The history of the development of time measurement methods is the path from the first rough clocks of the ancient world, which made it possible to measure time with an accuracy of several minutes a day, to modern astronomical clocks, which allow measuring time with an accuracy of thousandths and millionths of a second. It is also a way of gradually expanding the spans of time available to measurement up to billions of years and billionths of a second.

For centuries and millennia, expanding the scale of measured time intervals and increasing the accuracy of their determination has always been associated with the solution of one or another scientific or technical problem. Therefore, the history of watches is one of the most fascinating pages of the struggle of the human genius for understanding the forces of nature and mastering them.

Sundial

The first instruments with which people began to measure time were sun, hourglass, fire and water clocks. The sundial has been known for a very long time, more than 500 years before our era. Lived in the 1st century BC. e. the architect Mark Vitruvius Pollio left us the following information about the design of the sundial of the ancient world and their inventors: "The sundial in the form of a hollowed-out semicircle of hewn (square) stone, carved according to the local inclination of the world axis, is said to have been invented by the Chaldean Beroz. Clocks in the form of cups or hemisphere - Aristarchus of Samos, he also invented a clock in the form of a horizontal plate (disk); cobweb-shaped (with a cobweb-shaped grid) clock was designed by the astronomer Eudoxus, and some say that they were invented by Apollonius.

A sundial consists of an object that gives a sharp and long shadow, and a dial on which divisions are applied corresponding to hours and fractions of an hour. Obtaining a time reference using a sundial is based on the fact that during the day the shadow cast by objects illuminated by the Sun changes all the time. The eye moves, simultaneously changing its length: early in the morning the shadows are long, then they shorten, and in the afternoon they lengthen again. In the morning the shadows face west, at noon in our northern hemisphere they face north, and in the evening they face east. In accordance with this, time can be counted in two ways: along the length of the shadow or along its direction. The second method is more convenient and accurate.

Initially, the sundial indicator was a stick stuck vertically into the ground, and the dial consisted of pegs driven into the ground. This is perhaps the simplest, but far from the most convenient form of a sundial, since with a vertical position of the pointer and a horizontal position of the dial, the end of the shadow does not describe a circle, but another, more complex curve, and from day to day, from month to month, the location this curve changes.

Many scientists and inventors of the ancient world were engaged in improving the sundial. In order to make them suitable for any day and month, the dial of a sundial was made in the form of many lines with divisions, each of which was intended for a particular month. Such, for example, was the sundial of the ancient Greek astronomer Aristarchus from Samos. In this watch, the dial was in the shape of a bowl with a complex network of lines traced on its inner surface. The clock of another ancient Greek astronomer, Eudbxus, was called "arachne" - a spider, due to the fact that the complex network of lines of their dial resembled a web. The sundial of Andronicus from Kirr (Fig. 1), which has survived to this day, belongs to the same type, with a grid of divisions designed for different months of the year.

Increasing accuracy by creating complex dials naturally made it difficult to make and use sundials. A decisive step in improving the sundial was. made when astronomers realized the benefits of placing the pointer of a sundial in parallel earth's axis. When the pointer of the sundial is parallel to the earth's axis, then its end turns out to be facing the pole of the world, that is, to that point in the firmament, which, during the rotation of the Earth, seems to be motionless. If at the same time the board with the dial is located perpendicular to the pointer, then the end of the shadow describes an arc of a circle on it, and the speed of the shadow is constant. Due to uniform motion the shadows of the hour divisions are equal.

In this - equatorial - sundial (Fig. 2), the board with the dial is set obliquely to the horizon at an angle (90°-φ), where the angle φ is the geographic latitude of the area. For example, when making an equatorial sundial for Moscow, located at a geographical latitude of 55°48", the angle of the board to the horizon should be chosen equal to 90°-55°48", or 34°12".

The equatorial sundial indicator is made in the form of a rod threaded through the middle of the inclined board so that part of it sticks out from above and part from below. This is done because in an equatorial sundial, during one part of the year, the shadow from the rod falls on the dial from above, and during the other part, from below. The advantage of the equatorial sundial is that its dial is suitable for all days of the year, and the hour divisions are located on equal distances from each other. The disadvantage of these watches is that during part of the year the shadow from the pointer falls on their dial from below, which makes it difficult to observe.

