teacher, then as a trainee. Each participant is alternately a teacher and a student.

The main goal of each student is to teach others everything that you know yourself. The basic principle of work: everyone in turn teaches everyone, and everyone in turn teaches everyone; those. The team trains each of its members.

One such technology is Collaborative Way of Learning (CSR).
Collective forms of organization of learning include work in dynamic pairs or pairs of shifts. Collective work in pairs of shifts is fundamentally different from group work and just pair work. In these sessions, each student takes turns working with the other.
As a collective method of learning, one should highlight such a form of work as classes in pairs of shifts. Such an organization of lessons allows not only to implement cooperation, but also to take into account the heterogeneity of the learning abilities of students, to provide everyone with the opportunity to regulate their time for familiarization and assimilation of new material. Everyone works calmly, at their own pace and, most importantly, with an individual consultant. Moreover, the student has the opportunity to return to the incomprehensible again, change the consultant and listen to the explanation from other lips. This form of work is convenient to use for practicing various skills and abilities, for introducing new material and systematizing knowledge.

Pair work can be introduced from the first grade. The main thing during this period is the development of the ability of students to negotiate, communicate constructively. To do this, we introduce first graders to basic rules of communication

1. When talking, look at the interlocutor
2. Speak quietly in pairs so as not to disturb your classmates.
3. Call a friend by name, listen carefully to the answer, because then you will correct it, supplement it, evaluate it. We explain how to sit at a desk, how to express agreement and objection, how to provide help and ask for it.

It is also necessary to teach schoolchildren. You can check the answer, the progress of solving the problem, the correctness and beauty of the letter, homework, etc. The next stage is to teach to train in pairs (addition table, mental counting, performing tasks according to options, followed by mutual verification). This is followed by a discussion in pairs. This means talking about a given topic, asking questions and revealing them (“Tell each other what I just told you about”; “Tell your partner how you understood him”, etc.) Children should be taught to ask questions correctly and accurately answer them.

When working in pairs, younger students learn to listen carefully to the answer of a friend (after all, they act as a teacher); constantly prepare for the answer (it is important for the child to be asked); learn to speak, answer, prove. The student can do at this moment what is not allowed at other times - communicate with a classmate, sit freely. Children love this kind of work. The time limit and the unwillingness to lag behind other couples encourages first-graders not to be distracted and communicate only on the topic of the lesson. There are children who are embarrassed to speak out in front of the whole class. In a narrower circle of peers, shy students begin to speak, because they know they will be listened to, they will not laugh, if necessary, they will explain and help.

For pair work, ordinary rows are convenient, and for group work desks should be placed so that each child sees his interlocutors, does not sit with his back to the blackboard, can easily reach common sheet paper, on which the result of the group's work is recorded, was within the reach of all participants.

Which children to pair up?

When studying new material, it is better to combine “strong” and “weak” students, “average” and “strong” students in pairs. When summarizing and consolidating the material, it is better that the children in a pair are equivalent: strong - strong, medium - medium, weak - weak

Forms of organization of the educational process

A student's work on homework, work on an essay, even just reading a textbook is individual shape organization of the educational process. The student solves a problem, performs an exercise, reads a rule, learns a poem and does not come into personal contact with the teacher or students. This work is done without the cooperation of anyone.

Pair form academic work assumes that two people are engaged with each other and with no one else. Working in pairs is the most comfortable form of organizing the educational process, the purpose of which is the formation of business interpersonal relationships. Working in pairs is the execution of a task by two students who, communicating and interacting, complete the solution of a problem aimed at obtaining a common result. It actually consists of two results of its participants, so the correspondence overall result goal depends on the correctness of the task performed by each participant.

"I understood you like this ... Did you mean it?". I do not agree because ... and in connection with the fact that ... ". "I propose to do ... Do you agree with this?"; “I had an idea, but I'm not sure if it's right. And what do you think?"; “How do you feel about the fact that we discussed the second question, and then return to the first?”

Trainings for elementary school students to develop the skills of working in pairs of shifts

Spatial orientation training

There is one empty seat in the class. The primary school teacher asks, "How many seats are there in the class?" The guys answer. The teacher asks the one who answered first to sit in an empty seat, but so as not to hurt anything and as quickly as possible. The student is transferring. The teacher points to the student, who must find an empty seat and take it.

Training can be more difficult. The teacher points at two students at the same time. It is clear that together they will not be able to sit in a single place, only one of them will take it. The other will be forced to take the newly vacated place of his comrade. Meanwhile, the teacher points to two other students.

An even more difficult option: the teacher invites everyone to close their eyes and listen carefully to the world around them. The children listen and hear what they did not pay attention to before. The teacher says: “The student whose shoulder I touch will open his eyes and sit down in an empty seat as quietly as possible.” After that, the rest of the students, without opening their eyes, point with their hand to where the free space has formed. The teacher asks everyone to open their eyes, but not yet remove the hand indicating the direction.

Similar trainings can be carried out as physical education minutes. They relieve fatigue well and switch the attention of the guys.

Training on the ability to listen to a partner and hear what he says

The guys love to play "Broken Phone". Elements of this game are used in the training. The class is divided into options. For the first desk of each option, a card is issued with a proverb, saying, tongue twister, rule, definition, etc. The students on the first desk read the entry on the card, memorize it and, putting it aside, at the signal of the teacher turn around and say the phrase to the neighbor on the second desk. And so on until the end. The student on the last desk says the phrase aloud. The process can be complicated - instead of phrases, take, for example, rules that are difficult for children to remember.

Training on the ability to work in noise

Almost no one doubts that studying in too much noise is quite difficult. But the fact that it turns out to be practically impossible to study in absolute silence is doubtful for many. However, this is exactly the case. The ability to learn in noise should be worked out specially. The task at the same time is this: each student has a small card on which a tongue twister is written. The boys come to visit, say hello and read their tongue twister to the girls, and they read theirs to the boys.

When everyone says their tongue twister without hesitation, the students change cards, and the boy, having thanked, goes to visit another girl. There is noise in the classroom, as half of the guys are talking. However, students quickly get used to it and do not even notice the noise. This is due to the fact that the child adapts to the noise environment and tries to speak in such a way that only a neighbor can hear him. It is important that these phrases be written in advance, and not impromptu incoming "guests", then in addition to the main skill - working in noise - an additional skill will be practiced - the ability to handle the card.

Training on the ability to find the right information

This training can be done in two ways:

• allow everyone to walk around the classroom;
• allow only half of the children to walk around the classroom.

Cards are placed face up in front of all the children in the class. Half of the proverb is written on them, for example: on one card, “go slower,” on the other, “you will continue.” Paired cards lie at different ends of the class on different options. The task of the guys is to find the right partner and form a couple.

Training can be more difficult. The first option is to offer cards with riddles, and the second - with riddles. The first option remains in place, and the second goes in search of the right riddle. It is interesting to use such training in mathematics lessons, where tasks are offered to one option, and answers to the second.

Training on the ability to use an individual record sheet

The individual record sheet allows you to keep records of worked cards. Numbers are written on the sheet corresponding to the numbers of tasks performed. If the task is studied and completed, the number is circled. If assistance was provided to another student in completing this task, the number is crossed out.

Training on the ability to translate figurative information into verbal and vice versa

The use of this technique significantly develops the child's speech, the ability to translate images into words, and also teaches you to listen carefully and accurately select the objective action that corresponds to the word spoken by the partner. For this purpose, cut pictures are used.
One student in a pair has a card with a drawn plot, which is forbidden to be shown until the end of the work, and his partner has its cut parts. The task of the first is to lead so that the partner posts the appropriate drawing as quickly as possible. You can control only with a word, without the help of gestures. Then the one who led leaves to look for a free partner, and the one who collected the drawing remains to wait for a new partner. Now he will lead.

Lebedintsev V.B. Kinds learning activities in pairs // School technologies. - 2005. - No. 4. -S. 102-112. (This text is the author's version; the text published in the journal contains minor editorial changes, in particular, there are no diagrams.)

Types of learning activities in pairs

Study work in pairs has been used for a long time. However, unlike other forms of educational interaction (for example, group and individual), it is the least studied; only rare empirical descriptions can be found in the literature, not to mention generalized technological recommendations, such as, for example, the book by V.V. Arkhipova about the collective organizational form of learning.

Unfortunately, in the pedagogical literature and in practice, there is an incorrect identification of work in pairs and the collective method of learning. In the next article, we intend to consider in detail the difference between the collective method of learning, collective training sessions, collective and paired organizational forms of learning. For the purposes of this article, we restrict ourselves to brief definitions.

Undoubtedly, an attentive reader of V.K. Dyachenko it is clear thata collective way of learning is a socio-historical stage in the development of the education sector who will come to replace the group method of education that prevails today, which manifests itself in world education in its two varieties - class-lesson and lecture-seminar systems of education.

Collective training sessions are the leading type of implementation of the educational process in not class-lesson system of education. In the Krasnoyarsk Territory and other regions, there are schools where classes are held instead of lessons in collective training sessions (this is the so-called class-subject system of education), as well as schools where there are no longer classes, and collective training sessions are conducted in groups of different ages (about such non-classroom schools are written, for example, in No. 1 of the journal "People's Education" for 2005).

