BIOSYSTEM - a system consisting of the same type of living substance: macromolecules, cellular structures, cells themselves, tissues, organs, their systems, an individual, an individual.[ ...]

A biosystem is a particular type of the most complex systems built on the basis of protein compounds. Therefore, a systematic approach in ecology is very popular.[ ...]

The biosystem has several levels of organization: the first - genes and the genetic systems determined by them; the second - cells and the cellular systems they make up; the next level is organs and organ systems; then - organisms and systems of organisms, populations and population systems, communities and ecosystems.[ ...]

Biosystems are biological systems in which biotic components of different levels of organization (from genes to communities) interact in an orderly manner with abiotic components (energy and matter), forming a single whole with the surrounding physical environment. Biosystems of different levels are studied by different disciplines: genes - genetics, cells - cytology, organs - physiology, organisms - ichthyology, microbiology, ornithology, anthropology, etc.[ ...]

It is believed that in a biosystem, in contrast to technical systems, the redundancy of functioning elements is achieved not only by a simple increase in the totality of little reliable elements, but also by their sequential functioning. With a high load on the system, an additional number of "resting" elements goes into the active state, so the task of redundancy in the physiological sense is not to maintain a high level of system functioning during overloads, but to provide its elements with a mode that excludes their irreversible violation (Fedorov, 1988).[ ...]

Each level of the biosystem is characterized by its own, only inherent properties, and in addition, it has the sum of the properties of its component subsystems. The well-known principle of the weightlessness of the properties of the whole to the sum of the properties of its parts should be well remembered when studying ecology.[ ...]

Ecology is the study of biosystems, including life at a level above organisms. Biosystems, which are the object of study by ecologists, were called ecosystems (A. Tansley, 1935); sometimes they are called biogenocenosis (V.N. Sukachev, 1945). Ecosystem is one of the fundamental concepts in ecology. As you know, in a broad sense, a system is usually understood as a set of elements that are in certain relationships and connections with each other, as a result of which the integrity and unity of the set is formed.[ ...]

Violations of homeostasis in biosystems, possible reasons and consequences.[ ...]

The most important factor in ensuring the reliability of a biosystem is its structural and functional heterogeneity. This is general position, which no longer requires a special proof. It is likely that there are special mechanisms for maintaining the heterogeneity of biosystems. Heterogeneity is the result of the variability (lability) of cells and organisms. One of the reasons for cellular heterogeneity is the ambiguity of matrix processes (replication, transcription, translation), which can be carried out polyvariantly, i.e. in several ways (Inge-Vechtomov, 1977). Due to the heterogeneity of messenger RNA molecules and subsequent polyvariant translation, protein polymorphism arises. This is an important factor in molecular selection in the processes of self-assembly of cellular structures.[ ...]

The rule of equivalence in the development of biosystems: biosystems are able to reach the final (final) state (phase) of development, regardless of the degree of violation of the initial conditions of their development.[ ...]

The human body is open to environment a biosystem whose most important strategic task is to maintain homeostasis, which is associated with the normal functional state of its recognition systems. In relation to biological factors, such a system is the immune system. A decrease in the immunological reactivity of the organism due to the impact of a deformed habitat, as well as a general reactivity contributes to the occurrence of purulent-inflammatory processes caused by opportunistic microbes, the possibility of sensitization of the body, the formation of a plasmid bank, mutagenic effects, etc.[ ...]

At the same time, the population also has similarities with the body as a biosystem, since it has a certain structure, integrity, a genetic program for self-reproduction, the ability to autoregulate and adapt, and its own collective material and energy economy. Populations are the real units of biomonitoring, exploitation and protection natural ecosystems. The interaction of people with species of organisms that are in the environment, in the natural environment or under the economic control of man, is mediated, as a rule, through populations. These can be strains of pathogens or beneficial microorganisms, varieties of cultivated plants, breeds of farmed animals, natural populations of commercial fish, etc. No less important is the fact that many patterns of population ecology apply to human populations.[ ...]

The biotic environment of an ecosystem is a hierarchically organized biosystem that preserves itself and develops in the direction of achieving a dynamic balance. In this sense, diseases can be seen as a factor that brings the system into balance. The biotic part of any ecosystem consists of three main functional links: land plants in the process of photosynthesis create from not organic matter primary production; plant mass serves as food for animals; bacteria, fungi - and the profits decompose dead organic residues to the simplest inorganic substances and return them to the abiotic environment.[ ...]

Almost all regularities characteristic of living things have an adaptive value. Biosystems are forced to adapt to continuously changing living conditions. These changes have a different time scale - from evolutionary to momentary. In the ever-changing environment of life, each species of organisms is adapted in its own way. This is expressed by the rule of ecological individuality: each species is specific in terms of ecological adaptation possibilities, two identical species do not exist. The rule was formulated by L. G. Ramensky in 1924. It is a direct consequence and at the same time the cause of genetic diversity. In fact, each individual is ecologically genetically specific and individual. The difference is only in quantitative indicators.[ ...]

Preservation of the species richness of ornithocenoses is necessary for the functioning of the entire biosystem of the city and the realization of the possibilities of using bioindication methods. Spontaneous development and transformation of water bodies should be replaced by scientifically substantiated and systematic reconstruction of natural sites included in urban development plans along with the formation of semi-natural natural complexes in urban landscapes.[ ...]

These are examples of repetitive protection of plant systems, which is based on the different stability of its elements. The reliability of the biosystem in these cases is achieved due to the activation of some (new) elements after the failure of others.[ ...]

All of the above patterns of self-regulation of cenoses are generalized in the form of the principle of stability: any relatively closed biosystem with a flow of energy passing through it develops towards a stable state during self-regulation. This principle is typical not only for cenoses of the lower level of the hierarchy, but also for the biosphere as a whole. This will be mentioned in sect. 3.10. We will briefly return to the principle of stability again at the end of Sec. 3.8.3. What is important here is that the cenosis tends to normal “energy conduction” with the help of mechanisms that are generalized in the rules (principles) of ecological duplication, equivalence, mobile equilibrium, production optimization, and, probably, others that have not yet been discovered by researchers.[ ...]