Horizontal sundial (Fig. 3) "consists of a horizontal board with a dial printed on it and a pointer in the form of a triangle. Sharp corner of this triangle is made equal to the geographic latitude of the given area, so that the inclined1 side of the triangle is parallel to the earth's axis. The pointer triangle is set so that its plane is perpendicular to the dial, and the line of continuation of the base of the triangle runs in the north-south direction. At noon, the shadow of the pointer is turned (in our northern hemisphere) to the north, Thus, the time mark corresponding to 12 o'clock is on the line of continuation of the base of the triangle "

In a horizontal sundial, the speed of movement of those turns out to be uneven. Therefore, on their dial, the hour markers are located at different, unequal angles. In horizontal sundials, as well as in equatorial ones, the dial is suitable for all days of the year, and throughout the year the shadow from the pointer falls on their dial from above.

In ancient times, sundials were very widespread. The tall and slender obelisks of ancient Egypt were the indexes of the sundial. In India, pilgrims carried staffs with miniature sundial embedded in them. A large sundial was installed on the "Tower of the Winds" in ancient Athens. In ancient Rome, Emperor Augustus, on the Campus Martius, set up an obelisk of Sesostris, 34 meters high, as an indicator of the sundial, taken by him, among other military trophies from Egypt.

The Chinese Emperor Koshu-King erected in 1278 a sundial pointer 40 feet high. His grandson Timur, the famous Samarkand astronomer Ulugbek, who, in an effort to increase the accuracy of reading, in 1430 erected a sundial 175 feet high (about 50 m) in Samarkand, significantly surpassed him.

The attention paid to sundial by kings and nobles often led clock builders to strive not only to make them more accurate, but also spectacular or funny. The mechanic Renier made a sundial, which, with the help of glasses, gunpowder and bells, raised sobriety at noon. Master Rousseau made an even more original time indicator: with the help of an appropriately installed and directed incendiary glass, he ensured that a sunbeam controlled the cannon, causing it to fire at a certain time.

Sundial continued to be built until the 16th and even the 17th century. However, sometimes they were built in later times, but only for decoration.

Despite the fact that scientists have learned to make very large and perfect sundials, their use was far from always convenient; they did not operate at night and in cloudy weather, it was difficult to take them with you on a journey or battle. In this respect, the hourglass was much more convenient.

Sand, fire and water clocks

Hourglasses were usually made in the form of two funnel-shaped glass vessels placed on top of each other. The upper vessel was filled to a certain level with sand, the pouring out of which served as a measure of time. After all the sand had spilled out of the upper vessel, the clock had to be turned over (Fig. 4).

For the convenience of counting time, they sometimes used a whole system of vessels, the first of which was emptied in XU hours, the second in 1/2 hour, the third in 3/4 hours, and the fourth in 1 hour. After emptying the fourth vessel, a person specially appointed for this turned all the flasks over so that the counting of the hourglass began again, and at the same time noted the passage of the hour.

The hourglass was very common on ships; the so-called ship's "flasks" served the sailors to establish the routine of their lives - changing shifts and rest.

The accuracy of the hourglass depends on the uniformity of the sand pouring. To make the hourglass more accurate, it is necessary to use sand as uniform as possible, soft and dry, not forming lumps at the neck of the vessel. For this purpose, watchmakers of the 13th century boiled a mixture of sand and marble dust with wine and lemon juice, descaled, then dried, repeating this operation nine times. Despite all these activities, the hourglass measured time rather inaccurately.

For counting more or less long periods of time, an hourglass is inconvenient both because of its low accuracy and because these watches require constant supervision. In this regard, fire and water clocks, which were widely used in antiquity, were much more convenient.

The miners of the ancient world, mining silver and iron in the mines, used a peculiar way of measuring time: in a clay lamp, which the miner took with him underground, such an amount of oil was poured that it was enough for 10 hours of burning the lamp. When the oil was running out, the miner knew that the working day was ending, and went upstairs.

In China, fire clocks of a slightly different design were used: from special types of wood, ground into powder along with incense, dough was prepared from which sticks were rolled out, giving them a variety of shapes, for example, the shape of a spiral (Fig. 5). Some examples of fire clocks reached several meters in length; slightly crackling and fragrant, they could burn for months. Sometimes metal balls were hung in certain places, which, when the stick burned, fell into a porcelain vase, making a loud ringing - a fiery alarm clock was obtained.

