The study of the activity of the cerebral hemispheres together with the nearest subcortex under normal conditions (by the method of conditioned reflexes) led to the creation of a type scheme nervous activity or basic patterns of behavior of higher animals.

Types nervous system They are divided into general, found in humans and animals, and private, peculiar only to humans.

The type of the nervous system is an individual characteristic of the nervous system according to three main features: 1) the strength of excitation and inhibition; 2) the ratio, or balance, of excitation and inhibition among themselves, and 3) the mobility of excitation and inhibition, which is characterized by the speed of their irradiation and concentration, the rate of formation of conditioned reflexes, etc.

The school of IP Pavlov established four types of the nervous system in dogs. The first type is strong (strong excitation and strong inhibition), unbalanced, with a predominance of excitation over inhibition, unrestrained. The second type is strong, quite balanced, inert, inactive, slow. The third type is strong, quite balanced, very lively, mobile. The fourth type is weak, with weak excitation and inhibition, easily inhibited. Slight inhibition of this type is due to both weak and easily radiating internal inhibition, and especially external inhibition under the influence of minor extraneous stimuli.

Only in a few animals are the features of a particular type of nervous system clearly visible. In the majority, these features are very indistinct, and it is difficult to determine the type of nervous system in them.

Other things being equal, the type of nervous system determines: different rates of production of conditioned reflexes, different sizes of conditioned reflexes and their strength, differences in the rate of irradiation and concentration of excitation and inhibition, different resistance to the action of factors that cause disruption of higher nervous activity, and adaptability to various influences. external environment. The type of the nervous system determines not only the behavior of the animal organism, but also the nature of the activity of its internal organs, due to the functional state of the sympathetic and parasympathetic systems.

Dogs in which inhibition predominates react weakly to substances that excite the sympathetic centers of the diencephalon, and, conversely, react strongly to substances that excite the parasympathetic centers of the diencephalon. Dogs in which excitation predominates, on the contrary, react strongly to substances that excite the sympathetic centers of the diencephalon, and react poorly to substances that excite the parasympathetic centers of the diencephalon. In balanced animals, the reaction to both substances is the same. The correspondence between the types of the nervous system, established by the method of conditioned reflexes, and the types of the nervous system, determined by the action of substances on the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions of the diencephalon, allows us to consider that the type of the nervous system depends on the predominance of the tone of one of the divisions of the autonomic nervous system. Consequently, the nature of the animal's behavior largely depends on the functional state of the autonomic nervous system (SI Gal'perin, 1949, 1960).

The scheme for dividing the types of the nervous system into private, human ones is based on the fact that in some people (the first type), the first signaling system prevails over the second signaling system and, conversely, in people of the second type, the second signaling system prevails over the first. In a person with an average type of nervous system, both signaling systems have approximately the same value. Normal thinking is possible only with the inseparable participation of both systems. The degree of correlation of both systems is extremely varied in different people.

When determining the types of a person, it must be taken into account that a person displays the world in two forms: 1) perceiving the direct action of stimuli from the outside world and 2) perceiving speech that signals these direct stimuli.

Types of the nervous system and temperaments

IP Pavlov believed that the four types of the nervous system, established in experiments on animals, approximately coincide with the classical temperament scheme established in humans by Hippocrates.

The first type roughly corresponds to the choleric, the second to the phlegmatic, the third to the sanguine and the fourth to the melancholic. Temperament is characterized mainly by the strength of the nervous, and consequently, mental processes, the relationship of excitation and inhibition, and the speed of their flow. However, the temperament of a person is not equivalent to the type of his nervous system. The temperament of a person is undoubtedly associated with the properties of the nervous system that characterize the type. But the forms of human behavior are determined not by individual stimuli, but by phenomena, objects and people that have a certain objective meaning and cause on the part of a person one or another attitude to themselves, due to his upbringing, beliefs, worldview. Therefore, when characterizing a person's temperament, it is necessary to take into account not only the functional features of his nervous system, but, above all, the conditions of his life in a society of a certain historical era and his practical activities.

It should be noted that only a few people have these four temperaments in a relatively pure form. Most of the traits of different temperaments are combined.

Education types of the nervous system

Types of the nervous system change after birth. They develop in phylogenesis, but since the animal from the day of birth is exposed to the most diverse influences of the environment, the final character is formed as an alloy of innate features of the nervous system (type) and changes in its properties due to the external environment, often fixed for life. Thus, the innate properties of the nervous system can manifest themselves only at the moment of birth. The way of human and animal behavior is determined not only by the innate properties of the nervous system, but to a greater extent depends on constant education and training.

The type of the nervous system is changed by education, systematic training. By the practice of inhibition it is possible to a certain extent to change the strong unbalanced type, to make it more balanced. A weak type is more difficult to change significantly. He has normal higher nervous activity only in favorable working conditions, since he is more likely than others to give "breakdowns".

The type of nervous system affects the learning of farm animals. The excitable type of horse is easy and quick to train, but overexertion of inhibition should be avoided. Animals of the strong, inert type are slow learners. Horses of a weak type are almost unsuitable for work. They learn the hard way.

The concept of the type of higher nervous activity. Conditioned reflex activity depends on the individual properties of the nervous system. The individual properties of the nervous system are due to the hereditary characteristics of the individual and his life experience. The totality of these properties is called the type of higher nervous activity.
properties of nervous processes. I.P. Pavlov, on the basis of many years of studying the features of the formation and course of conditioned reflexes in animals, identified 4 main types of higher nervous activity. He based the division into types on three main indicators:

1) force processes of excitation and inhibition;
2) balance, i.e. e. the ratio of the strength of the processes of excitation and inhibition;
3) mobility processes of excitation and inhibition, i.e., the speed with which excitation can be replaced by inhibition, and vice versa.