Living organisms and their non-living (abiotic) environment are inextricably linked with each other and are in constant interaction. Any unit (biosystem) that includes all co-functioning organisms (biotic community) in a given area and interacts with the physical environment in such a way that the energy flow creates well-defined biotic structures and the circulation of substances between living and non-living parts is an ecological system, or ecosystem .[ ...]

Shelford W. E. (1877-1968) - American scientist. He formulated the law of tolerance (1913), which in its modern interpretation says: the limiting factor for the prosperity of a biosystem can be either a minimum or a maximum of the environmental factor; the range between the minimum and maximum determines the tolerance of the biosystem to this factor.[ ...]

As noted in the National Strategy for Biodiversity Conservation of Russia, the task of biodiversity conservation should be solved within the framework of the highest level in relation to biosystems - the socio-ecosystem level, which includes the socio-economic and natural subsystems. The sustainable existence of a socio-ecosystem is possible only in the case of the normal development of all its parts. Ignoring the development needs of both socio-economic and natural components leads to a general crisis and degradation of both society and nature.[ ...]

The “RAST” system allows to achieve a significant reduction in BOD and COD, as well as discoloration, the presence of carbon protects the biomass from poisoning, while the biosystem allows the release of activated carbon adsorption centers by assimilation of “organics” from it. Activated carbon adsorbs and retains light hydrocarbons and aromatic compounds, eliminating their evaporation during aeration.[ ...]

Usually, systems with up to a thousand connections (O 6) are very complex. All real natural biosystems are very complex.[ ...]

The principle of feedback in ensuring self-regulation of biological systems at different levels of organization. The multiplicity of stationary states of biosystems, self-oscillating processes in biosystems.[ ...]

Throwing the bridge from sec. 3.2.2, where it was said about the general patterns of internal development of systems, one should recall the law of complication of system organization as applied to organisms (biosystems), as well as the law of unlimited progress for biological structures. These are the rules for the development of biosystems, as it were, from within, outside the environment of life.[ ...]

The greatest generalization was the work of E. N. Bukvareva, which provides a theoretical and experimental justification for the existence of an interval of the optimal level of diversity as corresponding to the maximum cumulation of energy in a biosystem. Thus, the concept of biodiversity has acquired an energy measure, evidence-based ideas about the critical and optimal points of the biodiversity level that characterize the stability of biosystems have appeared (Figure 1.1.1). It became possible to measure the state of the system and the results of the impact on it.[ ...]

Finally, the fifth biocenotic postulate of V. Tishler - the limitations of the system's functioning are due to external conditions, and not internal prerequisites - is again dialectically contradictory. These external conditions are often prepared by the biosystem itself. Here, as it seems, too much emphasis is placed on the organismic paradigm, the isolation of the cenosis is exaggerated. In fact, it is both a closed and an open system. Material-energy, and partly biocenotically, it is open (with one or another degree of accessibility), but at the same time it has the property of a dynamic quality of isolation (for alien species), forms its own bioenvironment, it determines the limits of reproduction of certain species (coordinated their pressure on the environment). In general, cenosis is a self-developing system, limited by external conditions and internal prerequisites. In this regard, the fifth biocenotic postulate can rather be accepted in the following formulation: the limitations of the functioning of the cenosis are formed as a result of the interaction of external and internal limits of its development.[ ...]

All changes in the properties of water characterize it as a direct participant in bioprocesses and, as a result, lead to the regulation of "independent" biochemical processes of ionic transformations in tissues and organs. The bulk of water in biosystems practically does not differ in properties from ordinary water. An analysis of the state of water in biological objects has shown that in order to describe the functioning of biological systems and explain the observed effects, there is no need to involve ideas about some specific structure of water in biological objects, although it is difficult to determine the characteristics of water associated with biological structures due to the continuous exchange of fractions of free and bound water. At present, the electromagnetic absorption spectrum of the water component in the infrared region of the spectrum has been best studied, where the main spectral absorption bands have been identified.[ ...]

Systems are conditionally classified by complexity as follows: systems with up to a thousand states (O 6) are classified as very complex. All real natural biosystems are very complex. Even in the structure of a single virus, the number of biologically significant molecular states exceeds the latter value. There is another criterion of complexity associated with the behavior of the system, its response to external influences. If the system is capable of an act of decision, i.e. to the choice of behavioral alternatives (including with the help of a random mechanism), then such a decision system is considered complex. Any system that includes at least one subsystem as a subsystem will also be complex. solver system.[ ...]

It has now been established that there is a connection between preparing earthquakes and geomagnetic field variations, which, as a rule, are very small (1-1.5 nT, frequencies 1-10 Hz) and it is difficult to distinguish them at the level of instrumental noise. However, some biosystems, such as the circulatory system of rabbits, are sensitive to very small changes in magnetic fields, with an intensity of about 0.02-2 nT at a frequency of about 8 Hz.[ ...]

Therefore, we cannot agree with the assertion that a change in temperature in the tolerant region is sufficient for the body to acquire additional stability. This provision contradicts even the formal definition of the latter as a set of conditions under which the state of the biosystem is maintained by homeostatic regulatory mechanisms. It seems to us that a shift in body temperature by 10-15° from the optimum first leads to a violation of homeostasis, an abrupt change in metabolism and an increase in stability (stress), and then an acclimatization process develops.[ ...]

It is no coincidence that, therefore, manuals on ecology appear, written from fundamentally different positions. In some, it is interpreted as a modern natural history, in others - as a doctrine of the structure of nature, in which specific species are considered as forms of transformation of matter and energy in a biosystem, in others - as a doctrine of populations, in fourths - as a field of science that does not belong to only to nature, but also to human society, since the opened biological patterns turned out to be applicable to him.[ ...]

In this aspect, the process of vital activity of biological objects under conditions of continuous exchange of matter, energy and information with the environment should be considered. A significant influence of one or another exchange on the life process can be expected when it organically fits into the own parameters of the biosystem.[ ...]

The discussion of the applicability of the second law to living systems has been an entire era. It significantly expanded the horizons of thermodynamics itself, including non-equilibrium thermodynamics of important biophysical and biochemical processes, but did little to understand the behavior of integral biological systems. The fact is that real biosystems in nature are essentially open, heterogeneous, non-linear, non-stationary and far from thermodynamic equilibrium. The combination of these properties is beyond the applicability of the second law of thermodynamics, even with its latest extensions1. This also makes it difficult to apply the concepts of entropy and information in describing common properties biological systems.[ ...]