In the Middle Ages, many discoveries of the ancients were forgotten or lost. In many monasteries, the monks determined the time at night by the number of prayers read - the method is far from accurate. Then, in monasteries, and in civilian life, they began to use candles to count time, putting marks on them corresponding to certain periods of time. It was the European version of the fire clock.

The accuracy of the fire clock was also low. Not to mention the difficulty of preparing perfectly homogeneous sticks or candles, it should be noted that the rate of their combustion always depended on the conditions in which it occurred: on the access of fresh air, the presence of wind, etc.

The disadvantage of the fire clock was also that they had to be periodically renewed. Water clocks were more convenient in this respect, since the renewal of the water supply was not difficult.

The water clock was known in ancient egypt, Judea, Babylon, Greece, China. The Greeks called the water clock clepsydra, which literally means "water thief". Time with the help of this watch was determined by the speed of water flowing from one vessel to another, equipped with marks, the water level in which showed the time. To lengthen the measured time interval, sometimes several such vessels were made: three, four (Fig. 6).

Clepsydras were used in everyday life to count time, THEM were used to regulate the time of speeches of speakers in public meetings and in court. In the army, clepsydras were used when setting guards. In ancient times, the clepsydra was a very common instrument, although its accuracy was quite low.

When increasing the accuracy of timing, the designers of the clepsydra had to take into account that water does not flow out of the opening of the vessel evenly, but the faster, the greater the pressure, i.e., the higher its level in the vessel. At the cost of some complication, the designers of the water clock ensured that they did not lag behind as the upper vessel was emptied.

Many designers of water clocks sought to ensure that their devices showed not only the time of day, but also the onset of various astronomical events or controlled the movement of various figures. This forced the inventors of clepsydra to create the most ingenious and cumbersome structures that plunged contemporaries into amazement.

History has preserved for us stories about many wonderful clepsydras. The philosopher Plato invented a water alarm clock that called the students of his Academy to classes. At the beginning of the 9th century, Caliph Harunal-Rashid presented Charlemagne with a Damascus gilded bronze clepsydra with an ingenious mechanism, with which he beat the clock and controlled moving figures. Caliph Al-Mamun owned a clepsydra in which mechanical birds chirped on silver branches. In the 8th century in China, the astronomer I-Gang built a clepsydra, which not only struck the clock, but also showed the movement of the Sun, Moon, planets, lunar eclipses and the position of the stars. The famous Danish astronomer Tycho Brahe (1546-1601) used a clepsydra when observing celestial bodies. Isaac Newton was interested in clepsydra and studied laws.

Even in XVII-XVIII centuries some scientists tried to return the clepsydra to its former meaning, but there was no longer any need for this, mechanical watches replaced the clepsydra.

When solving some problems of increased difficulty, when solving olympiad tasks, when reading additional literature for the lessons of mathematics, history, etc., there is a need to translate ancient measures of weight, volume, length, time into modern ones and vice versa.

When solving problems with economic content, especially historical problems in the lessons of mathematics and economics, it is necessary to transfer prices from one measurement system to another, to be able to make calculations.

MEASUREMENT

A person in his life cannot do without measurements. Without measurements, he could not make his own clothes, build a house, design spaceship. Man has learned to measure many quantities, such as time, area, volume, mass, temperature, length.

On each student's notebook, even if it has not been started, there is already an entry. On the last page of the cover, in clear letters, is printed:

"1 kilometer (km) = 1000 meters (m)"; or "1 cu. meter (cubic meters) \u003d 1000 cubic decimeters \u003d 1,000,000 cubic meters centimeters (cc)”, etc. These are units of measure. Once they were very different.

Since ancient times, different nations have had very different length measures: the elbow, the foot, the thickness of a camel's hair, the width of the grain, the step of an adult man, etc. Even in one country there were no common measures, so disputes often arose due to measuring and weighing. One of the achievements of the Great French bourgeois revolution was the decision to introduce a single metric system of measures on the territory of the republic. Particular merit in the preparation of the law on new measures belongs to the French mathematician J. Pagrange (1736-1823) and politician Prieur Duvernoy (1763-1827). It was decided to take as a unit of length 1/10,000,000 part of a quarter of the Paris geographic meridian. The measurement of a part of this meridian between the cities of Dunkirk and Barcelona was carried out for almost 6 years by two French scientists: P. Mechain and J. Delambert. In Russia, N.I. was the first to accept the meter as a unit of length. Lobachevsky (1792-1874).