The essential characteristics of collective training sessions are highlighted by M.A. Mkrtchyan:

1) the absence of a "common front", i.e. students realize different goals, study different fragments of educational material, in different ways and means, for different times;

2) different students master the same program on different routes;

3) the presence of consolidated groups (temporary student cooperatives or small subgroups of non-permanent composition) as places of intersection of different routes for the advancement of students. It is important to note that in the educational process, as a rule, there are several consolidated groups, different both in terms of topics being mastered and in organization. Thus, all four organizational forms of learning are simultaneously combined: individually-mediated, pair, group and collective; the latter plays a leading role.

The importance of a collective learning session in not class-lesson system is the same as the lesson in the class-lesson system, since both the lesson and the collective lesson are system-forming components.

Thus, a group learning session is not some technique or method that is applicable to improve the lesson. It is instead of a lesson! Similarly, the concept of a collective method of learning is much broader than the concept of a collective training session and, moreover, does not come down to working in pairs, which should be understood as a method of learning.

In the individual method of education that prevailed until the Middle Ages (in the periodization of V.K. Dyachenko), the organizational structure of the educational process consisted of individual and paired forms of education, while the paired form was the leading one. They were constant teacher-student pairs. In Russia, the name of Alexander Grigorievich Rivin is associated with an empirical discovery of the beginning of the 20th century - the orgdialog method, i.e. collective organizational form of training - work in pairs of shifts.

Working in pairs - permanent and shift - has become, perhaps, a familiar, traditional element, it is increasingly being used by representatives of different pedagogical areas. At the same time, in the class-lesson system, it is used as an auxiliary technique and is considered, first of all, the technical side (“fours”, “streams”). These are, as a rule, the simplest cases for consolidation or repetition, for example, elementary mutual verification of dictations. Learning new material, as a rule, is the prerogative of the teacher. A similar situation is observed in many innovative directions. For example, representatives of an individual-oriented learning system directly state: “It is not recommended to organize work in pairs of shifts when studying new material. In the conditions of IOSE (individually oriented learning system), the requirement must always be observed that the work of understanding is carried out by the teacher himself, explaining it.

It is clear that although training exercises are important and give good results, work in pairs is not limited to them. On the other hand, the objection is sometimes heard: “Can a child teach?” This is evidence of the other extreme - pair work is reduced solely to learning. In fact, work in pairs is a rich spectrum of all kinds and forms. At the same time, each of them has its own specifics, possibilities and limitations. Without understanding the essence, many try and ... give up: there is a lot of additional work, but little return.

Ensuring fruitful work in a pair does not come down to the ability to communicate or good manners, for example, to be patient with your interlocutor, to thank for help. Without detracting from this aspect, let's focus on technological aspects. We will distinguish types of work in pairs according to several parameters: 1) positions (roles) of students, 2) goals of work, 3) subject and content of activities, 4) work techniques, 5) results, products.

We can distinguish the following types of work in a single pair: discussing something, learning new things together, teaching each other, training and testing. These types will be discussed further. At the same time, we will leave open the question of the advisability of separating counseling and “finishing education” as separate types of pair work.

I. Discussion

You can discuss any topic, question, contained both in the text of a certain author, and in texts, statements of each other. During the discussion, the positions of the students do not differ. These positions are identical and equal: both on equal grounds discuss, delve into the understanding of a complex topic.

After reading or hearing the same thing (for example, the teacher's explanation), each of the partners understands something in his own way (in Fig. 1 this is indicated in gray), but in some ways their opinions coincide. In the dialogue, the views of each of the partners on the subject of discussion are expanded, deepened, and refined. It is not at all necessary that as a result everyone understands exactly what the author had in mind. In some ways, there will be a coincidence (this is indicated in the figure by lines), but in some ways it will not. The main thing is that the student sees the difference between his own and the author's ideas, substantiates this, using his experience and knowledge.

Thus, the purpose of the discussion is to understand where and in what all opinions coincide (opinions of each other, if the texts and considerations of the partners themselves are discussed; the opinions of the author and each of the partners, if the text of the third is discussed), and then expand their ideas.

Given the peculiarity of this type of work in pairs, it is recommended to offer students texts with controversial ideas, with an ambiguous answer, with logical incompleteness, requiring subjective assessment, etc. For example, in literature there are many such texts, questions; in the subjects of the natural-mathematical cycle, it is possible to propose to put forward various hypotheses.

The discussion includes several steps. First: reestablish what the teacher or student said, restore what he read in the book. It's not just about verbatim retelling. But in order to discuss something, first it must be remembered, kept in memory. Here it is important not to dwell on restoring only the text of the author, but the most important thing is to restore his thoughts, the sequence of these thoughts, facts, evidence, examples. When restoring something, there is no room for your own comments, criticism and evaluation. At the stage of mastering this technique, it is possible to offer students various algorithms for recovery.

The second round of discussion isinterprettext, thoughts of the author, i.e. express your opinion, attitude to these thoughts, give your assessment, express the assessments of other authors. They help to interpret questions of this kind: what is clear to me and what is not? Why does the author make such a statement? Where does it come from? What conclusion can be drawn from this?

Third take - to ask questions. Provoking questions allows you to draw attention to the area of ​​​​misunderstanding. This is a difficult job that triggers thinking; understanding and thinking begin with a question. “Meaningfulness, accuracy of the question are important aspects of correct, clear thinking,” emphasizes the Philosophical Dictionary. It is clear that it is much easier to ask questions when there is a partner, there is a listener.

These techniques can be used both in combination and separately.

In practice, different discussion techniques are used. Much depends on the goals of the organizers of the educational process, the level of training of students. For example:

1. Read the text (or some part).

2. Retell the read text in turn.

3. Complete, correct each other.

4. Ask each other 2 questions each.

6. Express your attitude to what you heard. How did you understand each other?

What is the product of the discussion in pairs? On the one hand, this is the difference between the student's understanding at the entrance to the pair and at the exit from it. On the other hand, products are important, by which you can monitor the quality of pair work and with the help of which some quality can be ensured. We mean material products: students will be encouraged if, for example, they are asked to record in their notebooks the questions they ask each other.

Mastering pair work is easiest to start with a discussion. (True, at this stage, teachers often get stuck.) To do this, you can use the frontal work as a leading one, and the pair one as an auxiliary one. The teacher presents part of the material, after which the students, in accordance with the task of the teacher, discuss in pairs the content of the material presented. Then, in front of the whole class, the results of the work in pairs are summed up, the methods and quality of work of individual pairs are discussed, and then the teacher presents the next part of the material, after which the students work on understanding the second part (in this case, the partner can be the same or can be changed), etc. d. By the way, other types of work in pairs can be mastered in the same way.

II. Joint study

In a couple you can study something together. Together you can study something that neither of the two knows yet. Both partners are in the position of studying.

The subject of joint study is the texts of the third. This is the difference between study and discussion; the subject of the last type of work is both the texts of the third and each other.

As a result of specially organized communication, a common field of understanding should appear. The general should be, on the one hand, in the views of both students, they must agree to the general, on the other hand, the general should be in the minds of the students and the author of the text being studied, and on the third, the general should be materialized, for example, in the joint formulation of a plan item or scheme ( see Fig. 2.) We will use “heading” as a synonym for “plan item”, but in a different sense than in mass practice.

The title, the diagram, and something else - this is the material product of joint study. From them you can judge how deeply the text is mastered.

There are different learning techniques:

1) You can study in the so-called hermeneutic circle: first, a primary idea of ​​the whole is formed by reading the entire text, and then each part is analyzed. In the process of reading the entire text or at the end of it, a hypothesis is put forward, what the author wants to say, what his intention is, how the text is structurally presented, how the parts are connected to each other. Then each part is worked out, the place of the part in the whole is established, the structure and content of the entire text is specified along the way. This approach still needs to be developed. The CSR movement has only taken its first steps. The following method has been more developed.

2) You can study in parts (in paragraphs, in small semantic fragments). This technique is based on the work of pairs of interchangeable composition according to the Rivin method. Let's take a closer look at this approach.

1. First, a paragraph (text fragment) must be read. The text can be read in different ways: at the same time aloud, silently, aloud in turn. It depends on the age of the children, their characteristics, the tasks of the teacher, the ability to work in pairs. For example, in the first year of school, when students still have difficulty reading, in order to organize the pair as a unit, it is recommended to read aloud synchronously.

2. Incomprehensible words are highlighted and explained. It is especially necessary to pay attention to polysemantic words, the meaning of which in everyday life and in scientific texts is completely different. These are, as a rule, terms or concepts that need to be carefully understood, or perhaps written down in a notebook.

3. Restoring a paragraph and expressing your understanding. Often you have to find out the subject of speech, its characteristics, the meaning of phrases, sentences in the context of a paragraph. To do this, to establish connections between sentences, the “hermeneutic circle” helps here, but already on the scale of a paragraph.

4. Bringing your examples to the thesis stated in the paragraph, definition, etc.

5. A mandatory component of the study is the expression of the essence of the paragraph and its design in the heading. This job is one of the hardest.

These components do not need to be absolute, they require specification for different purposes, texts, students.

Let us make some important remarks.

It is important that the title accurately reflects what is said in the text, and not how the reader understands the issue. The paragraph heading operation captures the general field of understanding of the author and students. But it must be borne in mind that it is impossible to get absolutely the same understanding in general.

Note that for us the title is not the main idea. This is an expression of the meaning of a paragraph, a link between the main and the secondary. A plan item is a phrase that, in a folded form, includes the entire content of the paragraph (“compressed spring”). To correctly title, we do not recommend using sentences and complex phrases of a paragraph, it is advisable to use phrases such as: “listed and schematized ...”, “a question about ...”, “different aspects are indicated ...”, “a connection between ... is established”, “a reason is indicated and consequence... The title can be in the form of a question.