The inhibitory effect of the magnetic field has been noted by many researchers. As in use electric field, the effect depends on the regime of magnetic field exposure. Depending on the parameters of electromagnetic fields, a stimulating or depressing effect is observed. In some cases electromagnetic fields do not affect biosystems.[ ...]

These conditions are also changed by the biosystem itself, forming the bioenvironment of its own existence. This property of biosystems is formulated in the form of the law of maximum biogenic energy (entropy) by V.I. Vernadsky - E.S. while developing rationally, it increases its impact on the environment. The pressure grows until it is strictly limited by external factors (supersystems or other competitive systems of the same hierarchy level), or an evolutionary-ecological catastrophe occurs. It may consist in the fact that the ecosystem, following the change of a higher supersystem as a more labile formation, has already changed, while the species, subject to genetic conservatism, remains unchanged. This leads to a long series of contradictions leading to an anomalous phenomenon: the destruction of a species' own habitat (the feedback that regulates the activity of the species in the ecosystem does not work, and the population mechanisms are partly disorganized). In this case, the biosystem is destroyed: the species dies out, the biocenosis undergoes destruction and changes qualitatively.[ ...]

Ecology (oikos - dwelling, logia - science) as a science of the structure and function of nature has been developing since the beginning of the 20th century. It explores the relationship and interdependence of humans and other biological species with the environment, rational use natural wealth and expanded reproduction of biological resources. The object of its study is biosystems (biological and abiotic components) that are formed, functioning (living) and decaying (dying) at all levels of life: genes (genetic systems), cells (cellular systems), organs (organ systems), organisms (systems of organisms). ), populations (population systems), communities (ecological systems). A population is a people, a group of people, a group of individuals of any kind of organisms. Organism, organ, cell and gene are the main levels of life organization. The community includes all populations and individual biological species and characterizes life in all its diversity. Interaction with the environment (energy, matter) at each level creates a functional ecosystem, the main object of study of modern ecology. Optimization of ecosystems at all levels of life, as well as the entire ecosystem of the Earth is the main task of environmental science.[ ...]

Although it is clear that the living is inseparable from the environment, and all three listed regularities seem to ignore this connection, such an inevitable reductionism is acceptable. AT individual development its predestination is almost absolute. If living systems do not perish, they have the property of finite equivalence, which is formulated in the form of the corresponding rule by L. von Bertalamffy (30s of our century). The equivalence rule in the development of biosystems states that biosystems are able to reach the final (final) state (phase) of development, regardless of the degree of violation of the initial conditions of their development. Once again, it should be emphasized that this happens only while maintaining a minimum of external and internal conditions for the existence of a biosystem.[ ...]

However, experimentally in a biological system it is not possible to find out which of the two causes of fluctuations is the main one. Chaotic behavior within a certain area looks the same regardless of the reasons that cause it. Moreover, their practical clarification is often not very important. In the first approximation, for the study of transient processes, it is also not essential whether the state of the system is displayed by a point or a small area. The main thing is that the chaotic behavior of the biosystem is expedient from the point of view of the adaptation process. Chaotization of functional properties contributes to the tracking of external conditions by the biosystem and adaptation to them.[ ...]

Although weak stimuli are not perceived on the basis of the “nothing” principle, the stronger the stimulus, the more difficult it is to quantify it subjectively; this provision is called the law of subjective quantitative assessment of the stimulus by E. Weber - G. Fechner. The more contrasting the background, the easier it is to catch and evaluate the stimuli when they are weak, but strong sources of stimulus may no longer give the effect of a difference in perception. The law determines the sufficiency of the development of some trait (the brightness of the color of males in sexual selection, etc.). Apparently, in the theory of information, when applied to biosystems and ecology, there are significant gaps in the knowledge of the operation of this law. There is large field for future research. So far, there are practically no empirical data from the point of view of the generalization under discussion. In any case, they are not known to me.[ ...]

Abiological tendencies, which are understood as such features of a person's lifestyle as physical inactivity, smoking, drug addiction, and others, are also the cause of many diseases - obesity, cancer, cardiac diseases, etc. environment, when useful forms of the human living environment are destroyed along with the harmful ones. This is due to the fact that in medicine there is still a misunderstanding of the important role in the pathology of supraorganismal forms of the living, that is, the human population. Therefore, a big step forward is the concept of health developed by ecology as a state of a biosystem and its closest connection with the environment, while pathological phenomena are considered as adaptive processes caused by it.[ ...]

From a religious point of view, the conservation of ecosystem biodiversity seems to be a problem of the moral "meaningful" foundations of people's lives. Here, a person either recognizes through repentance the evil he has done to nature, pacifies his pride and accepts his position in nature as the position of a part of the system-wide socio-natural ensemble, or still considers himself the Human God, the crown, the king of nature and at the same time rapes her (“his mother”) to suit your current needs. The religious side of the problem of biodiversity boils down to an ideological dilemma: either nature is holy because it was created by God and man is only its systemic element, obliged to reckon with the biosystem and be responsible for his actions due to his special role in it as a rational being; or not, nature does not have any sacred features, being a source of material resources serving man as a master, sovereign of nature. A conciliatory system of views on nature, determined by theistic (religious) attitude and atheistic (materialistic) attitude, is the concept of pantheism: nature is not holy in itself, it is a source not only of resources, but also of goodness, beauty, patterns of behavior, knowledge. This point of view of our contemporaries is held, for example, by N. N. Moiseev.[ ...]

The hierarchical approach provides a convenient basis for subdivision and study difficult situations or wide gradients. As Novikov (1945) pointed out, the evolution of the Universe is characterized by both continuity and discreteness. Development can be viewed as a continuous process, since it consists of endless change, but at the same time this process is discrete, since development passes through a number of individual levels of organization. Thus, the division of a staggered series, or hierarchy, into components is in many cases artificial, but sometimes such a division may be based on natural discontinuities. Since each level in the spectrum of a biosystem is "integrated", that is, interconnected with other levels, there are no sharp boundaries or gaps in the functional sense. They are not even between the organism and the population. For example, an organism isolated from a population cannot live long, just as an isolated organ cannot survive for a long time as a self-sustaining unit without its own organism. In a similar way, a community cannot exist if there is no circulation of substances in it and no energy enters it. The same argument can be used to refute the misconception already mentioned that human civilization can exist independently of the natural world.[ ...]