The initiator of the introduction metric system measures as an international one were Russian scientists headed by B.S. Jacobi (1801-1874). This system of measures became obligatory in our country only after the Great October Socialist Revolution.

The Bible counts by cubits. The calculation of the ancient Greeks was based on dactylos - a finger (from dactylos - poetic size dactyl, similar to a finger with one long joint and two short ones), then came the palm - 4 fingers, 16 fingers made up the foot, one and a half feet - the elbow. Pletra - 100 feet, stages - 6 pletras. The same with the ancient Romans: digitus, or thumb, dog - foot, passis, or double step. A thousand double steps, or, in Latin, a mille (thousand) passum, was equal to our 1478.7 meters. The word mile has survived to this day in many languages.

But counting body parts gave more than just a mile. In ancient times, we measured in elbows, spans (the word "span" is also included in today's language), that is, the distance between the spread little finger and the thumb. In the charter of Vsevolod about church courts and about people and measures of trade, until 1136, the “elbow of Evan” was mentioned. During the excavations of A.V. Artsikhovsky in Novgorod in 1948, a wooden sample of the “Evan” elbow with an inscription was also found. The Egyptians used their elbows to measure the rise of the Nile. The old count for arshins of the same origin: arash, in Persian - cubit, passed into the Tatar measure of arshins, and we borrowed it from the Tatars.

The English measure foot also means foot in English. Since the feet of people are not the same size, misunderstandings occurred. Therefore, in the VIII century, King Charlemagne announced that the foot from now on is the length of his foot (why in English language the name "royal foot" has been preserved).

The inch also comes from the name of the body part (thumb). “Inch” is the Dutch name for the thumb, this measure was used to measure small objects (for example, in the fairy tale “Thumbelina” by G.Kh. Andersen, the main character is a girl of very small stature, an inch high; she was called Thumbelina). The concepts of space and time sometimes replaced each other in the language. We often say: "half an hour's journey" and "did not have time to go five miles." Measures of distances figuratively began to mean. That a stage has been passed or completed. Thus, the Greek measure - stage - in our language has become a stage of development. The old Russian measure - the field (about one and a half kilometers) began to mean in the old book language not only the path (on the path of glory, in the field of glory), but also the area of ​​\u200b\u200bactivity (in the field of science). Mathematics, unlike other subjects, has an abstract, abstract character. We have to operate with such concepts as number, measure, spatial forms. Information from the history of length measures, including native Russian ones, convincingly reveals the connection between mathematics and life, shows that people did not invent units of measurement, but first took parts of their bodies as measures, which gradually turned into generally accepted samples.

It should be noted that the ratio between the ancient measures of length and mass was not decimal, as it is now, so it took a lot of time to master the ability to perform operations with quantities. It was even more difficult in those cases when it was required to transfer the measures of one country to the measures of another, since each state had its own system of measures. This complicated trade and relations between people.

FROM THE HISTORY OF MEASURES OF LENGTH

It is impossible to imagine the life of a person who does not make measurements. Even primitive man resorted to measurements during the construction of his dwelling.

First measuring instruments there were parts of the body: fingers, palm, foot, step. So, among the ancient Egyptians, the cubit (the distance from the end of the fingers to the bent elbow) served as the main measure of length. It was divided into seven palms, and the palm - into four fingers.

With this measure, most often the length of tapes or matter was measured.

A full turn of cloth around the elbow was sometimes called a double elbow. To make measurements more accurate and not depend on the height of people, in ancient Egypt they came up with exemplary measures: elbow, palm, finger. Now it doesn’t matter how long a person’s arm is, he measured it not with his own, but with a common elbow, i.e. conventional stick, one cubit long. They were used in the construction of structures and other works. The sample of the "sacred" elbow was kept by the priests in the temple.

In England, there were also units of length associated with parts of the human body: inch, foot, yard. An inch (translated from Dutch means thumb), equal to the length of three barley grains, pulled out from the middle part of the ear and attached to each other ends. foot (from English word leg).

In 1101, the main measure of the length of a yard was legalized there - the distance from the nose of King Henry I to the end of the middle finger of his outstretched hand.