Classification of types of higher nervous activity. Based on the manifestation of these three properties, I. P. Pavlov singled out:

1) the type is strong, but unbalanced, with a predominance of excitation over inhibition ("unrestrained" type);
2) the type is strong, balanced, with great mobility of nervous processes (“live”, mobile type);
3) the type is strong, balanced, with low mobility of nervous processes (“calm”, inactive, inert type);
4) weak type with rapid exhaustion of nerve cells, leading to loss of efficiency.

IP Pavlov believed that the main types of higher nervous activity found in animals coincide with the four temperaments established in humans by the Greek physician Hippocrates, who lived in the 4th century BC. e. The weak type corresponds to the melancholic temperament; strong unbalanced type - choleric temperament; strong balanced, mobile type - sanguine temperament; strong balanced, with low mobility of nervous processes - phlegmatic temperament.
However, it should be borne in mind that the hemispheres of the human brain, as social beings, have a more perfect synthetic activity than in animals. A person is characterized by a qualitatively special nervous activity associated with the presence of his speech function.
Depending on the interaction, balance of signaling systems, I.P. Pavlov, along with four types common to humans and animals, singled out specially human types of higher nervous activity:

1. Artistic type. It is characterized by the predominance of the first signal system over the second. This type includes people who directly perceive reality, widely use sensory images, they are characterized by figurative, objective thinking.
2. Thinking type. These are people with a predominance of the second signaling system, "thinkers", with a pronounced ability for abstract thinking.
3. Most people belong to the average type with a balanced activity of the two signaling systems. They are characterized by both figurative impressions and speculative conclusions.