Coherent water domains must be able to communicate with each other due to the Josephson effect and sensitive to individual quanta magnetic flux(2.0710 15Wb). Magnetic flux quantization is a fundamental property of coherence in a magnetic field. In passive physical systems, the necessary coherence and long-term ordering is achieved only within the limits of absolute temperature. In laser and living systems, coherence is achieved through dynamic processes. However, water can be coherent in the ground state, while the laser is in the excited state. If a living system is capable of sensing magnetic field quanta, then the Josephson effect is also applicable to it, since its basis lies in the quantization of the magnetic flux. Examples of the manifestation of this effect in biosystems are presented in the work.[ ...]

Less obvious is the law formulated by G. F. Khilmi, which has remained almost unnoticed by the scientific community, for the depletion of heterogeneous living matter (biota) in its island concentrations. In the author's interpretation: "an individual system operating in ... an environment with a level of organization lower than the level of the system itself is doomed: gradually losing its structure, the system will dissolve in the environment after some time"1. Other names for this generalization are the principle of organizational degradation and the law of dissolution of a system in an alien environment (Sec. 3.5.2). In fact, this is a system-wide law. It is closely related to the law of optimality and largely reflects the thermodynamics of a small system in an alien environment. Here we return to it again, focusing on biota, since the artificial conservation of ecosystems of only a small size (in a limited area, for example, during conservation) leads to their gradual destruction and does not ensure the conservation of species and their communities. The higher the difference between the level of organization of the island biosystem and its environment, the faster the biota degradation occurs. At the same time, all other components of the ecosystem are changing, so it is almost impossible to preserve the island biota isolated in small areas under any conditions over a long period of time.[ ...]

The second meaning is much broader. As often happens, the study of an extremely topical phenomenon of wildlife becomes not only the object of attention of naturalists, but also the subject of discussion of the widest layers of people, the media, politicians, cultural figures and educators. This means that ecosystems become an element public consciousness. This predetermined the rapid expansion of the subject field of ecosystem problems and their study. It clearly acquires the features of a social, cultural, religious and political phenomenon. Man cannot jump out of nature,” and nature cannot do without man. Therefore, we are talking about the life of people in ecosystems, and not about survival; about the preservation of ecosystems of their systemic properties in the technogenic civilization of people. Biosystems and sociosystems can no longer live separately. They are doomed to co-exist.

The whole world around us is a combination of natural factors and anthropogenic impact that exist and change throughout the history of mankind. Entropy breaks this world, but it continues to exist in dynamic equilibrium. In a state that is very easy to disturb, and in this case, biosystems will suffer first of all. What is a biosystem in biology, what are its levels and components - the topic of this article.

Academic terms

The system combines functional elements that are interconnected and perform one function as a whole. A biological system is a set of ordered, interacting and interdependent living things. structural elements. They form a single whole as a system of steps flowing from one another and performing a joint function.

Foundation and superstructure of life

The ability of all living things to create order from the chaotic thermal movement of atoms and molecules is the most amazing and profound feature of life. The fundamental properties of life in biology are considered to be: the ability of the living to self-regulation, self-reproduction and self-renewal. The superstructure or necessary attributes of life include metabolism in the body and with the environment (nutrition, excretion and respiration), movement, irritability according to the feedback principle, adaptability, growth and development in the process of ontogenesis.

Basic properties of a biosystem

The main properties include:

• Unity of functionality (biochemical, physiological).
• Integrity (the sum of elements is not equal to the properties of the system).
• Stepping (the system consists of subsystems).
• Adaptation (ability to change based on the feedback principle).
• dynamic stability.
• The ability to develop and self-reproduce.

Organization levels

Living matter forms homogeneous systems with its own type of element interactions, spatial and temporal scale of processes. These homogeneous biosystems take their place in the system of living matter. There are eight main levels of biosystems:

• molecular;
• cellular;
• fabric;
• organ;
• ontogenetic or organismal;
• population and species;
• ecosystem or biogeocenotic;
• biospheric.

Unity of life

All levels flow into one another, are included in each other, intertwined into the unity of all life on the planet. They symbolize the diversity of life forms and represent units of matter with their own specific processes and manifestations. Life arose, exists and changes in integral biosystems. What are biosystems - they are open systems capable of growth and development, dynamically stable and self-reproducing. Whereas non-living systems are closed, static and prone to degradation.

The study of the organization of biosystems

The description of the organization of such systems includes the allocation of subsystems or components of the biosystem. Further, all aspects of the existence of biosystems are explored, namely:

• Structure. The analysis of the organization of the structure is carried out using the classification method - a multi-stage and sequential division of the population to obtain knowledge about the composition, connections and structure of the system.
• Functional. Studying the functional structure involves determining the function that each component of the system performs throughout the process.
• Basic properties of biosystems. This is an indicator of the essence of the system in relations with others, their natural relationships.

According to this scheme, we describe the most important examples of biosystems.

The cell is an elementary example of a biosystem

The structural component of this biosystem is the membrane apparatus, cytoplasm, organelles and nucleotide (nucleus). The base level is molecular. The functional component of this system is the coordinated work of all structures. The main properties will be determined by the structural and functional specifics of the cytoplasmic membrane, cytoplasm, organelles and nucleus.

The body as a biosystem

At this level, regulatory systems and adaptive abilities come to the fore as a mechanism for maintaining integrity and order in conditions of changing living conditions. The structural organization is different (from non-nuclear, unicellular to multicellular) and the most diverse. The base level is a cell. Functional features: differentiation of cells, tissues, organs implies more complex levels of structural composition; interdependence of differentiated elements from each other; integration and internal communications of subsystems. The main properties at this level will be the general complication and diversity of the properties of living matter. For example, the property of matter to reproduce its own kind at this level is represented by asexual, sexual and vegetative reproduction.