Many peoples measured length with steps, double steps or canes. Sometimes a double cane was used, equal to four steps. Even before our era in the Roman state, and later in Italy, in the countries of Asia and Africa to measure long distances they used a thousand canes, from where a new measure originated - a mile (from the Latin word for a thousand). Long distances were also measured by crossings, halts, days. For example, they said that the distance from one city to another is three days' journey.

In Japan, there was a measure called a horse shoe. It was equal to the path during which the straw sole tied to the horse's legs wore out. The nomadic Mongols determined the distances in camel or horse crossings, always adding: "with a good (bad) ride."

For many peoples, the distance was determined by the range of an arrow or a cannon ball. To this day, the expression has been preserved to prevent a cannon shot.

What are the measures of length used in Russia in the old days?

The most ancient of them were the cubit and fathom. The concept of elbow is already familiar to us. The oldest mention of a sazhen (from syagat - to get to something, to achieve) is found in the "Word about the beginning of the Kiev-Pechersky Monastery" and refers to the 11th century. There is reason to believe that the sazhen was then smaller: not three arshins, but three cubits. But even after the three-arshin sazhen was established, other sazhens existed in everyday life - flywheel and oblique. So,

Fathoms were distinguished oblique and flywheel. Flywheel - the distance between arms outstretched in both directions at the ends of outstretched middle fingers; oblique - from the heel of the right foot to the fingertips of the outstretched left hand. Sometimes they say about a person: "In the shoulders - an oblique fathom." To measure long distances, a verst equal to 500 sazhens was used.

In the 17th century as a result of the development of trade with the eastern peoples, the measure arshin came into use (from the Persian arsh - cubit). It is equal to 71 cm 12 mm. He came to Russia together with merchants from distant countries.

Merchants brought unprecedented fabrics: the finest Chinese silks, heavy Indian brocade made of real gold and silver threads, velvet, etc. They brought priceless works of art created by folk craftsmen in their bales. Now these fabrics and clothes sewn from them are kept in museums, and they amaze with their splendor no less than 500 years ago. But 500 years ago, merchants traded them and they had to be measured. How was it done? Our stores use wooden meters. Eastern merchants did without any meters: they pulled the fabric over their own arm, up to the shoulder. This was called measuring with arshins.

Although the measure was very convenient - hands are always with you - but it had a significant drawback: unfortunately, everyone's hands are different. Some were long, others were short. The cunning merchants quickly realized that they needed to look for clerks with shorter hands: the same piece, but more arshins.

But one day it came to an end. It was strictly forbidden by the authorities to sell “at your own yard”. It was allowed to use only state arshin. The state arshin - a ruler the length of someone's arm - was made in Moscow, then copies were made from it and sent to all parts of Russia. So that the wooden arshin could not be shortened, its ends were bound with iron and marked with a seal. Tens of years are no longer measured in arshins, but this word has not been forgotten. Until now, they say about a shrewd person: “he sees three arshins under the ground”, and about a person who judges everything only by himself, he “measures to his own arshin”.

We are all accustomed to the usual facts - there are 24 hours in a day, a month has 30 days, there are 365 of them in a year. Mechanical and electronic watches are our everyday reality, and it is difficult to imagine today what could be different. How did people live before the modern clock was invented? What ways of calculating time do other peoples have? We will find the answers to these questions below.

In ancient times there were various ways determine the time. The sundial helped to navigate by the shadow cast by the Sun as it moved across the sky during the day. They included a pole (gnomon) that cast a shadow, and a dial with marks along which the shadow moved. The very principle of operation of the watch implies their complete dependence on the Sun, so it was impossible to use this watch at night or in cloudy weather. Different peoples of antiquity, such as Egypt, Rome, China, Greece, India, had their own varieties of sundial, which differed in design.

The water clock was a cylindrical vessel from which water flowed drop by drop. The time was determined by the amount of water flowing out. Such watches were common in Egypt, Babylon, Rome. However, there was another kind of water clock, which was common in Asian countries - a floating vessel was filled with water, which entered through a small hole.

The hourglass is familiar to all of us. They existed before our era, in the Middle Ages their development was improved. For clock accuracy great importance had the quality of sand and the uniformity of its flowability, it was made specially. Fine powder of black marble was used, as well as pre-treated lead and zinc dust sand, and other types of sand.