Plasticity of types of higher nervous activity. The innate properties of the nervous system are not immutable. They can change to some extent under the influence of education due to the plasticity of the nervous system. The type of higher nervous activity is made up of the interaction of the inherited properties of the nervous system and the influences that the individual experiences in the process of life.
I. P. Pavlov called the plasticity of the nervous system the most important pedagogical factor. The strength and mobility of nervous processes are amenable to training, and children of an unbalanced type, under the influence of education, can acquire traits that bring them closer to representatives of a balanced type. Prolonged overstrain of the inhibitory process in children of a weak type can lead to a "breakdown" of higher nervous activity, the emergence of neuroses. Such children hardly get used to the new mode of work and need special attention.
Age features of conditioned reflexes. Types of higher nervous activity of the child. The adaptive reactions of a born child to external influences are provided by orienting reflexes. Conditioned reflexes in the neonatal period are very limited and are developed only to vital stimuli. Already in the first days of a child's life, the formation of a natural conditioned reflex to the time of feeding can be noted, which is expressed in the awakening of children and increased motor activity. The sucking movements of the lips appear before the nipple is inserted into the mouth. It is clear that such a reflex appears only with a strict regimen of feeding children. With a strict feeding regimen on the 6-7th day, infants experience a conditioned reflex increase in the number of leukocytes as early as 30 minutes before feeding, they have increased gas exchange before eating. By the end of the second week, a conditioned reflex in the form of sucking movements appears on the position of the child for feeding. Here, the signal is a complex of stimuli acting from the receptors of the skin, motor and vestibular apparatus, constantly combined with food reinforcement.
From the middle of the first month of life, conditioned reflexes to various primary signal stimuli arise: light, sound, olfactory stimuli.
The rate of formation of conditioned reflexes in the first month of life is very low and increases rapidly with age. Thus, a protective reflex to light occurs only after 200 combinations, if its development is started on the 15th day after birth, and less than 40 combinations are required if the development of the same reflex is started in a one and a half month old child. From the first days of a child's life, unconditional (external) inhibition appears. The baby stops suckling if a sharp sound is suddenly heard. Conditional (internal) inhibition is developed later. Its appearance and strengthening are determined by the maturation of the nerve elements of the cerebral cortex. The first manifestations of differentiation of conditioned motor reflexes were noted by the 20th day of life, when the child begins to differentiate the feeding position from the swaddling procedure. A clear differentiation of visual and auditory conditioned stimuli is observed at 3-4 months. Other types of internal inhibition are formed later than differentiation. Thus, the development of delayed inhibition becomes possible from the age of 5 months (M. M. Koltsova).
The development of internal inhibition in a child is an important factor in education. In the first year of life, it is expedient to cultivate inhibition by using facial expressions and gestures that characterize the negative attitude of adults, or stimuli that distract the child's attention, i.e., are an external brake. For the proper development of a child in the first year of life, it is very important strict regime- a certain sequence of alternating sleep, wakefulness, feeding, walking. This is determined by the significance of the stereotype of interoceptive conditioned reflexes at this age. By the end of the first year importance acquire complexes of external exteroceptive stimuli that characterize the situation as a whole. One of the important components of the complex of stimuli is the word.
The first signs of the development of the second signaling system appear in a child in the second half of the first year of life. In the process of child development, the sensory mechanisms of speech, which determine the possibility of perceiving a word, are formed earlier than the motor ones, with which the ability to speak is associated. The period of formation of a function is especially sensitive to formative influences, so it is necessary to talk with a child from the first days of his life. When caring for a child, you need to name all your actions, name the surrounding objects. This is very important, since in order to form connections of the second signaling system, it is necessary to combine the verbal designation of objects, phenomena surrounding people with their specific image - to combine the primary signal stimuli with the secondary signal stimuli.
By the end of the first year of life, the word becomes a significant stimulus. However, during this period, the reaction of children to the word does not have an independent meaning, it is determined by a complex of stimuli, and only later the word acquires the meaning of an independent signal (M. M. Koltsova). During the first year of life, the child actively trains in the pronunciation of individual sounds, then syllables, and finally words. The formation of speech function requires a certain maturity of the peripheral apparatus - the tongue, muscles of the larynx, lips, their coordinated activity.
The mechanism of speech reproduction is associated with a complex coordinated work of the nerve centers of the cortex, the formation of certain connections between speech centers and motor zones. A close relationship of speech function with motor activity, especially with finely coordinated finger movements, is shown. By developing finely coordinated actions, one can accelerate the formation of speech skills.
The child's speech develops especially intensively between the ages of 1 and 3 years. At this age, the child's behavior is characterized by pronounced exploratory activity. The child reaches for each object, feels, looks inside, tries to pick it up, takes it in his mouth. At this age, injuries easily occur due to curiosity, lack of experience, the frequency of acute infections increases due to the expansion of the child's contacts with other children and his environment.
The conditioned reflex activity of children of this age changes significantly. In the second year of life, individual objects begin to emerge from the generalized undifferentiated world surrounding the child as separate complexes of stimuli. This is made possible by manipulating objects. Therefore, one should not restrict the movements of children: let them dress themselves, wash themselves, and eat.
Thanks to actions with objects, the function of generalization begins to form in children. The wide use of objects develops a motor analyzer in a child.
In the second year of life, a large number of conditioned reflexes are formed in the child to the ratio of the size, severity, remoteness of objects (singling out faster and slower stimuli, larger or smaller in comparison with others). Of particular importance is the development of systems of conditional connections to stereotypes of exteroceptive stimuli. In early childhood, dynamic stereotypes are especially important. With insufficient strength and mobility of nervous processes, stereotypes facilitate the adaptation of children to the environment, they are the basis for the formation of habits and skills. Attention is drawn to the great strength of the system of conditioned connections developed in children under 3 years of age, and the associated pain due to the violation of the stereotype: children are capricious, cry if they stay away for a long time; do not fall asleep for a long time if they are put in a new place. For children under 3 years of age a large number different stereotypes is not only not difficult, but each subsequent stereotype is developed more and more easily. However, changing the order of stimuli in one stereotype is an extremely difficult task. The systems of conditional connections developed at this time retain their significance throughout the entire subsequent life of a person, therefore the formation of stereotypes that are beneficial for health and have educational value is especially important at this age.
In the second year, an enhanced development of speech begins, the child masters the grammatical structure of the language, while a large role belongs to imitative reflex. An adult, communicating with a child, should pay special attention to the correctness of his speech.
At this stage of development, the mastery of actions with objects has a decisive influence on the formation of a generalization of objects in a word, i.e., the formation of a second signal system.
In the process of child development, the use of previously formed connections becomes increasingly important in the development of new reactions. The systems of conditional connections developed in the early and before school age(up to 5 years), are especially durable and retain their value throughout life. This fact is of great importance for pedagogical practice. The habits and skills brought up at this age, which have arisen on the basis of strong conditioned reflex connections, largely determine a person's behavior.
At preschool age, the role of the imitative and game reflex is very great. Children copy adults, their gestures, words, manners.
By the end of the preschool period, there are significant changes in the interaction of excitatory and inhibitory processes. As the cerebral cortex develops, the generalization of the excitatory process is gradually removed. Internal, conditional inhibition is forming and becoming increasingly important. Differentiations are better developed, the periods of retention of inhibition become longer. All this contributes to a more selective and adequate response of the child to external influences. At this age, the generalizing function of the word is enhanced, the ability to generalize with the word not only specific objects, but also many objects of the outside world, categories of objects. So, the child begins to understand that a doll, a bear, a car are all toys, and toys, furniture, dishes, clothes are things. In older preschool age, the reflection of reality is already based on the development complex systems connections, including the interaction of the first and second signal systems.
By the age of 6-7 years, reactivity to verbal stimuli improves. The nature of the interaction between the first and second signal systems changes. In 3-4-year-old children, the first signaling system prevails and has an inhibitory effect on the second. At 6-7 years of age, the increasing activity of the second signaling system has an overwhelming effect on the first signaling system. The development of the second signaling system is one of the important indicators of a child's readiness for schooling.
At primary school age, as the cerebral cortex progressively matures, the strength, balance and mobility of nervous processes improve. The development of cortical inhibition processes creates conditions for the rapid and differentiated formation of conditioned connections. The formation of connections in the higher parts of the CNS is facilitated by the intensive maturation at this age of intracortical associative pathways that unite various nerve centers. In the process of teaching writing and reading, the generalizing function of the word continues to develop intensively. The value of the second signal system is increasing.
Some changes in conditioned reflex activity are noted in adolescence. Beginning puberty is characterized by increased activity of the hypothalamus. This causes a change in the balance of cortical-subcortical interaction, resulting in an increase in generalized excitation and a weakening of internal inhibition. In comparison with the previous age group, the formation of temporary connections is difficult in adolescence. The rate of formation of conditioned reflexes to both primary and secondary signal stimuli decreases. Features of the higher nervous activity of adolescents require an attentive attitude towards them, a thoughtful organization of the educational process.
Typological features of the higher nervous activity of the child. The formation of individual typological features in the process of ontogenesis is determined by the gradual maturation of higher nerve centers. As will be shown below, in the process of child development there is a change in the relationship between the cerebral cortex and subcortical structures. This determines the peculiarities of the excitatory and inhibitory processes in childhood, and, consequently, the specificity of the manifestation of typological features.
N. I. Krasnogorsky, studying the higher nervous activity of a child on the basis of strength, balance, mobility of nervous processes, the relationship of the cortex and subcortical formations, the relationship between signal systems, identified 4 types of nervous activity in childhood.