Population-species level

What is a biosystem at this level is a unit of the evolutionary process as the driving force behind the emergence of the entire diversity of life on Earth. It is in the key of the evolutionary teaching that this level becomes fundamental. A species as a collection of organisms that has external and internal similarities, freely interbreeding with each other (for panmictic species) and giving fertile offspring, living in a certain area for a rather long period of time and having common phylogenetic ancestors - that's structural unit this level. Functional component: individual adaptive potential of an individual, intraspecific competition and natural selection. A species is a closed system in the genetic aspect. After all, it is the threshold of non-crossing with representatives of other species that gives organisms species specificity.

Biosphere - global ecosystem

Another example of what a biosystem is is the biosphere as a system of the highest order. structural component- biotic (living organisms and their metabolic products) and abiotic (chemical components and physical conditions). The elementary unit of the structure is biogeocenosis. The functional aspect is the circulation of substances in nature, the presence of biochemical cycles, which are characterized by openness and isolation. The main functions of the biotic component are redox, concentration and gas. Basic properties - properties

A biosystem is a complex network of biologically relevant organizations, from global to subatomic. the illustration reflects multiple nesting systems in nature - populations of organisms, organs and tissues. On the micro- and nanoscale, examples of biological systems are cells, organelles, macromolecular complexes, and regulatory pathways.

The body as a biosystem

In biology, an organism is any adjacent living system along with animals, plants, fungi, protists, or bacteria. All known types of creatures on Earth are able to respond to stimuli to some extent, reproduce, grow, develop and self-regulate (homeostasis).

An organism as a biosystem consists of one or more cells. Most single-celled organisms are on a microscopic scale and therefore belong to microorganisms. Humans are made up of many trillions of cells grouped into specialized tissues and organs.

The multitude and diversity of biological systems

Quantity estimates modern species Earths range from 10 to 14 million, of which only about 1.2 million have been officially documented.

The term "organism" is directly related to the term "organization". The following definition can be given: it is an assembly of molecules functioning as a more or less stable whole, which exhibits the properties of life. An organism as a biosystem is any living structure, such as a plant, animal, fungus, or bacteria, that is capable of growing and reproducing. Viruses and possible anthropogenic inorganic life forms are excluded from this category because they depend on the biochemical mechanism of the host cell.

The human body as a biosystem

The human body can also be called a biosystem. It is the totality of all organs. Our bodies are made up of a number of biological systems that perform specific functions necessary for daily life.

• The job of the circulatory system is to move blood, nutrients, oxygen, carbon dioxide, and hormones through organs and tissues. It consists of the heart, blood, blood vessels, arteries and veins.
• The digestive system is made up of a series of connected organs that together allow the body to absorb and digest food, and to remove waste. It includes the mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, rectum, and anus. The liver and pancreas also play an important role in the digestive system because they produce digestive juices.
• The endocrine system is made up of eight major glands that release hormones into the blood. These hormones, in turn, travel to different tissues and regulate various functions organism.
• The immune system is the body's defense against bacteria, viruses, and other harmful pathogens. It includes lymph nodes, spleen, bone marrow, lymphocytes, and white blood cells.
• The lymphatic system includes lymph nodes, ducts, and vessels, and also plays a role as the body's defenses. Its main job is to form and move lymph, a clear fluid containing white blood cells that help the body fight infection. The lymphatic system also removes excess lymphatic fluid from bodily tissues and returns it to the blood.
• The nervous system controls both voluntary (such as conscious movement) and involuntary actions (such as breathing) and sends signals to various parts body. The central nervous system includes the brain and spinal cord. The peripheral nervous system is made up of nerves that connect each to the central nervous system.
• The muscular system of the body is made up of about 650 muscles that aid in movement, circulation, and a number of other physical functions.

• The reproductive system allows humans to reproduce. The male includes the penis and testicles, which produce sperm. The female reproductive system consists of the vagina, uterus, and ovaries. During conception, sperm fuse with an egg, which creates a fertilized egg that grows in the uterus.
• Our bodies are supported by a skeletal system made up of 206 bones that are connected by tendons, ligaments and cartilage. The skeleton not only helps us move, but is also involved in the production of blood cells and the storage of calcium. Teeth are also part of the skeletal system, but they are not considered bones.
• The respiratory system allows vital oxygen to be taken in and removed carbon dioxide in the process we call breathing. It consists mainly of the trachea, diaphragm and lungs.
• The urinary system helps eliminate a waste product called urea from the body. It consists of two kidneys, two ureters, bladder, two sphincter muscles and an urethra. Urine produced by the kidneys travels down the ureters to the bladder and exits the body through the urethra.
• The skin is the largest organ of the human body. It protects us from the outside world, bacteria, viruses, and other pathogens, and helps regulate body temperature and eliminate waste products through sweat. In addition to skin, includes hair and nails.

vital organs

Humans have five organs that are essential for survival. These are the brain, heart, kidneys, liver and lungs.

• The human brain is the body's control center, receiving and transmitting signals to other organs through the nervous system and through secreted hormones. It is responsible for our thoughts, feelings, memory and general perception of the world.
• The human heart is responsible for pumping blood throughout our body.
• The job of the kidneys is to remove waste and extra fluid from the blood.
• The liver has many functions, including the detoxification of harmful chemical substances, drug breakdown, blood filtration, bile secretion, and the production of proteins for blood clotting.
• The lungs are responsible for removing oxygen from the air we breathe and transporting it to our blood, where it can be sent to our cells. The lungs also remove the carbon dioxide we exhale.

funny facts

• The human body contains about 100 trillion cells.
• The average adult takes over 20,000 breaths a day.
• Every day, the kidneys process about 200 quarts (50 gallons) of blood to filter out about 2 quarts of waste and water.
• Adults excrete about a quarter and a half (1.42 liters) of urine each day.
• The human brain contains about 100 billion nerve cells.
• Water makes up over 50 percent of an adult's body weight.

Why is an organism called a biosystem?