By the way, according to N.I. Zhinkin, the process of comprehending the text ends with the formation in the mind of a certain “subject-scheme code”. The process of understanding is always accompanied by the curtailment of speech. In memory in full can only be stored very short text, which is not difficult for mechanical memorization, or a text learned by heart. Under normal conditions of perception and understanding, the text is stored in memory in a collapsed form.

We propose the following criterion for the quality of the title: if a person who has not read the text can reconstruct its main thematic lines, main sections, structural components, then the headings reflect the essence of what is being studied.

To study texts of different styles, different techniques are needed: scientific texts require logical work, artistic texts require understanding of the author's feelings, images, associations. In turn, it is necessary to develop specific techniques for studying different types of paragraphs of the same scientific texts - fragments reflecting concepts, paragraphs describing processes or events, reasoning texts.

In addition, it requires its own research, which operations are used to study in a pair of text, and which ones are used to reveal a certain issue, using the content of the text as an auxiliary, reference material. So far, we can say that in the latter case, work with the text is selective.

III. Education

Training in pairs can be organized both in one direction and mutually. Even at the dawn of civilization, training, as a rule, took place in pairs, while it was directed in one direction.

During the training, participants act in different positions: one is teaching, the other is being trained. Dueorganizedinteraction, the second one becomes the carrier of what the first one owns (Fig. 3.) Thus, the subject of training is information (knowledge) or methods of action that the partner owns.

We consider one-way learning as an element of mutual learning. Note that the educational process has many limitations and unused opportunities when one always teaches another.

Necessary conditions for the implementation of mutual learning:

- Pupils, united in a pair, must know different fragments of the content: one student knows one thing, the second knows another.It is possible to provide mutual learning only on new material!

– These fragments should not be logically dependent on each other.

- You need to teach in small portions.

"Teacher" must state a small fragment of the material, then make sure that it is understood, and only after making sure that the fragment is clear to the "student" , move on to the next one.

Let's try to write this process step by step. The selected components, it seems to us, allow you to create a variety of learning algorithms in pairs:

1. Aiming at what the training will be devoted to, how it will take place, what result should be obtained.

2. Presentation of the material in small fragments.

During the explanation, it is important to fix the main points, concepts, diagrams, etc. in the student's notebook. Thus, the teacher gives samples of the task, provides an opportunity for the student to perform the function of a “teacher” better in the future. And besides, such an explanation is more understandable, it is no coincidence that in ordinary lessons the teacher writes at the blackboard: experienced teachers understand that the oral text should be supplemented, strengthened by sign text: perception is easier.

Along the way, you need to ask the “student” questions to understand what is being said. In addition, the presentation itself may be in the "interrogative voice".

3. Initiating the student to ask questions for understanding.

The position of the "student" should not be contemplative. He should ask questions after each exposition that would enable him to understand what was not clear. He can give his own examples.

It is important to teach students to take care of their own knowledge: "How can I check that the text is clear to me?"

4. Restoration by students of the understood, assimilated material.

5. Verification and consolidation of what has been learned.

It is clear that after the presentation of all the fragments, questions should be asked to check the understanding of the entire topic.

But it is equally important to fix it. This can be done in different ways. If the subject of training was a typical task - a way of acting, then it should be proposed to solve a similar task with commentary (this technique underlies the methodology for the exchange of tasks). If some knowledge was transferred (information, concept, etc.), then it is possible to organize consolidation after each fragment, for example, to propose to title it.

6. Analysis and reflection of the actions that were carried out by the "teacher" and "student".

This is necessary, on the one hand, to acquire the skills to learn from another, and on the other hand, to master the position of a “teacher”. In order for the training to be of high quality in the future, it is important for the “teacher” to convey his position to another, pay attention to different aspects of the training procedure, and give the necessary recommendations. You can help the "student" to compose questions that emphasize the important and the "slippery".

IV. Training

Due to work in pairs, it is possible to effectively provide various aspects of consolidating the studied material. When it is important to bring actions to automatism, you can use mutual training.

In a pair, two positions are distinguished: a coach and a trainee. The purpose of mutual training is to initiate algorithmic training actions of a partner, indicating at the same time whether his answer is correct or not. In addition to the training itself, the simulator is designed to fix a possible, potential error, which makes you think about the error, pay attention to it.

The concern of the “trainer” is the presence of actions by the “training person” in solving problems (answering a question) and his answer. If the “trainer” owns the material, then it is enough for him to have only a set of tasks. However, mutual training is convenient in that it allows you to use as a means even those students who cannot yet check the train of thought of a partner on a certain topic. This requires special didactic material with tasks and ready-made answers, for example, such cards:

One student takes the 1st card, and the other - the 2nd. Using these cards, students offer tasks to each other, initiating a partner to take actions to consolidate any material. The technique is very simple, it is instantly grasped by children:

1. The first student says the first task of his card, the second student answers. The first student checks the answer on his card. If the answer is correct, then he asks a second question. If the answer is wrong, then he invites his friend to answer it again. If the partner is wrong several times, then the first student reports the correct answer, and then moves on to the next question.

2. When the first one dictates all the exercises of his card, the partners change roles. Now the second student asks questions of his card, and the first student answers these questions. When all questions are dictated, the couple breaks up.

Mutual exercise can be used to consolidate all kinds of material: you can practice mental counting, memorize the multiplication table, formulas, information, facts, find spellings, give interpretations of concepts, etc.

Mutual exercise in pairs is often used as a “five-minute” at the beginning of the lesson. In the class-lesson system, such an application does not raise objections, since the well-known "oral counting", "frontal questioning" are also forms of training.

V. Verification

When it is important to get not automated actions, but conscious , then this type of work in pairs, such as verification, is well suited. It can be mutual or one-sided.

When checking in a pair, two positions are distinguished: the checking and the checked.

We emphasize that pair work is used here not for the purpose of learning, not for the purpose of assessment, but for the purpose of detecting and correcting errors.

Unlike the exercise, the test is not aimed at the answer. The subject of verification is the content of actions to solve a problem, a question: a link between logic, a train of thought in solving a problem and an answer.

How is pair work organized? One student from memory restores to another the entire process of solving some independently completed task (perhaps he will do this in writing) or gives a detailed answer to a certain question. His partner follows the presentation, every action, every move; if necessary, corrects and supplements. If he sees an error, he immediately notes it and offers to solve the problem again.

We note two advantages of such a check. Firstly, in the course of commenting, explaining their actions, the student often discovers errors himself. Secondly, the verification is carried out "here and now"; if an error is discovered, then it is corrected here, and not at home by the teacher, away from the student.

To compensate for the lack of competence of individual students in the subject being tested, special didactic tools can be used. For example, Novokuznetsk CSR specialists develop instruction keys for checking different topics. Productive reception when during self-study text, the student formulates test questions. Then, on these issues, in turn, checks the one who also studied this text himself and requires verification.

Of course, the partner must be competent enough in the subject being checked, the question. But this does not mean at all that he should know "from cover to cover." This is not the point, the point is “commented management”, as S.N. Lysenkov.

It is possible to check both the process of solving something that has already taken place, and the proposed (projected) one. M.V. Klarin points to the experience of American scientists L. Reznik and R. Glaser, who made pronunciation the starting point in mastering research educational activities and proposed a special technique: to make the pronunciation of its very statement the initial stage of solving the problem, i.e. what goals should be achieved in solving the problem, implementing the action plan, as well as verbalizing the compliance of this plan with the intended goals. In the experimental group, about 90% of students found the right solutions, and in the control group, where pronunciation was not carried out, only 40%. M.V. Klarin notes some similarity of this technique with the technique of pronouncing decisions developed by S.N. Lysenkova. The essential difference lies in the presence in the second case of a sample of the course of the solution, previously demonstrated by the teacher. In the first case, we are talking about pronouncing the solution in the course of an independent research search. It seems to us that both techniques may be appropriate when working in pairs according to the "check" type.

Conclusion

Let's end with three points.

Firstly, the real learning situation often requires the use of not one type of work in pairs, but a combination of them. At some point, one is leading and the other is complementary. In order to understand what is happening or should happen in a couple, you need to compare it, on the one hand, with the goals of the work, with what you want to receive and receive, and on the other hand, with how it should be technologically built.

Secondly, these types of work in pairs underlie the general methods of collective training sessions. Collective organizational form of learning, i.e. work in pairs of replaceable composition is a backbone in these methods. But it is impossible to reduce the methodology to any method of paired interaction. Each technique includes various organizational forms of learning, including methods of working in pairs, and algorithms. These are methods for organizing the activities of a group of students, they should be more accurately called "general methods for organizing work in combined teams."

The main technique in pairs according to the Rivin method is based on discussion and joint study of what has been read. Methods of mutual exchange of tasks (learning how to act), mutual transfer of topics (learning some content) and the method of continuous transfer of knowledge according to V.K. are built on mutual learning. Dyachenko, at the discussion - the reverse method of Rivin, at the check - the method of mutual verification of individual tasks and the leading card, at the simulator - the method of mutual training.