1. Strong, balanced, optimally excitable, fast type. It is characterized by the rapid formation of conditioned reflexes, the strength of these reflexes is significant. Children of this type are capable of developing subtle differentiations. Their unconditioned reflex activity is regulated by a functionally strong cortex. Children of this type have a well-developed speech with a rich vocabulary.
2. Strong, balanced, slow type. In children of this type, conditioned connections are formed more slowly, extinct reflexes are also restored slowly. Children of this type are characterized by a pronounced control of the cortex over unconditioned reflexes and emotions. They quickly learn to speak, only their speech is somewhat slow. Active and racks when performing complex tasks.
3. Strong, unbalanced, hyperexcitable, unrestrained type. It is characterized by insufficiency of the inhibitory process, strongly pronounced subcortical activity, not always controlled by the cortex. Conditioned reflexes in such children quickly fade away, and the resulting differentiations are unstable. Children of this type are characterized by high emotional excitability, irascibility, affects. Speech in children of this type is fast with separate shouting.
4. Weak type with reduced excitability. Conditioned reflexes are formed slowly, unstable, speech is often slow. Lightweight type. Characteristic is the weakness of internal inhibition with strongly pronounced external brakes, which explains the difficulty of children getting used to new learning conditions, their changes. Children of this type do not tolerate strong and prolonged irritations, they easily get tired.

Significant differences in the basic properties of nervous processes in children related to different types, determine their different functional capabilities in the process of training and education. The effectiveness of pedagogical influences is largely determined by an individual approach to students, taking into account their typological characteristics. At the same time, we have already pointed out that one of the distinctive features of the types of human higher nervous activity is their plasticity. The plasticity of the cells of the cerebral cortex, their adaptability to changing environmental conditions is the morphological and functional basis of type transformation. Since plasticity nervous structures is especially great during the period of their intensive development, pedagogical influences that correct typological features are especially important to apply in childhood. I. P. Pavlov considered the plasticity of types to be the most important feature that makes it possible to educate, train and remake the character of people.

Each individual has predominantly genetically determined features of the functioning of the nervous system, which determine differences in the nature of the response to the same effects of physical and social environment and therefore form the basis for the formation of behavior.

IP Pavlov singled out three main properties of nervous processes: strength, balance and mobility.

The strength of nervous processes - This is the ability of nerve cells to maintain adequate performance under significant stress of excitatory and inhibitory processes. It is based on the expression in the central nervous system of the processes of excitation and inhibition. People with a stronger nervous system are more resilient and stress-resistant.

Balance of nervous processes - this is a balance of the processes of excitation and inhibition, which creates the basis for a more balanced behavior.

Mobility of nervous processes indicates the ability to quickly transition from excitation to inhibition. People with a more mobile nervous system have a greater flexibility of behavior, they quickly adapt to new conditions.

Subsequently, additional properties of nervous processes were identified.

Dynamism – the ability of brain structures to rapidly generate nervous processes during the formation of conditioned reactions. The dynamism of nervous processes underlies learning.

Lability - the rate of occurrence and termination of nervous processes. This property allows you to make movements with great frequency, quickly and clearly starting and ending the movement.

Activation characterizes the individual level of activation of nervous processes and underlies the processes of memorization and reproduction.

Various combinations of these characteristics of nervous processes determine one or another type of temperament and, to some extent, properties of character and personality. For example, the strength of the excitation process underlies endurance, energy, efficiency, ardor, courage, courage, activity, courage, ability to overcome difficulties, initiative, risk-taking, independence, determination, perseverance. And the braking force determines such properties as caution, self-control, patience, secrecy, restraint, composure.

When the processes of excitation and inhibition are unbalanced, when excitation prevails over inhibition, a tendency to increased excitability, a tendency to take risks, ardor, intolerance, a predominance of perseverance and pliability appear. Such a person is rather a person of action, waiting and patience are difficult for him. And such character traits as caution, endurance, restraint, calmness, lack of propensity for excitement and risk are associated with the predominance of inhibition processes in the nervous system. Balance, i.e. the presence of a balance between inhibition and excitation implies moderation, prudence, dimension in activity, combined with the possibility of applying sufficient effort to achieve the goal, and if necessary, risk. With pronounced mobility of excitatory processes, impulsivity may occur, a tendency to quickly interrupt the work begun when it ceases to arouse interest. It is difficult for such a person to develop perseverance in achieving a goal. When combined with the mobility of the inhibitory process, responsiveness to external stimuli, sociability, initiative can occur - it is difficult for such people to be secretive, attached and constant.

Based on various combinations of the three main properties of nervous processes, various types of GNI are formed. In the classification of I.P. Pavlov, four main types of GNI are distinguished, differing in adaptability to external conditions:

• 1) strong, unbalanced ("unrestrained") type It is characterized by a high strength of excitation processes that predominate with inhibition. This is a person with a high level of activity, quick-tempered, energetic, irritable, carried away, with strong, quickly emerging emotions that are clearly reflected in speech, gestures and facial expressions;
• 2) strong, balanced, mobile (labile or "alive") type characterized by strong balanced processes of excitation and inhibition with the ability to easily change one process to another. These people are energetic, with great self-control, decisive, able to quickly navigate in a new environment, mobile, impressionable, vividly expressing their emotions;
• 3) strong, balanced, inert (calm) type characterized by the presence of strong processes of excitation and inhibition, their balance, but at the same time low mobility of nervous processes. These are very hard-working, able to restrain, calm people, but slow, with a weak manifestation of feelings, it is difficult to switch from one type of activity to another, committed to their habits;
• 4) weak type characterized by weak excitatory processes and easily occurring inhibitory reactions. These are weak-willed, dull, dreary people, with high emotional vulnerability, suspicious, prone to gloomy thoughts, to an oppressed mood, they are shy, often succumb to other people's influence.

These types of GNA correspond to the classical description of temperaments by Hippocrates, an ancient Greek physician who lived almost 2.5 millennia before IP Pavlov (Table 13.2).