A living organism is a specific organization of living matter. It is a biosystem, which, like any other system, includes interconnected elements, such as molecules, cells, tissues, organs. Everything in this world consists of something, a certain hierarchy is also characteristic of a living organism. This means that cells are made of molecules, tissues are made of cells, organs are made of tissues, and organ systems are made of organs. The properties of biosystems also include emergence, which means the emergence of qualitatively new characteristics that are present when elements are combined and absent at previous levels.

Cell as a biosystem

One single cell can also be called a complete biosystem. This is an elementary unit that has its own structure and its own metabolism. It is able to exist independently, reproduce its own kind and develop according to its own laws. In biology, there is a whole section devoted to its study, which is called cytology or cell biology.

A cell is an elementary living system that includes individual components that have specific features and perform their functional duties.

A complex system

The biosystem consists of the same type of living matter: from macromolecules and cells to population communities and ecosystems. It has the following levels of organization:

• gene level;
• cellular level;
• organs and organ systems;
• organisms and systems of organisms;
• populations and population systems;
• communities and ecosystems.

The biological components of various levels of organization in a certain order interact with inanimate nature, energy and other abiotic components and substances. Depending on the scale, different systems are the subjects of study of different disciplines. Genetics deals with genes, cytology deals with cells. Organs are taken over by physiology. Organisms are studied by ichthyology, microbiology, ornithology, anthropology, and so on.

1.13. (addition) Universal properties of biosystems

Despite the specificity of biosystems of different levels, a number of universal properties can be distinguished for them. Let's name some of them.

Certain composition and orderliness. All biosystems are characterized by high orderliness, which can be maintained only due to the processes taking place in them. The composition of all biosystems lying above the molecular level includes certain organic substances, some inorganic compounds as well as plenty of water. The orderliness of the cell is manifested in the fact that it is characterized by a certain set of cellular components, and the orderliness of the biogeocenosis is that it includes certain functional groups of organisms and the inanimate environment associated with them.

Hierarchy of the organization. As discussed in paragraph 1.05, life manifests itself simultaneously at many levels of organization, each of which has its own characteristics.

Metabolism- the most important feature of the functioning of biosystems. This is a set of chemical transformations and movements of substances occurring in them. At the cellular and organismal levels, metabolism is associated with food, gas exchange and highlighting, and, for example, on the biogeocenotic - with the circulation of matter and them moving between different biogeocenoses.

Energy flow through biosystems is closely related to their metabolism. Due to the fact that the atoms of matter do not change during their transformations, matter can cycle in living systems. Energy, in accordance with the second law of thermodynamics, is partially dissipated during transformations (turns into the form of heat), and therefore living systems exist only under conditions of an energy flow flowing through them from external source. For the biosphere as a whole, such a source is the Sun.

Ability to develop. All biosystems arise and improve in the course of evolution. Evolution at the molecular level has led to the emergence of organisms; due to the evolution of populations change characteristic properties organisms and all their constituent systems. Changes in biogeocenoses and the biosphere are also associated with their ability to evolve. The development of an individual organism is called ontogeny; evolutionary history of the species phylogenesis; development of biocenoses in one area - succession.

Fitness- correspondence between the characteristics of biosystems and the properties of the environment with which they interact. Fitness cannot be achieved once and for all, since the environment is constantly changing (including due to the impact of biosystems and their evolution). Therefore, all living systems are able to respond to environmental changes and develop adaptations to many of them. The result of the ability of living systems to develop adaptations is the amazing perfection and expediency of living organisms and life in general. Long-term adaptations of biosystems are carried out due to their evolution. Short-term adaptations of cells and organisms are provided due to their irritability- the ability to respond to external or internal influences. Biosystems of all other levels also respond in a certain way to changes, which allows us to say that they are in a state of exchange of information with the environment.

Self-regulation. Biosystems are in a state of constant exchange of matter, energy and information with the environment. For example, cells and organisms, thanks to self-regulation, maintain the constancy of their internal environment (homeostasis), and biogeocenoses maintain their species composition and certain properties of the inanimate environment. Maintaining the constancy of the properties of biosystems is ensured by negative feedback, and their change and development - by positive feedback.

Dynamism(a state of continuous change). Vital activity at all levels of organization of biosystems is associated with the exchange of substances and information, as well as the flow of energy. Moreover, each biosystem, starting from the cellular level, is not so much a structure as a process. Thus, the cell remains itself, despite the fact that as a result of metabolism, the substances that form it are replaced. The population exists, despite the fact that the individuals that make up it die and appear. For cells and organisms, a characteristic manifestation of dynamism is mobility - the ability to change the position and shape of the system itself and its parts.

Integrity(integration) is a necessary condition for considering an object as a system. This is the result of the interconnection and interdependence of parts of biosystems, the basis for the emergence of emergent properties in a system. Systems of different levels differ in the degree of interdependence of their parts. For example, the composition of a cell must include a completely specific composition of components that strictly correspond to each other (if the mitochondrion does not synthesize all of its proteins, then the nucleus must necessarily control the synthesis of the missing ones, and quite corresponding to those present in the mitochondria). The body is made up of a set of organs. Biogeocenosis also consists of a certain set of components (for example, autotrophs and heterotrophs), but their composition turns out to be largely replaceable. Since the connections of subsystems in a cell and an organism are more rigid (the properties of one subsystem require strictly defined characteristics of another subsystem) than in a biogeocenosis, the cell and the organism can be considered more integral. At the biogeocenotic and biospheric levels, biosystems include both living and non-living components (however, non-living components, such as dead tissues, can also be part of organisms, as well as biosystems of other levels).

Uniqueness. All biosystems, starting from the cellular level, are unique and differ from similar systems. For example, organisms that have identical hereditary information (identical twins, clones, etc.) have a unique individuality that depends on infinitely diverse features of the influence of the environment on them and self-regulation in the course of development.

Ability to reproduce biosystems ensures the stability of life in time. Biomolecules are synthesized by the cell; cells (and even some eukaryotic cell structures) reproduce by dividing. At the organismal level, reproduction is ensured by reproduction. The continuity of generations at the organismal (as well as at the cellular) level is ensured heredity, and the possibility of evolution - variability. The reproduction of populations, biogeocenoses (and perhaps the biosphere) is ensured not only by the reproduction of organisms, but also due to their ability to settle.