Time was also determined with the help of fire. Fire clocks were very common in ancient times, especially in homes. There were different types such hours - candle, wick, lamp. In China, where fire clocks are believed to have first appeared, a variety was common, consisting of a base made of combustible material (in the form of a spiral or stick) and metal balls attached to it. When a certain interval of the base burned out, the balls fell, thus beating the time.

In Europe, candle clocks were popular, which made it possible to determine the time by the amount of burnt wax. This variety was especially common in monasteries and churches.

One can also mention such a method of determining time in antiquity as orientation by the stars. In ancient Egypt, there were star maps, according to which Egyptian observers, when using a transit instrument, were guided at night.

It should be noted that in ancient Egypt there was also a division of day and night into 12 hours, but the hours were not the same length. In summer, daytime hours were longer, nighttime hours were shorter, and vice versa in winter. The month according to the Egyptian calendar consisted of 30 days, the year consisted of 3 seasons of 4 months each. For the Egyptians, the Nile served as the basis of life, and the seasons were closely related to the events around this river: the time of the flood of the river (akhet), the time of the earth's emergence from the water and the beginning of agriculture (peret) and the time of low water (shemu).
New Year The Egyptians celebrated in September, with the appearance of the star Sirius in the sky.

IN Ancient Rome the year consisted of only 10 months (304 days). The beginning of the year was in March. Subsequently, the Roman calendar underwent changes - Julius Caesar established a calendar year of twelve months, the beginning of which was determined on January 1, since on this day the Roman consuls took office and a new economic cycle began. This calendar is called the Julian. The names of the months that are familiar to us from childhood - January, February, March, etc. - came to us from Rome.

Nowadays, in most countries, the time is counted from the Nativity of Christ and the Gregorian calendar is adopted. However, there are other options for timing. For example, in Israel, the reckoning is from the creation of the world, which dates back to 3761 BC. according to Judaism. The year in the Jewish calendar is of 3 types - correct, consisting of 354 days, sufficient, numbering 355 days, and insufficient, consisting of 353 days. IN leap year one extra month added.

Everyone knows the Chinese calendar, in which each year is dedicated to a particular animal. At first, China adhered to it, but with the formation of communism in this country, there was a transition to the Gregorian calendar. The Eastern calendar is still used in China today to determine the dates of holidays such as the Spring Festival, which is Chinese New Year, and the Mid-Autumn Festival. New Year in China is a variable holiday and falls on the "Day of the first new moon", which is between January 21 and February 21.

To date, there are other examples of time reference systems that reflect the vision of the world and the traditions of the peoples who created them.

Who is who in the world of discoveries and inventions Sitnikov Vitaly Pavlovich

How was time measured in ancient times?

When we talk about watches, we mean a device for measuring time. But man had known ways of counting time long before he invented such devices.

Sunrise and sunset were the first indicators of time. The increase and decrease in shadows from sticks, stones and trees also served to tell time. The movement of the stars also served man as something like a giant clock. He noticed that as the night wore on, various stars became visible.

The ancient Egyptians divided the night into twelve time periods corresponding to the rising of 12 stars. They divided the day in the same way, and our 24-hour day is based on the Egyptian division of day and night. The Egyptians also made shadow clocks - wooden blocks with signs. Ultimately, these shadow or sundials, having 12 periods for dividing the day, were the first hours.

The next types of clocks were water and fire. The sliced ​​candle counted time as it burned from slice to slice. And in the water clock, a plate with a small hole at the bottom was placed on the water. After a certain time, the floating saucer filled with water and sank.

About 2000 years ago, man invented another type of clock - hourglass. They consisted of two hollow glass vessels connected in such a way that sand could be poured from one to the other. The upper vessel was filled with sand in such quantity that it spilled out into the hole within an hour.

Around 140 BC, the Greeks and Romans used the cogwheel to improve water clocks. The float, placed in the vessel, rose when the water flowed in a thin stream into the vessel. It was connected to a gear wheel. The wheel turned the hand, which gradually moved from one hour mark to another. And after 1400 years, the first mechanical clock was invented. The load was tied to a string, it turned the coil, which in turn moved the axis of the cogwheels and gears. The wheels turned the arrow on the dial.