Table 13.2

Correlation of types of higher nervous activity and temperaments according to Hippocrates

However, usually the combination of properties of the nervous system is more diverse, and therefore one rarely sees such "pure" types of HNA in life. Even IP Pavlov noted that between the main types there are "intermediate, transitional types, and they need to be known in order to navigate in human behavior."

It is interesting to note that the main types of GNI are common to humans and animals. But along with them, I. P. Pavlov singled out types that are peculiar only to man, based on the different ratio of the first and second signal systems:

• – artistic type - differs by a slight predominance of the first signal system over the second. Persons belonging to this type are characterized by an objective, figurative perception of the world around them, a tendency to operate with sensual images in the process of thinking;
• – thinking type - characterized by the predominance of the second signal system over the first. Representatives of this type are characterized by the presence of pronounced abilities for abstraction, operating in the process of thinking with abstract symbols, well-developed abilities for analysis;
• – middle type - differs in balance of signaling systems. It applies to most people. Representatives of this type are characterized by both figurative impressions and abstract conclusions.

This classification is associated with the functional interhemispheric asymmetry of the brain, the features of their interaction: it is believed that artistic type corresponds to right-hemispheric dominance and predominantly simultaneous (holistic) way of processing information, and mental - left-hemispheric dominance and successive (sequential) way of processing information.

Each person is born with a certain set of biological features of his personality, manifested in temperament. Significant differences in the behavior of people, due to the properties of their temperaments, are even among blood brothers and sisters, among twins living side by side. Temperaments differ among the Siamese twins Masha and Dasha, all children who received the same upbringing, have the same worldview, close ideals, beliefs and moral principles.

What is temperament? Temperament is called the innate characteristics of a person, which determine the dynamics of the course of his mental processes. It is temperament that determines a person's reactions to external circumstances. It largely forms the character of a person, his individuality and is a kind of link between the body and cognitive processes.

Temperament is a manifestation of the type of the nervous system in human activity, individual psychological characteristics of a person, in which the mobility of his nervous processes, strength, and balance are manifested.

Excitation and inhibition can be balanced or dominate each other, they can proceed with different strength, move from center to center and replace each other in the same centers, i.e. have some mobility.

The term "temperament" itself was introduced by the ancient physician Claudius Galen and comes from the Latin word "temperans", which means moderate. The very word temperament can be translated as "the proper ratio of parts." Hippocrates believed that the type of temperament is determined by the predominance of one of the fluids in the body. If blood predominates in the body, then the person will be mobile, that is, have a sanguine temperament, yellow bile will make a person impulsive and hot - choleric, black bile - sad and timid, that is, melancholic, and the predominance of lymph will give a person calmness and slowness, make phlegmatic.

Many researchers, in particular, V. S. Merlin, S. L. Rubinshtein, believe that temperaments in their pure form are very rare, usually in every person they are present in various proportions. It is also not necessary to equate character and temperament. The latter only characterizes the type of the nervous system, its properties, is associated with the structure of the body and even metabolism. But, in no way connected with the views of the individual, beliefs, tastes and does not determine the possibilities of the individual.

In the nerve centers of the human brain cortex, two opposite active processes take place in a complex interaction: excitation and inhibition. Excitation of some parts of the brain causes inhibition of others, this can explain why a person who is passionate about something ceases to perceive the environment. So, for example, the switching of attention is associated with the transfer of excitation from one part of the brain to another and, accordingly, the inhibition of the abandoned parts of the brain.

In the psychology of individual differences, the following properties of temperament are distinguished: excitation - inhibition, lability - rigidity, mobility - inertia, activity - passivity, as well as balance, sensitivity, reaction speed.

Weakness of nervous processes is characterized by the inability of nerve cells to withstand prolonged and concentrated excitation and inhibition. Under the action of very strong stimuli, nerve cells quickly pass into a state of protective inhibition. Thus, in a weak nervous system, nerve cells are characterized by low efficiency, their energy is quickly depleted. But on the other hand, a weak nervous system has great sensitivity: even to weak stimuli, it gives an appropriate reaction.

An important property of higher nervous activity is the balance of nervous processes, that is, the proportional ratio of excitation and inhibition. In some people, these two processes are mutually balanced, while in others this balance is not observed: either the process of inhibition or excitation predominates. One of the main properties of higher nervous activity is the mobility of nervous processes. The mobility of the nervous system is characterized by the rapidity of the processes of excitation and inhibition, the rapidity of their onset and termination (when life conditions require it), the rate of movement of nervous processes (irradiation and concentration), the rapidity of the appearance of the nervous process in response to irritation, the rapidity of the formation of new conditional connections. Combinations of these properties of the nervous processes of excitation and inhibition formed the basis for determining the type of higher nervous activity. Depending on the combination of strength, mobility and balance of the processes of excitation and inhibition, four main types of higher nervous activity are distinguished.

Weak type . Representatives of the weak type of the nervous system cannot withstand strong, prolonged and concentrated stimuli. Weak are the processes of inhibition and excitation. Under the action of strong stimuli, the development of conditioned reflexes is delayed. Along with this, there is a high sensitivity (i.e., a low threshold) to the actions of stimuli.

Strong balanced type . Distinguished by a strong nervous system, it is characterized by an imbalance in the basic nervous processes - the predominance of excitation processes over inhibition processes.

Strong balanced movable type . The processes of inhibition and excitation are strong and balanced, but their speed, mobility, and rapid change of nervous processes lead to a relative instability of the nervous connections.

Strong balanced inert type . Strong and balanced nervous processes are characterized by low mobility. Representatives of this type are outwardly always calm, even, difficult to excite.