The human body is complex biological system. All organs of the human body are interconnected, are in constant interaction and together, are a single self-regulating and self-developing system. The activity of the organism as a whole includes the interaction of the human psyche, its motor and vegetative functions with various environmental conditions.

Physical exercises have a significant impact on the formation of the skeleton (curvature of the spine is corrected, posture improves). Metabolic processes increase, in particular, calcium metabolism, the content of which determines the strength of bones. The skeleton, performing supporting and protective (skull, chest, pelvic bones, etc.) functions, is extremely durable. Individual bones can withstand loads up to 2 tons. Continuous (bones of the skull, etc.) and articular connections of bones make it possible to compose separate blocks, kinematic systems with a large degree of freedom, enabling the links of such systems to move along complex trajectories.

A complex set of interconnected reactions of splitting (dissimilation) and synthesis (assimilation) of organic substances is the basis for the development of the human body.

The human body develops under the influence of the genotype (heredity), as well as factors of the constantly changing external natural and social environment.

Without knowing the structure of the human body, the features of life processes in its individual organs, organ systems and in the whole organism, it is impossible to educate, educate and treat a person, as well as ensure his physical improvement.

Self-knowledge is an important step in solving the problem of formation physical education the personality of the future specialist, who, when studying this topic, must:

♦ explore the features of the functioning of the human body and its individual systems under the influence of physical exercises and sports in various conditions external environment;

♦ to be able to diagnose the state of one's body and its individual systems, to make the necessary correction in their development by means of physical culture and sports;

♦ be able to rationally adapt physical culture and sports activities to individual characteristics organism, working conditions, life, rest and to differentiate the use of means of physical culture and sports, taking into account the noted features.

There are over 100 trillion in the human body. (1x10 14) cells. Each cell is at the same time a factory for the processing of substances entering the body; a power plant that generates bioelectric energy; a computer with a large amount of storage and issuance of information. In addition, certain groups of cells perform specific functions inherent only to them (muscles, blood, nervous system, etc.).

The cells of the central nervous system(CNS) - neurons. There are more than 20 billion of them in the body. Each neuron contains about a thousand enzymes. All neurons of the brain can accumulate over 10 billion units of information in 1 second, i.e. several times more than the most advanced computer system.

The external activity of a person and the internal processes occurring in the body are carried out according to the mechanism of a reflex controlled from the central nervous system.

Each cell, group of cells, organ operate in two modes: excitation (active state) and inhibition (cessation of the active state and recovery). Excitation and inhibition are two opposite processes, the interaction of which ensures the coordinated activity of the nervous system, the coordinated work of the body's organs, the regulation and improvement of the functions of the whole organism.

Movement is the most important property of the human body. Due to the presence of skeletal muscles, a person can move around, perform movements with individual parts of the body. Constant movements also occur in the internal organs, which also have muscle tissue in the form of special “smooth” muscles (intestinal peristalsis, maintaining the tone of arterial blood vessels, etc.). complex structure has a heart muscle, which continuously, throughout a person's life, works as a pump, ensuring the movement of blood through the blood vessels.

During the evolutionary development of man in onto- and phylogenesis, motor activity had a significant impact on the morphogenesis of individual organs and systems of the body.

The human body consists of individual organs that perform their own functions. There are groups of organs that perform jointly general functions- organ systems. In their functional activity, organ systems are interconnected.

Many functional systems largely provide human motor activity. These include circulatory system, respiratory system, musculoskeletal and digestive systems, as well as excretory organs, endocrine glands, sensory systems, nervous system, etc.

Medical science considers the human body in unity with external nature and the social environment.

External environment in general view can be represented by a model consisting of three interacting elements: the physical environment (atmosphere, water, soil, solar energy); biological environment (animal and vegetable world); social environment (man and human society).

The influence of the external environment on the human body is very multifaceted. External natural environment and the social environment can have both beneficial and harmful effects on the body. From the external environment, the body receives all the substances necessary for life and development, at the same time it receives a numerous flow of irritations (temperature, humidity, solar radiation, industrial, professionally harmful effects, etc.), which tends to disrupt the constancy of the internal environment of the body.

The normal existence of a person in these conditions is possible only if the body responds in a timely manner to the effects of the external environment with appropriate adaptive reactions and maintains the constancy of its internal environment.

Ecological problems have a direct or indirect impact on the physical and moral condition of a person.

AT modern world the problems of ecology - the interaction of the organism with the environment - have become seriously aggravated.

According to World Organization health care, 80% of human diseases occur for reasons related to the deterioration of the environmental situation.

A distinctive feature of a person is that he can consciously and actively change both external and social conditions in order to improve health, increase working capacity and prolong life. Undoubtedly, the relationship of society with the environment must be brought under stricter control.

By a corresponding change in external conditions, a person can also affect his own state of health, physical development, physical fitness, mental and physical performance.

Physical training has a versatile effect on mental functions, ensuring their activity and stability.

There are results of numerous studies on the study of the stability of attention, perception, memory, ability to mental arithmetic of varying complexity, other aspects of thinking. The stability of the studied parameters was assessed by the level of their preservation under the influence of varying degrees of fatigue, as well as by the ability to maintain working capacity at the exact time. It was established that the stability of the parameters of mental activity was directly dependent on the level of versatile physical fitness.

Mental performance deteriorates to a lesser extent under the influence of adverse factors, if, under these conditions, physical exercises are applied appropriately. Optimal physical fitness ensures the preservation of a number of indicators of higher nervous activity, in particular, the stability of the functions of the second signaling system.

Fatigue is a condition that occurs as a result of work with insufficient recovery processes and manifests itself in a decrease in working capacity, a violation of the coordination of regulatory mechanisms and a feeling of fatigue. Fatigue plays an important biological role, serves as a warning signal of a possible overstrain of the working organ or the organism as a whole.

There are two phases of fatigue development: compensated and uncompensated. In the compensated phase, there is no visible decrease in performance. The work is carried out by connecting to the intense activity of other body systems, which before the onset of fatigue did not take an active part in this work.

The impossibility of maintaining the required intensity of work even when the reserve systems of the body are connected means the beginning of an uncompensated phase of fatigue.

When working at a significant intensity that does not correspond to the level of immediate readiness of the body to perform a given load, acute fatigue occurs.