Thirdly, an important role in pair work is played by "algorithms" - instructions that reflect the sequence of actions leading to the achievement of the goal (Appendices 1 and 2). Let us formulate some requirements for the algorithms. You should not get carried away with them, but you should not underestimate them either: at the expense of algorithms, students should acquire own techniques, methods of work. First, algorithms must take into account the characteristics of specific students. Second, they must be concise. Thirdly, it is possible to fix the method and content of the work.

I express my gratitude to my colleagues M.A. Mkrtchyan, D.I. Karpovich, N.M. Gorlenko, A.Yu. Karpinsky for valuable ideas and comments on the preparation of this article.

Attachment 1

Algorithm for studying poetry in pairs of shifts

during the first years of primary education

Those who organized collective training sessions will agree on how important it is to convey to the student the order of his work according to certain methods in an accessible way. They need to be adapted to the age characteristics of the students. For example, when the pace of reading is still low, use in full the methodology for studying poetry in pairs of shifts, developed by I.G. Litvinskaya, very difficult. Therefore, at the initial stage, we use the option when students simultaneously (synchronously) read stanza or line of a poem. Each stanza is studied with a new partner; the number of stanzas is from 1 to 5. For children, we use the following algorithm:

I. I study part of my poem:

1. Reading together with a partner a new part.

2. We exchange impressions.

3. We work on each line: we read the line together, explain the words together, draw a word picture.

4. Read this part together again.

5. We exchange word pictures.

6. We tap the rhythm of the studied part.

7. I read a passage by heart.

II. I help my partner in his poem(on points 1-7).

III. Change partnerI read the learned parts of the poem by heart. Next, I work on points 1-7.

(It is clear that the study of poetry in pairs is only a link in a large chain of mastering literary texts, a link that ensures completeness in the aspect of mastering the text and generating one’s own images and meanings. Other methods and techniques must be provided for in this chain.)

Annex 2

Algorithm for studying the text according to Rivin's method

(option for elementary school)

We agree on whose text we will work on.

I. Work on your own text.

1. Read a new part of the text.

2. What did you learn from this part?

3. Explain incomprehensible words.

4. What words do you consider the main ones? Explain them.

5. Ask each other questions.

6. Give examples.

7. Who or what is this part about?

8. What does it say about this?

9. Give this part a title. Write the title in your notebook.

10. Write your partner's initials in the margin.

11. Retell the studied part.

II. Help your partner to study his part of the text.

Work on points 1-11.

III. Find a new partner.

Tell your partner the parts you learned.

Work with a partner on new part on points 1-11.

IV. Help your partner.

Listen to the parts of the text studied by your partner. Then work on points 1-11.

Annex 3

"Types of educational work in pairs"

I option.

Option I is based on a combination of frontal work as a leader and stops for discussion, clarification and verification in pairs. The lecturer presents part of the material, after which the students discuss in pairs the content of the material presented, completing the tasks of the teacher. Then the teacher presents the next part of the material, after which the students change their partner and work on understanding the second part. Below are the tasks for couples; if necessary, they can be used for subsequent frontal work.

A) discussion.

1. Expand the techniques of discussion in pairs.

2. Reproduce a diagram that captures the essence of the discussion, first compiling an algorithm for how you will discuss.

3. How is the discussion in a pair specific to the positions (roles) of students, the goals of the work, the subject and products of the activity?

B) Joint study.

1. Using the discussion algorithm, find out the essence of joint study.

2. Study the following paragraph with a partner:

“It is a fairly common phenomenon when caring teachers diligently improve the content of the taught subject, try to include interesting, curious, useful information in the program with the hope that this will arouse interest among students, and the interest shown will contribute to improving the quality of education. You can refer to many reputable teachers and scientists who admitted that this approach is practically ineffective.

After studying the paragraph in pairs, the lecturer organizes a group discussion of the received headings. See Appendix 4 for possible headings.

3. Compare your actions when performing the 1st task (discussion) and the 2nd (joint study).

4. How does joint learning differ from discussion in terms of the positions (roles) of students, the goals of the work, the subject and products of the activity?

C) training.

1. What is training? What components does it consist of? Give examples from your own practice.

2. Interpret the conditions necessary for mutual learning. Violation of what conditions have you observed in your own or someone else's practice?

3. What is the specificity of training (positions of students, goals of work, subject and product of activity)?

D) training.

1. What is mutual training for?

2. For what purpose should the didactic material for mutual training contain ready-made answers?

3. For what cases in your subject would mutual training be appropriate?

D) Verification.

1. Distinguish between mutual training and mutual verification according to what is the subject of activity of students in a pair.

2. Make an algorithm for working in pairs on mutual verification.

Tasks for the whole topic:

1. Compare entity different types pair work.

2. Restore the basic techniques of each type of work in pairs.

3. Make and fill out a table summarizing all types of work in pairs.

4. What is the purpose of the lecture being divided into parts?

5. Prepare your own speech in small group on the topic "Types of educational work in pairs."

II option.

Option II involves a combination of pair work as a leader and group work as an auxiliary. It is necessary to print fragments of the topic on separate sheets. Students who master any fragment of the topic change several partners and then summarize in a small group.

A) discussion.

In the first pair first, read the entire text “Discussion as a type of work in pairs”, then describe this type of work in pairs as a discussion point by point: 1) positions (roles) of students, 2) goals of work, 3) subject of activity, 4) work techniques, 5 ) results, products.

1. Reproduce a diagram that captures the essence of the discussion, first compiling an algorithm for how you will discuss it.

1. In your subject, what would you like students to discuss in pairs? Give examples.

2. Follow your work in pairs, namely: what moments of discussion did you have, what did you succeed in, and what should have been done differently in order to have a productive discussion?

B) Joint study.

In the first pair First, read the entire text "Joint study in pairs", then understand the diagram. Plan your text.

In the second pair study the next paragraph ... (the fragment is proposed in option 1, p. B). See Appendix 4 for possible headings.

2. Choose a small fragment from the textbook on any topic, the subject you teach. Make a plan for students to study the passage.

In the third pair “play” with your partner the plan you proposed for studying the fragment.

Tasks for work in a small group:

1. Track your work in pairs: what did you do well and what should have been done differently.

2. What texts can be offered to students for joint study in pairs? What preparatory work should be done first?

C) training.

In the first pair First, read the text “Training” in full, then describe this type of work in pairs as training on the points: 1) students’ positions, 2) work goals, 3) subject of activity, 4) work techniques, 5) results, products.

Task for work in the second pair:

1. Reproduce a diagram that captures the essence of learning.

2. Think of questions on the text that you will ask in the third pair.

Task for work in the third pair:

Ask questions in the second pair and answer your partner's questions.

Tasks for work in a small group:

1. Match the learning process presented in the text you are studying with the way you explain it to your students in class. What are the similarities and differences?

2. Develop an algorithm for learning some meaningful fragment in your subject.

Appendix 4

Possible headings for a paragraph proposed for study in pairs from Appendix 3:

1. The question of the role of interesting information included in the program in improving the quality of education.

2. About the gap between the ideas of caring teachers and the real effectiveness of their actions in terms of including interesting information in the program.

Literature

1. Arkhipova V.V. Collective organizational form of the educational process. St. Petersburg: Inters, 1995.
2. Dyachenko V.K. Collective way of learning. Didactics in dialogues. - M .: National education, 2004.
3. Karpinsky A.Yu. Organization of multi-age education in a non-class-lesson school; Gorlenko N.M., Klepets G.V. In the Ivanovo rural school they study without lessons // Public education. 2005. No. 1. S. 108-116.
4. Mkrtchyan M.A. and other Theory and technology of collective training sessions. Starting course: distance learning aid. - Krasnoyarsk: Grotesque, 2005.
5. Yarulov A.A. Organization of the implementation of individually-oriented curricula // School technologies. 2004. No. 3. S. 86-108.
6. Philosophical Dictionary / Ed. I.T. Frolova. – M.: Politizdat, 1991. - S. 74.
7. Gadamer H.-G. Truth and method. - M., 1988.
8. Gurina R.V. Frame schemes-supports as a means of intensifying the educational process // School technologies. - 2004. - No. 1. - S. 184-195.
9. Sinyakova G. Work in pairs: characteristics of a literary hero; Stolbova O.V. Literature lesson: the ability to ask questions // Rural school. - 2003. - No. 4. - S. 59-64.
10. Klarin M.V. Character traits research approach: learning based on problem solving // School technologies. - 2004. - No. 1. - S. 11-24.
11. Mkrtchyan M.A. Methods of organizing work in combined teams // www.kco-kras.com.
12. Litvinskaya I.G. The use of the Rivin technique in the study of poetry // Collective way of teaching. - 1995. - No. 1. - S. 28-32.

We put quotation marks only because until now a student who undertook to qualitatively teach another is perceived as nonsense, as something out of the ordinary.

Scheme of work in the lesson using paired learning technology

This scheme most fully reflects the essence of paired learning technology. In this case we have:

R- These are the students that make up the primary pair.

TO- according to the methodology, these are cards, or content. But, given the multivariance of tasks, it is more convenient to designate them as "a block of information that each student will work with."

dotted line additional participants are indicated. That is, those partners with whom the main ones in a pair will work after completing the main task.

Algorithm for working in pairs. This item is the main parameter for paired learning technology. The principle is that students do not just perform some task, but work precisely according to the proposed algorithm, which includes several points aimed at close communication.