The type of higher nervous activity refers to natural higher data; this is an innate property of the nervous system. On a given physiological basis, various systems of conditioned connections can be formed, i.e., in the process of life, these conditioned connections will form differently in different people: this will be the manifestation of the type of higher nervous activity. Temperament is a manifestation of the type of higher nervous activity in human activity and behavior.

Features of a person's mental activity, which determine his actions, behavior, habits, interests, knowledge, are formed in the process of a person's individual life, in the process of education. The type of higher nervous activity gives originality to human behavior, leaves a characteristic imprint on the whole appearance of a person - determines the mobility of his mental processes, their stability, but does not determine either the behavior, or actions of a person, or his beliefs, or moral principles.

Temperament types

In psychology, there are four types of temperament: Choleric, Melancholic, Phlegmatic and Sanguine. It cannot be said that Melancholic is better than Choleric, and Sanguine is better than Phlegmatic. All have their pros and cons.

1. The melancholic has a weak type of nervous system and, therefore, is unstable in the face of circumstances that require overcoming or strong excitation of the nervous system. The remaining three types of the nervous system are considered strong. A person is easily vulnerable, prone to constant experience of various events, he reacts little to external factors. He cannot restrain his asthenic experiences by an effort of will, he is highly impressionable, easily emotionally vulnerable. These are traits of emotional weakness.

2. Phlegmatic temperaments, this type of temperament is called, which, being a strong type, is nevertheless distinguished by low mobility of nervous processes. Once having arisen in certain centers, they are distinguished by constancy and strength. The inert nervous system corresponds to this type. Slow, imperturbable, has stable aspirations and mood, outwardly stingy in the manifestation of emotions and feelings. He shows perseverance and perseverance in work, remaining calm and balanced. In work, he is productive, compensating for his slowness with diligence.

3. Sanguine temperament - another strong type of temperament - is characterized by the fact that the processes of excitation and inhibition are quite strong, balanced and easily mobile. A lively, hot, mobile person, with frequent changes of mood, impressions, with a quick reaction to all events taking place around him, quite easily reconciled with his failures and troubles. He is very productive at work, when he is interested, getting very excited from this, if the work is not interesting, he is indifferent to it, he becomes bored.

4. Choleric temperament - the third strong type of temperament - unbalanced, unrestrained, excitation processes prevail over weak inhibition. This type of nervous system is quickly depleted and prone to breakdowns. Fast, passionate, impulsive, but completely unbalanced, with sharply changing moods with emotional outbursts, quickly exhausted. He does not have a balance of nervous processes, this sharply distinguishes him from a sanguine person. Choleric, carried away, carelessly wastes his strength and quickly depletes.

Good upbringing, control and self-control makes it possible for a melancholic person to manifest himself as an impressionable person with deep feelings and emotions; phlegmatic, as a seasoned person, without hasty decisions; sanguine, as a highly responsive person for any work; choleric, as a passionate, frantic and active person in work. Negative properties of temperament can manifest themselves: in a melancholic - isolation and shyness; phlegmatic - indifference to people, dryness; in a sanguine person - superficiality, dispersion, inconstancy. A person with any type of temperament may or may not be capable, the type of temperament does not affect a person’s abilities, it’s just that some life tasks are easier to solve for a person of one type of temperament, others for another. Temperament is one of the most significant personality traits. Interest in this problem arose more than two and a half thousand years ago. It was caused by the obvious existence of individual differences, which are due to the peculiarities of the biological and physiological structure and development of the organism, as well as the peculiarities of social development, the uniqueness of social ties and contacts. The biologically determined personality structures include, first of all, temperament. Temperament determines the presence of many mental differences between people, including the intensity and stability of emotions, emotional impressionability, the pace and vigor of actions, as well as a number of other dynamic characteristics.

Despite the fact that repeated and constant attempts have been made to investigate the problem of temperament, this problem still belongs to the category of controversial and not completely resolved problems of modern psychological science. Today there are many approaches to the study of temperament. However, with all the existing variety of approaches, most researchers recognize that temperament is the biological foundation on which a person is formed as a social being, and personality traits due to temperament are the most stable and long-term. It is impossible to raise the question of which of the temperaments is better. Each of them has its positive and negative sides. Passion, activity, energy of the choleric, mobility, liveliness and responsiveness of the sanguine, the depth and stability of the feelings of the melancholic, the calmness and lack of haste of the phlegmatic are examples of those valuable personality traits that are associated with individual temperaments. At the same time, with any of the temperaments, there may be a danger of developing undesirable personality traits. For example, a choleric temperament can make a person unrestrained, abrupt, prone to constant "explosions". A sanguine temperament can lead to frivolity, a tendency to scatter, insufficient depth and stability of feelings. With a melancholic temperament, a person may develop excessive isolation, a tendency to completely immerse himself in his own experiences, and excessive shyness. Phlegmatic temperament can make a person lethargic, inert, indifferent to all the impressions of life. Despite this temperament, the whole life of its owner is formed as well as his character.

In our opinion, temperament changes throughout life and depends on the prevailing circumstances. Let's say a person ... a sanguine person. Everything in his life is calm. People appear in his life who begin to interrogate him, accuse him, bring him to hysterics, to tears. If such an appeal lasts longer than a month, then the person begins to cry more, becomes Melancholic. This Melancholic is constantly being pulled, humiliated. This Melancholic becomes Choleric. It can already be compared to a nuclear bomb. He starts to explode and yells at everyone who laughs from the side, who says something to him as a joke, but he does not understand. It has a negative effect on those around you. But this rarely happens. Temperament is the pace or cycle of expressing emotions and qualities.



Even doctors of ancient antiquity correctly drew attention to the individual differences in the temperament of people, manifested not only in their character and actions, but also in relation to diseases, and tried to understand the nature of this difference. The ancient Greek physician Hippocrates, who lived in the 5th century BC, described four temperaments, which received the following names: sanguine temperament, phlegmatic temperament, choleric temperament, melancholic temperament. He described the main types of temperaments, gave them characteristics, but associated temperament not with the properties of the nervous system, but with the ratio of various fluids in the body: blood, lymph and bile.