The summation of shifts in the neuromuscular and central nervous system that occur during repeated tedious work causes chronic fatigue.

Systematic continuation of work in a state of fatigue, improper organization of work, physical training, prolonged work associated with excessive mental or physical stress - all this can lead to overwork.

Acute and chronic fatigue, as well as overwork, can lead to diseases of the nervous system, exacerbation of cardiovascular diseases, hypertension and peptic ulcers, and a decrease in body strength. For example, under the influence of long-term (chronic) examination emotional stress, most of the examined students showed significant changes in the intensity of blood filling of blood vessels and the reactivity of brain biopotentials, electrocardiographic and biochemical parameters that did not return to normal within 2-3 days after the exams.

Thus, university students 2 times a year experience a long emotional stress, which is a risk factor.

Mental overwork borders on the disease and has a longer recovery period. It is a consequence of the fact that the human brain, having great compensatory capabilities, is able to work with overload for a long time, without letting us know about our fatigue, which we feel only when the phase of overwork has begun.

The means of restoring the body after fatigue and overwork are: optimal, physical activity, switching to other types of work and combining work with outdoor activities, rational nutrition, establishing a strict hygienic lifestyle. Sufficient in time and full sleep, water procedures, steam bath, massage and self-massage, pharmacological agents and physiotherapy procedures, psychoregulatory training accelerate the recovery process.

The rhythmic flow of physiological processes is an important property of a living organism. Everything in the body - every organ, cell, blood composition, hormones, body temperature, heart rate (HR), blood pressure, respiration and other systems, and indicators of their functions - has its own rhythms, measured in seconds, hours, months and even years.

The biorhythms of individual organs and systems interact with each other and form an ordered system of rhythmic processes - the organization of the body's activity in time. For example, distinguish circadian biorhythm, at which a high level of working capacity in a person is observed from about 8.00 to 12.00 and from 17.00 to 19 hours. During these hours, almost all body functions are activated. Significantly reduced psychophysical functions in the periods from 2 to 3 am and from 13.00 to 15.00 hours of the day.

With the manifestation of efficiency, the most productive are Tuesday, Thursday and Friday, and the ineffective ones are Monday and Saturday.

Correctly drawn up daily routine, distribution of work in such a way that the greatest load corresponds to the greatest possibilities of the body, is one of the most important tasks of maintaining health and working capacity.

Violation of biorhythms, working hours, work, training sessions, nutrition, rest, sleep, physical activity can lead not only to a decrease in working capacity, but also to the development of the disease.

Insufficient motor activity creates special unnatural conditions for human life, negatively affects the structure and functions of all tissues of the human body. Under these conditions, the development of the younger generation is delayed and the aging of the elderly is accelerated.

In the absence of a sufficient dose of daily muscle movements, unwanted and significant changes in the functional state of the brain and sensory systems occur. As a result, there is a decrease in the overall defenses of the body, an increase in the risk of various diseases.

This condition is characterized by increased extreme instability of mood, weakening of self-control, impatience, sleep disturbance, loss of ability for prolonged work or physical exertion. All these symptoms can manifest themselves in varying degrees.

The most effective alternative to hypokinesia and hypodynamia in modern conditions exercise may be performed.

The progress of science and technology has made it necessary for a person to obtain a significant amount of professional knowledge and a large number varied information. The pace of life has increased immeasurably. All this led to the presentation of modern man high demands on his physical condition and significantly increased the load on the mental, mental and emotional spheres.

In connection with the activation of educational work with increasing loads, it is required to improve the conditions and regime of study, life and rest of students using the means of physical culture. The means of physical culture are physical exercises, the healing forces of nature (the sun, air and water) and hygienic factors (sanitary and hygienic conditions, rest, sleep, nutrition).

The use of the healing forces of nature (hardening) strengthens and activates the body's defenses, stimulates metabolism, the activity of the heart and blood vessels, and has a beneficial effect on the state of the nervous system.

Systematic physical training, physical exercises in conditions of intense learning activities students have importance as a way to relieve nervous tension and maintain mental health. Discharging increased nervous activity through movement is most effective.

The role of exercise is not limited to the beneficial effects on health. Observation of people who regularly exercise has shown that systematic muscular activity increases the mental, mental and emotional stability of the body during prolonged intense mental or physical work.

A person who leads a mobile lifestyle and systematically engages in physical exercises can do much more work than a person who leads a sedentary lifestyle. This is due to the reserve capacity of the body.

The activation of the physiological functions of the body during muscular activity should be considered as the mobilization of reserves. At the same time, a trained body has large reserves and can use them more fully than an untrained one.

Each organ, organ system and the body as a whole, under the influence of directed physical training, significantly increase the indicators of working capacity, physical reserve.

The metabolism and energy in the human body is characterized by complex biochemical reactions. Nutrients (proteins, fats and carbohydrates) that enter the internal environment of the body with food are broken down in the digestive tract. The cleavage products are carried by the blood to the cells and absorbed by them. Oxygen, penetrating from the air through the lungs into the blood, takes part in the oxidation process that occurs in the cells.

Substances formed as a result of biochemical metabolic reactions (carbon dioxide, water, urea, etc.) are excreted from the body through the lungs, kidneys, and skin.

Metabolism is a source of energy for all vital processes and body functions. When complex organic substances are broken down, the potential chemical energy contained in them is converted into other types of energy (bioelectric, mechanical, thermal, etc.).

The intensity of the metabolic process in the human body is very high. Huge number of molecules are destroyed every second various substances, and at the same time new substances necessary for the body are formed. In 3 months, half of all tissues of the human body are updated.

The growth of hair, nails, peeling of the skin - all this is the result of the metabolic process. For 5 years of study, the cornea of ​​the eye of a student is replaced 250 times, and the stomach tissue is updated 500 times.

To save energy balance, maintaining a normal body weight, ensuring high mental and physical performance and preventing diseases, it is necessary, with sufficient and nutritious nutrition, to increase energy consumption by increasing physical activity, for example, through regular physical exercises.

muscle activity. Physical exercise or sports increase the activity of metabolic processes, train and maintain at a high level the mechanisms that carry out the metabolism and energy in the body.