Types of pairing algorithms for paired learning technology

• Coach and student. Here one student plays a supporting role. He does not teach, but simply acts as a coordinator. For example, with mutual dictation, he simply dictates the text.
• Mutual learning. The roles of "teacher" and "student" in a pair change.
• Cooperative learning. In such a pair, two equal students participate. In the lesson, they study the text together, a block of information, dividing it into its constituent parts.

Examples of tasks for working in pairs (cards)

1. Split paragraph text ( artwork) into several "pieces". On 1 card - part of the test, questions on this part. On the back of the card are practical tasks.
2. Terms and rules. On 1 side of the card is written the rule itself, the interpretation of the term, etc. On the reverse side - practical tasks.
3. Dictation. Dictation text (different on all cards). On the reverse side - practical tasks.
4. Picture, table on the topic, condition of the problem. Then there are questions that explain the essence of the task. On the reverse side - similar tasks, pictures, examples for self-study.

These are just some examples of cards. Each teacher himself can choose the algorithm of work and the content of the cards, based on the characteristics of the subject, topic and class abilities.

Preparation and implementation of a TVET lesson

• The teacher chooses a thematic cycle consisting of several blocks. For example, in mathematics lessons, you must complete the topic "Equations. Types of equations. Solving problems with equations" in 10 days. Or in a literature lesson for 5-7 lessons they should study.

The trick is that training will no longer take place in stages: from simple to complex, but immediately all topics will be studied simultaneously. Moreover, the students themselves will study them.

At the initial stage, one topic can be divided in this way for the time being.

• Having chosen a cycle, the teacher divides it into subtopics.
• Each student receives a separate homework - his subtopic. It can be a specific paragraph, a creative task, a practical research task. There are many options, and the choice of building depends on the level of development of students and their age.
• It is important that when completing the task, the student has the opportunity to use as many sources of information as possible: the Internet, literature, the media, parents, friends, professional communities, etc.

This is where the main difficulty of TPO lies. Of course, for beginners, it will be more convenient to set simpler tasks: learn a certain paragraph, write a mini-essay, create an infographic on a topic, a pivot table, etc. But ideally, it is desirable to ensure that students cover all sources of information as much as possible in preparation for the lesson and present their knowledge in the most convenient way.

• During the lesson, students are divided into pairs. Now one gets the role of "teacher", the other - "student". The task of the “teacher” is to teach your partner as accessible and complete as possible everything that he has prepared for the lesson. The “student” at this time makes up questions on the topic, clarifies information, etc. Then the "student" asks his questions, clarifies the information and performs the first test task. Then the members of the couple switch roles.
• After both participants have explained their part to each other, they exchange cards and complete tasks (on the back). Then follows the stage, grading and recording in the "accounting screen".
• Then the most interesting begins. The participants of the couple change partners (what was indicated by the dotted line in the diagram). Now the student must teach another partner. But only not to what he cooked at home, but to what he had just learned from his friend.

It is this moment that makes students prepare for lessons as efficiently as possible. After all, now for an unprepared lesson, he will not just receive a scolding from the teacher. He will let his classmate down, who can both laugh and express resentment. That is, a normal environment of healthy competition is being created: who can explain better, who is better prepared, and so on.

How to organize knowledge accounting

To monitor knowledge for each topic, an “accounting screen” is set up.

In the table for each student, two columns are allocated for each lesson. In the first - the score given by the partner in the pair. In the second column - the number of the participant of the pair according to the list. For example, Sidorova P. received a "4" in the first lesson, working in tandem with Petrova. "+" means that the student worked in tandem with the teacher.

Judging by this accounting screen, three lessons on the technology of paired learning have been held so far. At the same time, Petrova has already mastered all the material, while Polyakov and Mikhailov, on the contrary, are lagging behind. This makes it possible for the teacher not only to see the achievements and level of knowledge of each student, but also the opportunity to pair up in such a way that a strong student works behind. The teacher himself can sit in a pair with one of the students. For example, you can check the knowledge of those who finished work in the lesson before everyone else. Or vice versa, work individually with those who are lagging behind.

The screen is posted on the board. The student, having prepared the material, finds a partner who has already studied this material and works with it.

How to rate?

In theory, the grades in the lessons are set by the students themselves. The teacher evaluates only the final control on the topic.

But in practice, another option is more convenient: the teacher himself evaluates the students after working in pairs at each lesson. To do this, the first column can be divided into two more columns: the partner's score and the teacher's score. In this case, the teacher does not need to check each student at all. You can check selectively. But this approach will help develop a sense of responsibility. Students will no longer overestimate the marks “out of friendship”, because if the teacher finds gaps, the one who played the role of a mentor in this pair will be responsible for this. Such points are discussed in advance.

Some nuances of work on TVET

How to seat students?

To organize work in pairs, it is most convenient to use the scheme proposed by G. Gromyko.

This scheme is convenient in that the participants of the pair are as close as possible to each other, but at the same time they can hear other participants. Moreover, intersecting with members of other pairs, students form dynamic pairs.

Although, if you use the technology of paired learning only partially, to work in only one lesson, you can leave the usual arrangement of desks. At the same time, neighbors in the same desk are the main couple. And interchangeable partners are students sitting on a desk at the back.

How often to conduct TVET lessons?

The technology of paired learning can be used in any lesson, regardless of its type. Those who are just starting to master this technology can, for example, use paired learning techniques in each lesson, setting aside 15-20 minutes for this work. It is also desirable to start with the simplest algorithms.

What nuances need to be considered?

• Determine the exact time schedule: how many students will work in one pair, how many in shifts, etc.
• Will there be a change of partners in a pair? How many times? Beginners can stop for a while on permanent pairs and introduce interchangeable partners gradually.
• Think about what you will do with "fast" students. They can be connected to other couples in the form of consultants, you can offer more difficult tasks on a topic for individual work, involve in checking the results of written assignments, etc.

Practice has shown that the technology of paired learning allows even the weakest students to master knowledge faster and better. As proof, we can give an example of work, which, using paired learning, could “pull out” even the weakest class in a short time.

But the technology has been developed relatively recently. Therefore, I would like to hear the opinions of teachers who have already built their lessons based on the principles of paired learning. How effective was the work? What was the main difficulty? What other advice would you give to colleagues?

The concept of the form of education

The activity of students in mastering the content of education is carried out in various forms.

The Latin word forma means the external outline, appearance, structure of something. In relation to learning, the concept of "form" is used in two meanings: the form of learning and the form of organization of learning.

Form of study as a didactic category means the external side of the organization of the educational process. It depends on the goals, content, methods and means of training, material conditions, the composition of the participants in the educational process and its other elements.

There are various forms of training, which are subdivided according to the number of students, the time and place of training, the order of its implementation. There are individual, group, frontal, collective, pair, classroom and extracurricular, classroom and extracurricular, school and extracurricular forms of education. Such a classification is not strictly scientific, but allows some ordering of the variety of forms of education.

Individual form of educationinvolves the interaction of a teacher with one student.

IN group forms of educationstudents work in groups created on different bases.

Frontal form of educationinvolves the work of the teacher at once with all students at the same pace and with common tasks.

Collective form of educationdiffers from the frontal one in that students are considered as an integral team with their own characteristics of interaction.

When paired learning the main interaction takes place between two students.

Forms of education such as classroom and extracurricular, classroom And extracurricular, school and out-of-school associated with the venue.

Let us now consider what meaning is invested in the concept of "form of organization of learning", or "organizational form of learning". These concepts are considered as synonyms.

Form of organization of training- this is the design of a separate link in the learning process, a certain type of lesson (lesson, lecture, seminar, excursion, optional lesson, exam, etc.).

The classification of forms of organization of training is carried out by scientists for various reasons. For example, V.I. Andreeva lies the structural interaction of elements according to the dominant goal of learning. The author identifies the following forms of organization of training: introductory lesson; lesson on deepening knowledge; practical lesson; lesson on systematization and generalization of knowledge; lesson on the control of knowledge, skills and abilities; combined forms of classes .

V.A. Onishchuk subdivides the forms of organization of learning according to didactic purposes intotheoretical, practical, labor, combined .

A.V. Khutorskoy distinguishes three groups of forms of organization of learning: individual, collective-group and individual-collective classes.

to individualoccupations include tutoring, tutoring, mentoring, tutoring, family education, self-study.

Collective group lessonsinclude lessons, lectures, seminars, conferences, competitions, excursions, business games.

Individual-collective classes- these are immersions, creative weeks, scientific weeks, projects .

Preview:

Formation and improvement of forms of education

Forms of education are dynamic, they arise, develop, replace one another, depending on the level of development of society, production, and science. The history of world educational practice knows various systems of education in which the advantage was given to one form or another.

Even in primitive society there was a systemindividual training as the transfer of experience from one person to another, from the oldest to the youngest. However, a small number of students could be taught in this way. The further development of society required more literate people. Therefore, individual learning has been replaced by other forms of its organization. But individual learning has retained its significance to the present in the form of tutoring, tutoring, mentoring, tutoring.

Tutoring, As a rule, it is connected with the preparation of the student for passing tests and exams.

Tutoring and mentoringmore common overseas. These forms of education are able to provide a productive educational activity of the student. A mentor, understood as a student's adviser, his mentor, introduces individuality into the content of the subject being studied, assists in completing tasks, and helps to adapt in life. The tutor is the supervisor of the student. The functions of a tutor can be performed by teachers in preparing students for presentations at conferences, round tables and other scientific events.

Recently, such a form of family education as tutorship.