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From the book The Newest Philosophical Dictionary author Gritsanov Alexander Alekseevich

SOCIAL TIME (the time of human existence) is a collective perceptual time, a universal of culture, the content of which underlies the conceptual time, which is constituted in the phenomenon of history as a conscious procedurality of social life. Most

We can count objects from grade 1. It's very simple - one, two, three... Measuring the distance is also easy. And how and with what to measure time? The most ancient “clock” that never stopped or broke was the sun. Morning, evening, day - not very accurate measurements, but at first primitive man that was enough. Then people began to watch the sky more and found that after a certain time a bright star appears in the sky. These observations were made by the Egyptians, and they also named this star Sirius. When Sirius appeared, the Egyptians celebrated the new year. This is how the now well-known measure of time, the year, appeared. It turned out that the interval between the appearance of Sirius consists of 365 days. As you can see, the calculations of the ancient Egyptians turned out to be quite accurate. After all, our year consists of 365 days. But a year is too big a measure of time. And in order to manage the economy (sowing, growing, harvesting), smaller units of time were needed, and people again turned to the sky and the stars. This time the moon came to the rescue, or, in other words, the month. All of you have watched the moon and you know that after a certain time it changes its shape: from a thin crescent to a bright round disk (full moon).

The interval between two full moons is called a month. It turned out that the month consists of approximately 29 days. That's exactly how ancient world knew how to tell the time!

And the seven-day week arose in Babylon thanks to those planets that appeared in the sky and were known to the Babylonians:

Saturday is the day of Saturn;

Sunday is the day of the Sun;

Monday is the day of the moon;

Tuesday is the day of Mars;

Wednesday is the day of Mercury;

Thursday is the day of Jupiter;

Friday is the day of Venus.

If other planets of the solar system were known in Babylon, perhaps our week would not consist of 7, but of 9, 10 or 8 days. The change of these luminaries during the month occurred approximately 4 times. So it turned out that there are 4 weeks in a month.

So, the most difficult thing - to find the measurements of time - was already done in the ancient world. These measurements are still in use today. They just call them differently. In Russia, the names of the days of the week came from the ordinal number of the day:

Monday - by week, the day that starts the week;

Tuesday - the second day;

Wednesday - middle of the week;

Thursday - the fourth day;

Friday - the fifth day;

Saturday, Sunday - these names are taken from the church dictionary.

It turns out that people borrowed all the main measures of time (year, month, week) from nature many years ago. Although these measures could not measure the exact time, but the main step was nevertheless taken.

« Primary School", 2004, No. 6

Subject: Time from 0 hours to 24 hours.

Goals: learn to solve problems to determine the beginning, end and duration of an event; introduce the unit of time - the second; improve computational skills, the ability to solve problems and equations; develop respect for time.

Planned results: students will get acquainted with a new unit of time - a second; learn how to solve problems to determine the beginning, end and duration of an event; accept and save learning task; take into account the guidelines of action allocated by the teacher; make comparisons according to specified criteria.

During the classes

I. Organizing time

II. Knowledge update

Logic tasks

Igor is 4 years older than his brother Alexei and 5 years younger than his sister Masha. If you add up the ages of all three, you get 31 years. How old is Igor? (10 years.)

Irina is exactly 3 times older than her sister Nadezhda. How old are each sisters if half of their combined age is 12? (6 and 18 years old.)

III. Self-determination to activity

(The teacher reads the tasks.)

Lessons start at 8 o'clock. Olya walks 15 minutes from home to school and 10 minutes to prepare for lessons. What time does she have to go to school so as not to be late?

Lessons start at 8 o'clock. Olya leaves the house at 7:35. How long does it take Olya to get from home to school and get ready for her lessons?

Olya leaves the house at 7:35. She walks 15 minutes from home to school and 10 minutes to prepare for lessons. What time do lessons start?

How are tasks similar? What is the difference?

Formulate the objectives of the lesson. (Learn to solve problems to determine the beginning, end and duration of an event.)

IV. Work on the topic of the lesson Work on the textbook

No. 231 (p. 49).(Oral performance.)

No. 232 (p. 49).(Independent performance. Two students work on a folding board. Check, self-assessment.)

1) Solution: 12:30 - 10:00 = 2:30 Answer: The tour lasted 2 hours 30 minutes.