An attempt to translate the doctrine of temperament types onto a new scientific basis was made by I.P. Pavlov, who, in a publication in 1927, became understand temperament as a type of higher nervous activity. He based this interpretation on the presence in animals and humans of a certain severity of the properties of the nervous system.

According to the teachings of I.P. Pavlov, individual characteristics of behavior, the dynamics of the course of mental activity depend on individual differences in the activity of the nervous system. The basis of individual differences in nervous activity is the manifestation and correlation of the properties of the two main nervous processes - excitation and inhibition.

The properties of the nervous system are understood as such stable qualities that are innate. Were installed three properties of the processes of excitation and inhibition:

1) force

2) equilibrium processes of excitation and inhibition,

3) mobility(replacement) processes of excitation and inhibition.

Force associated with the performance of nerve cells. Strength of the nervous system in relation to excitation- this is its ability to withstand for a long time, without revealing prohibitive braking, intense and often repetitive loads. Strength of the nervous system in relation to inhibition- the ability to withstand prolonged and frequently repeated braking effects. Psychologists have established that weakness of the nervous system is not negative property. A strong nervous system copes more successfully with some life tasks, and a weak one with others. Weakness of nervous processes is characterized by the inability of nerve cells to withstand prolonged and concentrated excitation and inhibition. Under the action of very strong stimuli, nerve cells quickly pass into a state of protective inhibition. Thus, in a weak nervous system, nerve cells are characterized by low efficiency, their energy is quickly depleted. But on the other hand, a weak nervous system is highly sensitive: even to weak stimuli, it gives an appropriate reaction, and this is its well-known advantage.

Equilibrium nervous system in relation to excitation and inhibition is manifested in the same reactivity of the nervous system in response to excitatory and inhibitory influences.

Lability The nervous system is evaluated by the rate of occurrence and termination of the nervous process of excitation or inhibition.

Combinations specified properties nervous processes of excitation and inhibition were the basis for determining the type of higher nervous activity.

Rice. Types of GNI

Type of higher nervous activity – is a combination of congenital and acquired properties of the nervous system that determine the nature of the interaction of the body with environment and reflected in all the functions of the body. Depending on the combination of strength, mobility and balance of the processes of excitation and inhibition, there are four main types of higher nervous activity:

– choleric type(unrestrained): strong unbalanced nervous system. It is characterized by a high strength of the excitatory process with a clear predominance of it over the inhibitory one, as well as increased mobility and lability of the main nervous processes.

– Sanguine tee n (balanced): strong balanced mobile nervous system. It is characterized by sufficient strength and mobility of excitatory and inhibitory processes.

– Phlegmatic type(inert): strong balanced inert nervous system. It is distinguished by sufficient strength of both nervous processes with relatively low rates of their mobility and lability.

– melancholic type(weak, inhibitory): weak nervous system. It is characterized by a clear predominance of the inhibitory process over the excitatory one and their low mobility.

According to I.P. Pavlova, types of GNI are "main features" individual characteristics person. The type of higher nervous activity refers to natural higher data; this is an innate property of the nervous system. On a given physiological basis, various systems of conditioned connections can be formed, i.e., in the process of life, these conditioned connections will form differently in different people: this will be the manifestation of the type of higher nervous activity. Temperament is a manifestation of the type of higher nervous activity in human activity and behavior.

Below is psychological characteristic four types of temperaments:

Sanguine temperament. The sanguine person quickly converges with people, is cheerful, easily switches from one type of activity to another, but does not like monotonous work. He easily controls his emotions, quickly gets used to a new environment, actively enters into contacts with people. His speech is loud, fast, distinct and is accompanied by expressive facial expressions and gestures. But this temperament is characterized by a certain duality. If stimuli change rapidly, novelty and interest of impressions are maintained all the time, a state of active excitement is created in a sanguine person, and he manifests himself as an active, active, energetic person. If the effects are long and monotonous, then they do not support the state of activity, excitement, and the sanguine person loses interest in the matter, he develops indifference, boredom, lethargy.

A sanguine person quickly has feelings of joy, grief, affection and ill will, but all these manifestations of his feelings are unstable, do not differ in duration and depth. They quickly arise and can just as quickly disappear or even be replaced by the opposite. The mood of a sanguine person changes quickly, but, as a rule, a good mood prevails.

Phlegmatic temperament. A person of this temperament is slow, calm, unhurried, balanced. In activity shows solidity, thoughtfulness, perseverance. He usually finishes what he starts. All mental processes in the phlegmatic proceed as if slowly. The feelings of a phlegmatic person are outwardly expressed weakly, they are usually inexpressive. The reason for this is the balance and weak mobility of the nervous processes. In relations with people, the phlegmatic is always even, calm, moderately sociable, his mood is stable. The calmness of a person of phlegmatic temperament is also manifested in his attitude to the events and phenomena of the life of a phlegmatic person, it is not easy to piss off and hurt him emotionally. It is easy for a person of a phlegmatic temperament to develop restraint, composure, calmness. But a phlegmatic person should develop the qualities he lacks - greater mobility, activity, not to allow him to show indifference to activity, lethargy, inertia, which can very easily form under certain conditions. Sometimes a person of this temperament can develop an indifferent attitude to work, to life around him, to people and even to himself.