As the scientific knowledge and expanding access to education for a wider circle of people, the system of individual education has been transformed intoindividual-group.With individual-group teaching, the teacher worked with a whole group of children, but the educational work still had an individual character. The teacher taught 10-15 children of different ages, whose level of preparation was different. He in turn asked each of them the material they had covered, and also explained the new educational material to each individually, and gave individual tasks. Having finished working with the last student, the teacher returned to the first one, checked the assignment, outlined new material, gave the next task, and so on until the student, according to the teacher, mastered science, craft or art. The beginning and end of classes, as well as the terms of study for each student, were also individualized. This allowed students to come to school at different times of the year and at any time of the day.

Individual-group training, having undergone certain changes, has survived to this day. There are rural schools, usually primary ones, with a small number of students. In one class there can be two or three students who are engaged in the program of the first class, and several people - in the program of the second class.

In the Middle Ages, as the need for educated people conditioned by progressive socio-economic development, education is becoming more and more popular. There was an opportunity to select children of approximately the same age in groups. This led to the emergence classroom learning systems. This system originated in the 16th century. in the schools of Belarus and Ukraine and received a theoretical justification in the 17th century. in the book "Great Didactics" by Jan Amos Comenius.

This system is called classroom because the teacher conducts classes with a group of students of a certain age, which has a solid composition and is called a class. Lesson - since the educational process is carried out in strictly defined periods of time - lessons.

After Comenius, a significant contribution to the development of the theory of the lesson was made by K.D. Ushinsky.

The class-lesson system has become widespread in all countries and in its main features has remained unchanged for about four hundred years.

However, already in late XVIII in. the class-lesson system of education began to be criticized. The search for organizational forms of education that would replace the class-lesson system was associated mainly with the problems of quantitative enrollment of students and management of the educational process.

An attempt to reform the classroom system was made at the end of the 18th - beginning of the 19th century. English priest A. Bell and teacher J. Lancaster. They sought to resolve the contradiction between the need for a wider dissemination of elementary knowledge among workers and the maintenance of minimal costs for the education and training of teachers.

The new system is calledbell lancaster peer learning systemand was simultaneously applied in India and England. Its essence was that the older students, under the guidance of a teacher, first studied the material themselves, and then, having received appropriate instructions, taught their younger comrades, which ultimately made it possible to carry out mass training with a small number of teachers. But the very quality of education turned out to be low and therefore the Bell-Lancaster system was not widely used.

Scientists and practitioners have also made attempts to find such organizational forms of education that would remove the shortcomings of the lesson, in particular, its focus on the average student, the uniformity of content and the average pace of educational progress, the invariability of the structure, which hinders the development of cognitive activity and independence of students.

At the end of the XIX century. forms of selective education appeared -Batavian system in the USA and Mannheim in Western Europe. The essence of the first was that the teacher's time was divided into two parts: the first was devoted to collective work with the class, and the second to individual lessons with those students who needed them.

The Mannheim system, first applied in the city of Mannheim (Europe), was characterized by the fact that while maintaining the class-lesson system of education, students, depending on their abilities, level intellectual development and degrees of training were distributed among different classes.

Based on the principle of matching the workload and teaching methods to the real abilities and capabilities of children, the founder of this system, J. Zikkinger, proposed creating four types of classes: classes for the most capable, main classes for children with average abilities, classes for the incapable and auxiliary classes for the mentally retarded. Selection for such classes was based on psychometric measurements, teacher characteristics, and examinations. I. Zikkinger believed that students would be able to move from one type of class to another, but in practice this turned out to be impossible due to significant differences in educational programs.

In 1905 arose system of individualized education,first applied by the teacher Elena Parkhurst in Dalton (USA) and called dalton plan. This system is often referred to as the laboratory or workshop system. Its goal was to enable the student to learn at his optimum speed and at a pace appropriate to his abilities. Students in each subject received assignments for a year and reported on them in a timely manner. Traditional activities in the form of lessons were canceled, there was no single class schedule for all. For successful work students were supplied with all the necessary teaching aids, instructions, which contained guidelines. Collective work was carried out for one hour a day, the rest of the time the students spent in subject workshops and laboratories, where they studied individually. Experience has shown that most of them were unable to study independently without the help of a teacher. The Dalton plan was not widely used.

In the 1920s the Dalton plan was sharply criticized by scientists and practitioners of the school. At the same time, it served as a prototype for development in the USSRbrigade-laboratory training system,which practically replaced the lesson with its rigid structure. In contrast to the Dalton plan, the brigade-laboratory training system assumed a combination of the collective work of the entire class with the brigade (link) and individual work of each student. On the general lessons work was planned, tasks were discussed, the teacher explained difficult issues of the topic and summed up the overall activity. Determining the task for the team, the teacher set the deadlines for its implementation and the mandatory minimum of work for each student, individualizing the tasks if necessary. At the final conferences, the brigade leader, on behalf of the brigade, reported on the completion of the task, which, as a rule, was performed by a group of activists, while the rest were only present. Marks were exhibited the same for all members of the brigade.

For the brigade-laboratory system of organizing classes, which claimed to be universal, it was characteristic to diminish the role of the teacher, reducing his functions to periodic consultations of students. The reassessment of the educational abilities of students and the method of self-acquisition of knowledge led to a significant decrease in academic performance, the lack of a system in knowledge and the lack of formation of the most important general educational skills. In 1932, training in this system ceased.

In the 1920s in domestic schools also began to applyproject-based learning system (project method),borrowed from the American school, where it was developed by W. Kilpatrick. He believed that the basis of school programs should be the experimental activity of the child, connected with the reality surrounding him and based on his interests. Neither the state nor the teacher can develop a curriculum in advance; it is created by children together with teachers in the learning process and is drawn from the surrounding reality. The students themselves choose the topic of the project development. Depending on the specialization (bias) of the study group, it should reflect the socio-political, economic, industrial or cultural side of the surrounding reality. That is, the main task of the projects was to equip the child with tools for solving problems, searching and researching in life situations. However, the universalization of this method, the rejection of the systematic study of school subjects led to a decrease in the level of general education of children. This system is also not widely used.

In the 1960s of the last century became famous trump plan, named after its developer, American Professor of Pedagogy L. Trump. This form of organization of training involved a combination of classes in large classrooms (100-150 people) with classes in groups of 10-15 people and individual work students. 40% of the time was devoted to general lectures using various technical means, 20% to the discussion of lecture material, in-depth study of individual sections and the development of skills and abilities (seminars), and the rest of the time the students worked independently under the guidance of a teacher or his assistants from strong students. Classes under this system were abolished, the composition of small groups was unstable.

Currently, according to Trump's plan, only a few private schools are working, and only certain elements have taken root in the mass schools: teaching by a team of teachers of one subject (one lectures, others conduct seminars); involvement of assistants who do not have special education to conduct classes with a large group of students; organization of independent work in small groups. In addition to the mechanical transfer of the university system of education to the general education school, the Trump plan asserted the principle of individualization, which is expressed in providing the student with complete freedom in choosing the content of education and methods of mastering it, which was associated with the rejection of the leading role of the teacher and ignoring education standards.

In modern practice, there are other forms of organization of training. In the West there areungraded classes,when a student is studying in one subject according to the program of the seventh grade, and in another, for example, the sixth or fifth.

Experiments are underway to create open schools, where training takes place training centers with libraries, workshops, i.e. there is a destruction of the institute "school".

A special form of organization of training - dive, when for a certain period of time (one to two weeks) students master only one or two subjects. Training is organized in the same way. by era in Waldorf schools.

This is a brief history of the development of organizational forms of learning. The class-lesson system proved to be the most stable of all the listed forms of mass education. It is indeed a valuable achievement of pedagogical thought and advanced practice in the work of a mass school.

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Forms of organization of the educational process

The educational process can be organized in various ways. There is a whole range of forms of its organization: a lesson (in the classical sense), a lecture, a seminar, a conference, a laboratory-practical lesson, a workshop, an elective course, an excursion, course design, diploma design, industrial practice, home independent work, consultation, exam, test, subject circle, workshop, studios, scientific society, Olympiad, competition, etc.

In the modern domestic school, the lesson remains the main form of organization of education, which makes it possible to effectively carry out educational and cognitive activities of students.

Lesson - this is such a form of organization of the educational process in which the teacher organizes cognitive and other activities of a permanent group of students (class) for a precisely set time, using the types, means and methods of work that create favorable conditions for students to master the basics of the subject being studied, and also for the education and development of cognitive and creative abilities, spiritual forces of students.

In each lesson, its main components can be distinguished (explanation of new material, consolidation, repetition, testing of knowledge, skills), which characterize various types of teacher and student activities. These components can act in various combinations and determine the structure of the lesson, the relationship between its stages, i.e. its structure.

Under the structure of the lesson understand the ratio of the components of the lesson in their specific sequence and the relationship between them. The structure depends on the didactic goal, the content of the educational material, the age characteristics of the students and the characteristics of the class as a team. The variety of lesson structures implies a variety of their types.

There is no generally accepted classification of lesson types in modern didactics. This is due to a number of circumstances, primarily the complexity and versatility of the process of interaction between the teacher and students in the classroom. B.P. Esipov, I.T. Ogorodnikov, G.I. Shchukin classify lessons according to didactic purpose. The following lessons are highlighted:

1. familiarization of students with new material (message of new knowledge);

1. consolidation of knowledge;
2. development and consolidation of skills and abilities;
3. generalizing;

1. testing knowledge, skills and abilities (control lesson).