2) Solution: 13 hours + 3 hours 15 minutes = 16 hours 15 minutes Answer: The performance ended at 4:15 p.m. No. 234 (p. 49).

Read.

How many hours in a day?

How to find the third part of the day? (24:3 = 8(h).)

What is half a day? How to find it? (This is the second part of the day: 24:2= 12 (h).)

How to find a quarter of an hour? (1 hour= 60min, 60:4 = 15(min.)

- How to find a quarter of a year? (1 year = 365 days, 365:4 = 91 days 6 hours)

No. 235 (p. 49).(Self-execution. Verification, self-assessment.)

Answers: 2 mm, 10 mm 2 .

V. Physical education

The moon floats in the sky. (Smooth swings to the right and left.)

She went into the clouds.

One, two, three, four, five - (Clap hands.)

Can we get the moon. (Hands up.)

Six seven eight nine ten - (clapping over head.)

And move it lower. (Hands down.)

Ten, nine, eight, seven Steps in place.)

So that the moon shines for everyone. (Sit at the desk.)

VI. Continuation of work on the topic of the lesson

Introduction to the unit of time - the second

(The teacher shows the clock.)

Look at our clock. How many arrows do they have? (Three.)

- Name them. (Hour, minute and second.)

Watch how they move. ( The hour hand has hardly moved, the minute has moved one division, and the second has made a whole circle.)

- How long does it take for the minute hand to move through one division? (For 1 min.)

And what did the second hand do during this time? (Passed 60 divisions.)

- What can be the conclusion? (In 1 min 60s.)(Writing on the board and in notebooks.)

1 min = 60 s

In PE class, you often run and do timed exercises. What is the name of the device used by the teacher? (Stopwatch.)

- It also looks like a clock, but its dial is designed for 1 minute. And how many seconds is this? (The teacher shows a stopwatch.) The second hand can be stopped.

Textbook work

Read the theoretical material on p. fifty.

Are we getting the correct ratio?

No. 239 (p. 50).(Oral performance.)

No. 240 (p. 50).(Collective execution with chain commenting.)

No. 241 (p. 50).

- Read the task.

Will the camera take more or less pictures? (More.)

How many times? (10: 2 = 5 (p.).)

How many shots does the camera take in 10 seconds? (32. (10: 2) = = 160 (s.).)

VII. Reflection

(Independent performance of the tasks "Check yourself" (textbook, pp. 49, 50). Check.) Answers S. 49: at 1 pm S. 50: 12 s, 6 s.

VIII. Summing up the lesson

What units are used to measure time?

How many seconds in 1 minute?

Homework

Textbook: No. 243-245 (p. 50).

Topic: Units of time. Age.

Goals: introduce the unit of time - the century; generalize and systematize knowledge about units of time; create a table of time units.

Planned results: students will get acquainted with the unit of time - a century; learn to correlate units of time; build a logical chain of reasoning; establish analogies; take someone else's point of view, different from their own.

During the classes

I. Organizational moment

II. Knowledge update

Individual work by cards

(Cards are received by students who have mastered the topic well.)

Solve the problem.

Vasily came home after school at 2:35. It took him 10 minutes to change and wash, 25 minutes to have lunch, 1 hour and 45 minutes to prepare his homework, 25 minutes to clean his room and 30 minutes to get home. young technician, in which he is engaged in modeling. What time do modeling classes start if Vasily is 25 minutes late for them? (At 5:25)

2. Front work

Insert the desired units of time.

Olya read 100 words in 1 ... (min).

Autumn holidays last 1 ... (week).

Summer holidays last 3... (months).

Vova left for the camp on 18... (days).

A wolf can live 15-20... (years).

Solve problems.

Lena went out for a walk at 13:00 and came home at 14:20. How long did Lena walk? (1h 20min.)

The road from the house to the cinema near Vova takes 25 minutes. What time does he have to leave the house to meet a friend at the cinema at 11 o'clock? (At 10:35 a.m.) .

The train travels between the two cities in 2 hours and 27 minutes. What time did he leave one city if he arrived in another city at 20:00? (At 5:32 p.m.)

Calculate.

How many times 1 month less than 1 year? (12 times.)

How many days 1 month less than 1 year? (For 335 or 336 days.)

How many hours in 1 week? (168 hours);

The lesson lasts 40 minutes. How many seconds is this? (2400s.)