choleric temperament. People of this temperament are fast, excessively mobile, unbalanced, excitable, all mental processes proceed quickly and intensively. The predominance of excitation over inhibition, characteristic of this type of nervous activity, is clearly manifested in incontinence, impulsiveness, irascibility, and irritability of the choleric. Hence the expressive facial expressions, hurried speech, sharp gestures, unrestrained movements. The feelings of a person of choleric temperament are strong, usually brightly manifested, quickly arise; mood sometimes changes dramatically. The imbalance inherent in choleric is clearly associated in his activities: he gets down to business with an increase and even passion, while showing impulsiveness and speed of movements, works with enthusiasm, overcoming difficulties. But in a person with a choleric temperament, the supply of nervous energy can be quickly depleted in the process of work, and then a sharp decline in activity can occur: the upsurge and inspiration disappear, the mood drops sharply. In dealing with people, the choleric person allows harshness, irritability, emotional restraint, which often does not give him the opportunity to objectively evaluate the actions of people, and on this basis he creates conflict situations in the team. Excessive straightforwardness, irascibility, harshness, intolerance sometimes make it difficult and unpleasant to stay in a team of such people.

Melancholy temperament. Melancholics have slow mental processes, they hardly react to strong stimuli; Prolonged and intense stress causes slow activity in people of this temperament, and then its cessation. In work, melancholic people are usually passive, often not very interested (after all, interest is always associated with strong nervous tension). Feelings and emotional states in people of a melancholic temperament, they arise slowly, but differ in depth, great strength and duration; melancholic people are easily vulnerable, they can hardly endure resentment, grief, although outwardly all these experiences are expressed poorly in them. Representatives of the melancholy temperament are prone to isolation and loneliness, avoid communication with unfamiliar, new people, are often embarrassed, show great awkwardness in a new environment. Everything new, unusual causes a braking state in melancholics. But in a familiar and calm environment, people with such a temperament feel calm and work very productively. It is easy for melancholic people to develop and improve their inherent depth and stability of feelings, increased susceptibility to external influences.

It should be remembered that the division of people into four types of temperament is very conditional. There are transitional, mixed, intermediate types of temperament; often in the temperament of a person, features of different temperaments are combined. "Pure" temperaments are relatively rare.

The physiological basis of temperament is the neurodynamics of the brain, i.e. neurodynamic correlation of the cortex and subcortex. The neurodynamics of the brain is in internal interaction with the system of humoral, endocrine factors. There is no doubt that the system of endocrine glands is included among the conditions affecting temperament.

For temperament, the excitability of the subcortical centers, which are associated with the features of motility, statics and vegetatives, is undoubtedly essential. The tone of the subcortical centers and their dynamics influence both the tone of the cortex and its readiness for action. Because of the role they play in the neurodynamics of the brain, the subcortical centers undoubtedly influence temperament. But again, it would be completely wrong, emancipating the subcortex from the cortex, to turn the first into a self-sufficient factor, into the decisive basis of temperament, as tend to be done in modern foreign neurology by currents that recognize the decisive importance for the temperament of the gray matter of the ventricle and localize the "core" of the personality. in the subcortex, in the stem apparatus, in the subcortical ganglia. The subcortex and the cortex are inextricably linked with each other. Therefore, one cannot separate the first from the second. Ultimately, it is not the dynamics of the subcortex itself that is of decisive importance, but the dynamic relationship between the subcortex and the cortex, as I.P. Pavlov in his doctrine of the types of the nervous system.

The properties of the nervous system also affect resistance to neurotic factors. The origin of many diseases of the nervous system turned out to be associated with functional disorders of the normal properties of the basic nervous processes and higher nervous activity.

In the laboratory of I.P. Pavlov, it was possible to call experimental neuroses(functional disorders of the activity of the central nervous system), using an overstrain of nervous processes, which was achieved by changing the nature, strength and duration of conditioned stimuli.

Neurosis can occur:

1) with an overvoltage of the excitation process due to the use of a prolonged intense stimulus;

2) when the inhibitory process is overstrained by, for example, lengthening the period of action of differentiating stimuli or developing subtle differentiations into very close figures, tones, etc.;

3) when the mobility of nervous processes is overstrained, for example, by converting a positive stimulus into an inhibitory one with a very rapid change in stimuli or by simultaneously converting an inhibitory conditioned reflex into a positive one.

With neuroses, a disruption of higher nervous activity occurs.. It can be expressed in a sharp predominance of either an excitatory or inhibitory process. With the predominance of excitation, inhibitory conditioned reflexes are suppressed, and motor excitation appears. With the predominance of the inhibitory process, positive conditioned reflexes are weakened, drowsiness occurs, and motor activity is limited. Neuroses are especially easily reproduced in animals with extreme types of the nervous system: weak and unbalanced, and in the first case, the excitatory process suffers more often, and in the second, the inhibitory one. They get an explanation and pictures of neurotic breakdowns in people in connection with the specific features of the typology of their higher nervous activity.

The essence of neurosis is to reduce the efficiency of nerve cells. Quite often, during neuroses, transitional (phase) states develop: leveling, paradoxical, ultraparadoxical phases. Phase states reflect violations of the law of force relations, which is characteristic of normal nervous activity.

Normally, there is a quantitative and qualitative adequacy of reflex reactions to the acting stimulus, i.e. to a stimulus of weak, medium or great strength respectively weak, medium or strong reaction occurs. In neurosis, the equalizing phase state is manifested by reactions to stimuli that are the same in severity. different strength, paradoxical - the development of a strong reaction to a weak impact and weak reactions to strong impacts, ultraparadoxical - the emergence of a reaction to an inhibitory conditioned signal and the loss of a reaction to a positive conditioned signal.

With neuroses, the inertia of the nervous processes or their rapid exhaustion develops. Functional neuroses can lead to pathological changes in various organs. For example, skin lesions such as eczema, hair loss, disruption of the digestive tract, liver, kidneys, endocrine glands, and even the occurrence of malignant neoplasms occur. Exacerbated diseases that were before the neurosis.