I.N. Kazantsev classifies lessons according to two criteria: content and method of delivery. According to the first criterion, mathematics lessons, for example, are divided into lessons of arithmetic, algebra, geometry and trigonometry, and within them - depending on the content of the topics taught. According to the method of conducting training sessions, excursion lessons, film lessons, self-study lessons, etc. are distinguished.

IN AND. Zhuravlev proposes to classify lessons depending on the components prevailing in them. At the same time, mixed (combined) and special lessons are distinguished. Combined in their structure contain all the components of the lesson. The structure of special lessons is dominated by one component. Special lessons include:

1. assimilation of new material;
2. fastening;
3. repetitions;
4. control, knowledge testing.

In addition to the lesson, as noted above, there are other organizational forms of learning.

Lecture is a special design of the educational process. The teacher throughout the lesson reports new educational material, and students actively perceive it. A lecture is the most economical way to convey educational information, as the material is presented in a concentrated, logically consistent form. Such an occupation allows improvisation, which enlivens it, gives it a creative character, focuses the attention of listeners, and arouses increased interest.

Depending on the didactic goals and place in the educational process, introductory, installation, current, final and review lectures are distinguished.

Depending on the method of implementation, there are:

1. informational lectures, during which the explanatory and illustrative method of presentation is used. This is the most traditional type of lecture in higher education;
2. problematic lectures involve the presentation of the material using problematic issues, tasks, situations. The process of cognition occurs through scientific research, dialogue, analysis, comparison of different points of view, etc.;
3. visual lectures involve the visual presentation of material by means of TSO, audio, video equipment, with brief commentary on the materials being demonstrated;
4. binary lectures (lecture-dialogue) provide for the presentation of the material in the form of a dialogue between two teachers, for example, a scientist and a practitioner, representatives of two scientific directions etc.;
5. provocative lectures are classes with pre-planned mistakes. They are designed to encourage students to constantly monitor the information provided and search for inaccuracies. At the end of the lecture, the students' knowledge is diagnosed and the mistakes made are analyzed;
6. lectures-conferences are held as scientific and practical classes with reports and speeches of the audience on a pre-set problem within the framework of curriculum. In conclusion, the teacher summarizes, supplements and clarifies the information, formulates the main conclusions;
7. lectures-consultations involve the presentation of the material in the form of "questions-answers" or "questions-answers-discussion".

Lectures are determined on other grounds:

1. according to common goals: educational, propaganda, propaganda, educating, developing;
2. by content: academic and popular science;
3. by impact: at the level of emotions, understanding, beliefs.

Structurally, a lecture usually includes three parts: introductory, main and final. In the introductory part, the topic is formulated, the plan and tasks are reported, the main and additional literature for the lecture is indicated, the connection with the previous material is established, the theoretical and practical significance themes. The main part reveals the content of the problem, substantiates key ideas and provisions, their concretization is carried out, connections, relationships are shown, phenomena are analyzed, an assessment is made of the current practice and scientific research, development prospects are revealed. In the final part, a summary is summarized, the main provisions are briefly repeated and summarized, conclusions are formulated, and answers to questions are given.

Seminar - a training session in the form of a collective discussion of the issues under study, reports, abstracts. The difference between seminars and other forms of education lies in the fact that they orient the trainees towards greater independence in the educational process. cognitive activity. During the seminars, students' knowledge, obtained as a result of independent extracurricular work on primary sources, documents, additional literature, is deepened, systematized and controlled, worldview positions are affirmed, value judgments are formed.

Depending on the method of conducting, there are several types of seminars.

The most common type is a seminar-conversation. It is conducted in the form of a detailed conversation according to the plan with a brief introduction and summing up by the teacher. It involves preparation for the seminar of all students on all issues of the plan, which allows you to organize an active discussion of the topic. On specific issues of the plan, speeches of individual students are heard, which are discussed and supplemented by other speakers.

Sometimes questions are pre-distributed among the participants of the seminar, they prepare reports, messages. Directly at the seminar, they are heard and discussed (seminar-hearing).

A special form of the seminar is the seminar-discussion. He assumes brainstorming any problem in order to find ways to solve it. The purpose of this seminar is to form value judgments, approval of worldview positions, development of the ability to debate, defend views and beliefs, concisely and clearly express one's thoughts.

Conference (training)- an organizational form of training aimed at expanding, consolidating and improving knowledge. It is carried out, as a rule, with several study groups.

Laboratory and practical classes, workshops- forms of organization of training, in which students, on the instructions and under the guidance of a teacher, perform laboratory and practical work. They are carried out in classrooms, laboratories, workshops, at educational and experimental sites, in student production plants by student production teams.

The main didactic goals of such classes are experimental confirmation of the studied theoretical positions; mastering the technique of experiment, the ability to solve practical problems by setting up experiments; the formation of skills to work with various devices, equipment, installations and other technical means.

These classes are also used to check the degree of assimilation of the theoretical material of major sections of the program.

Extracurricular activitiesprovide for an in-depth study of academic subjects at the choice and desire of students. They are aimed at expanding the scientific and theoretical knowledge and practical skills of trainees.

In accordance with educational goals electives are distinguished by:

1. in-depth study of basic academic subjects;

1. the study of additional disciplines (logic, rhetoric, foreign language);
2. the study of an additional discipline with the acquisition of a specialty (stenography, programming).

The focus of electives can be theoretical, practical or combined.

Excursion (training)- a form of organizing training in the conditions of production, a museum, an exhibition, a natural landscape with the aim of observing and studying by students various objects and phenomena of reality.

Depending on the objects of observation, excursions are divided into industrial, natural history, local history, literary, geographical, etc.

For educational purposes, excursions can be thematic and overview. Thematic excursions are conducted in connection with the study of one or more interrelated topics of the academic subject or several academic subjects (for example, physics and chemistry, biology and geography). Sightseeing tours cover a wider range of topics.

According to the place in the section under study, excursions are introductory (preliminary), current (accompanying) and final (final).

Any excursion is not an end in itself, but is included in the general system of educational work.

The development of the excursion form of education are expeditions - multi-day trips to study, for example, the environmental situation, collect historical information, folklore material, etc.

course designhow the organizational form of education is used in higher education at final stage study of the subject. It allows you to apply the acquired knowledge in solving complex production and technical or other problems related to the field of activity of future specialists.

According to the curricula and programs, students in educational institutions write course projects and term papers. Course projects are carried out in cycles of general scientific, mathematical and special disciplines. In the process of their preparation, students solve technical, technological and mathematical problems.

Coursework are carried out in humanitarian, general professional and special subjects. In the process of their preparation, students solve problems of an educational and research nature.

Diploma design- the organizational form used at the final stage of training in an educational institution. It consists in the implementation by students of graduation projects or theses, on the basis of the defense of which the State Qualification Commission makes a decision on awarding the qualification of a specialist to students.

Internship- one of the forms of organization of the educational process in higher education.

The didactic goals of industrial practice are the formation of professional skills, as well as the expansion, consolidation, generalization and systematization of knowledge through their application in real activities.

The structure of work practice depends on the content of practical training and, ultimately, should provide a holistic training of a specialist for professional activity, that is, the performance of the main professional functions of those positions in which this specialist can be used according to the qualification characteristics.

Home independent work- an integral part of the learning process related to extracurricular activities. The role of this type of educational activity is especially increasing at the present time, when before educational institutions the task was set to form students' need for constant self-education, skills of independent cognitive activity. Homework develops thinking, will, character of the student.

As a form of learning consultation is used to assist students in mastering educational material that is either poorly mastered by them or not mastered at all. Consultations are also held for students who are interested in an in-depth study of the subject. The consultations also set out the requirements for students in tests and exams.

There are individual and group consultations. Both types create favorable conditions for an individual approach to students.

Exam - a form of education aimed at systematization, identification and control of students' knowledge. The educational value of the exam is to mobilize and intensively develop the student's mental strength in an extreme situation.

Various forms of the exam are used: answering the questions of examination tickets, performing creative work, participating in competitions, defending the results of the study, testing, etc.

offset - a form of study, close in purpose to the exam. The test can also be viewed as a preparatory stage before the exam.

Subject mugsand other similar forms of education(workshops, laboratories, departments, studios)differ in great diversity both in direction and content, methods of work, training time, etc. The work of students in subject circles contributes to the development of their interests and inclinations, positive attitude to learning and improving its quality.

On the basis of circle work can be createdlearned societies(academies, etc.), which unite and correct the work of circles, conduct public events organize competitions and olympiads.

Competitions and Olympiadsstimulate and intensify the activity of students, develop their creative abilities, form the spirit of competition. Competitions and olympiads are held at various levels: school, regional, republican, international. Recently, many olympiads and competitions are held remotely using the Internet.

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Types of training

In work practice educational institutions relatively isolated, differing in a number of characteristics types of education have developed. Type of training - this is a generalized characteristic of learning systems, which establishes the features of teaching and learning activities; the nature of the interaction between the teacher and students in the learning process; functions of the means, methods and forms of training used.

The type of training is determinedpedagogical technology of education,underlying it (the content essence of pedagogical technologies will be considered in the lecture " Pedagogical technologies learning"). There are the following types of training: explanatory and illustrative, dogmatic, problematic, programmed, developing, heuristic, student-oriented, computer, modular, remote, interdisciplinary, etc.

Explanatory-illustrative (traditional, informing, usual)- training, in which the teacher, as a rule, conveys information in a finished form through a verbal explanation with the involvement of visualization, and the trainees perceive and reproduce it.

Dogmatic - training based on the acceptance of information without evidence, on faith.

problematic - training, in which, under the guidance of the teacher, an independent search activity of students is organized to solve educational problems. At the same time, they form new knowledge, skills and abilities, develop abilities, activity, curiosity, erudition, creative thinking and other personally significant qualities.

Educational - training that ensures the optimal development of students, in which the leading role is given to theoretical knowledge. At the same time, training is built at a fast pace and at a high level, the learning process proceeds consciously, purposefully and systematically.

heuristic - learning based on the basic principles of problem-based and developmental learning, which implies the success of the student's development through the construction and self-realization of a personal educational trajectory in a given educational space.

Learner-Centered- training in which educational programs and the educational process are aimed at each student with his inherent cognitive characteristics.

Computer - training based on the programming of teaching and learning activities, embodied in the control and training program for EMW, which allows for increased individualization, personification of the learning process through optimal feedback that provides information on the quality of assimilation of the content of education.

Modular - training that gives multifunctionality to the minimum didactic unit of educational information - a module that provides a holistic assimilation of the content of education.

Remote - training that allows you to achieve your goals with the help of modern telecommunications systems.

Interdisciplinary - training based on the study of integrated academic subjects, built on the implementation of inter-subject and intra-subject communications in related areas of knowledge.

Questions and tasks for self-examination

1. What is organizational learning?
2. What are the characteristics of the class-lesson form of organization of education?
3. What is the lesson structure?
4. Give examples of the use of various forms of organization of the educational process in the experience of innovative teachers.
5. What are the main types of education and their characteristic features?

Literature

Main

1. Pedagogy / Ed. Yu.K. Babansky. 2nd ed. M., 1988.

1. Podlassh I P. Pedagogy. New Deal: Textbook: In 2 books. Book. 1. M., 1999.

1. Khutorskoy A V. Modern didactics: Textbook. St. Petersburg, 2001.

Additional

1. Guzeev V.V. Methods and organizational forms of teaching. M., 2001.
2. Dyachenko V.K. Organizational structure of the educational process. M, 1989.
3. Ibragimov G. Forms of organization of education in pedagogy and school. Kazan, 1994.
4. Okon V. Introduction to general didactics. M., 1990.
5. Pedagogical search / Comp. I.N. Bazhenov. M, 1990

Under the forms of training, as noted above, we understand the types of organization of interaction between students and with the teacher in the course of one lesson, aimed at optimizing the educational process. In modern didactics, the classification of forms of education according to the number of students covered by the influence of the teacher and according to the nature of interaction into frontal, group and individual forms is widely used. There are other classifications as well. So, I.M. Cheredov distinguishes frontal, group, pair and individual forms of educational work. At the same time, the group form includes such types as: link, brigade, cooperative group, differentiated group (a detailed description is given in work 39 - see the bibl.). Individualized forms are considered as a special variety of individual forms of educational work. Consider what are the main forms of education and what are their advantages and disadvantages.

Frontal form of education- this is a type of activity of the teacher and students in the classroom, when all students simultaneously perform the same work common to all. This form of work has become widespread in schools and is used in all specific forms of organization of education. The prevalence of the frontal form of work is associated with its undoubted advantages. These include direct communication of the teacher with the whole class, when the teacher has an emotional impact on the group of students, while prompting reciprocal thoughts, feelings, experiences, actions. With frontal work, each student becomes in a position of responsible dependence before the class, learns to experience the successes or failures of the class, to provide each other with help and support in moving towards the goal. In addition, in joint educational activities, students, complementing each other, more thoroughly understand the educational material, penetrate deeper into its essence. This form of work requires high skill from the teacher, he must be able to manage a large group of students, plan their work, attract the attention of students of the whole class, include everyone in active cognitive activity, promptly provide feedback, tactfully make adjustments to the discussion of educational problems, etc. In this, he must see each child, organize the interaction of all students, enlist the help of the most capable students.

However, this form of work also has significant drawbacks, which lie in the fact that it is designed for the same preparedness of students, the same level of efficiency. Since this is not observed in real life, students of average abilities are placed in a privileged position compared to more capable and less capable students, thereby leveling students. As a result, a certain part of the students does not take an active part in collective work.

Individual form of education It consists in the fact that the student performs tasks independently, independently of his comrades, while using the help of the teacher directly or indirectly. The pace of work depends on the learning opportunities and the level of preparedness of the student. With such an organization, students perform tasks that are the same for the whole class. If students perform different tasks, compiled in accordance with their capabilities, then this form of learning is called individualized. In the pedagogical literature, a special system of tasks has been developed to implement this form of education: working with a textbook or additional literature, solving problems, examples, doing laboratory work, writing essays, essays, etc. Moreover, the degree of independence of students' individual work can be different, these can be tasks with a preliminary frontal analysis, according to the model, tasks according to detailed instruction cards, etc.

The individual form of work can be used at various stages of lessons of different types, as well as at other specific forms of organization of training (seminar, excursion, didactic game, etc.). This form of education makes high demands on the teacher, he must consider where and at what stage it is more expedient to organize the individual work of students, select tasks for independent work, and include students in their implementation. In addition, he must be able to exercise operational control and timely assistance to students who find it difficult, without harming the development of their independence.

For students, this form of education helps to acquire knowledge, skills and abilities more consciously and firmly, to form such personality traits as perseverance, purposefulness, independence. But it, like the previous form of education, has drawbacks. They lie in the fact that the student can withdraw into himself, he does not form a need for communication, conditions are created for the development of egoism. Therefore, along with the individual form of training, frontal and group forms should be used.

Group form of education consists in the fact that the class is temporarily divided into several groups, numbering from 3 to 6 people, depending on the content and nature of the work. As the main features of the group form of teaching students, P.I. Pidkasisty identifies the following: the class in this lesson is divided into groups to solve specific educational problems; each group receives a specific task (either the same or differentiated) and performs it together under the direct supervision of the group leader or teacher; tasks in the group are performed in such a way that allows to take into account and evaluate the individual contribution of each member of the group; the composition of the group is not permanent, it is selected taking into account that the educational opportunities of each member of the group can be realized with maximum efficiency for the team.

The principles of combining students into a group can be: student compatibility; different levels of training, but at the same time, half of the group should be students who can work independently; interest in this subject and different extracurricular awareness of the subject.

The group form of education is subdivided into link, brigade, cooperative group and differentiated group. The link form of educational work involves the organization of educational activities of permanent groups of students. In the brigade form, the activities of temporary groups of students are organized to perform certain tasks. In the cooperative-group form, the class is divided into groups that perform part of a common voluminous task. With a differentiated group form, groups are selected by the teacher depending on the learning abilities of students.

Group forms of education can be used in lessons of various types and other specific forms of organization of education in order to study new educational material, improve knowledge, and apply them in typical and changed situations. Working in groups is also important from an educational point of view, it teaches students to work in a team, to act in a coordinated and harmonious manner. V.V. Kotov, who studied the group activity of students in the lesson, showed that it consists of the following elements:

Preliminary preparation of students for the implementation of a group task, setting educational tasks, a brief briefing of the teacher.

Discussion and drawing up a plan for the implementation of a training task in a group, determining ways to solve it (indicative activity), distribution of responsibilities.

Implementation work learning task.

Supervision of the teacher and adjustment of the work of the group and individual students.

Mutual verification and control over the performance of the task in the group.

The report of students on the call of the teacher about the results obtained, the general discussion in the class under the guidance of the teacher, additions and corrections, additional information from the teacher and the formulation of final conclusions.

Individual assessment of the work of groups and the class as a whole.

As well as the frontal and individual organization of the work of students, the group form of education makes high demands on the teacher. He must know well the methods of organizing a group form of education, be disciplined, direct and correct the learning activities of students, regulate the pace of work, regulate the interaction of students with each other, be an arbitrator in a dispute, etc.

The group form of education has not only positive aspects, but also disadvantages. These include difficulties in recruiting groups and organizing work in them, in addition, students sometimes experience difficulties in working independently. Therefore, only in combination with each other, various forms of training will have a positive effect.

Collective way of learning (pair work). This form of education was justified by V.K. Dyachenko, who defines it as such an organization of learning, in which it is carried out through communication in dynamic pairs, when everyone teaches everyone. The structure of the collective way of learning includes: 1) individual-isolated classes; 2) work in pairs of constant composition (static pairs); 3) group training sessions in all their varieties; 4) collective training sessions or communication in dynamic pairs. Pair work is used in the following forms: a static pair, which unites two students at will, changing the roles of "teacher" - "student"; such pairs can combine both two strong and two weak pupil, or strong and weak subject to mutual arrangement; a dynamic pair includes four students performing a common task that has four parts; after preparing his part of the task and self-control, the student discusses the task three times with each partner, and each time he must change the logic of presentation, pace, etc., depending on the individual characteristics of his comrades; a variational pair in which each member of the group receives his task, performs it, analyzes it together with the teacher, conducts mutual training according to the scheme with the other three comrades, as a result, everyone learns four parts of the educational material.

Only in combination with each other, various forms of education will have a positive effect.

ABOUT

“FOE is a historically established, stable and logically completed organization of the pedagogical process, which is characterized by systematic and integral components, self-development, personal-activity character, constancy of the composition of participants, the presence of a certain mode of conduct”