The word "pharaoh" owes its origin to the Greek language. It is noteworthy that it was found even in the Old Testament.
Mysteries of history
According to ancient legend, the first pharaoh of Egypt - Menes - later became the most popular deity. However, in general, information about these rulers is rather vague. We can't even claim that they all actually existed. The pre-dynastic period is most fully covered in this respect. Historians identify specific people who ruled Southern and Northern Egypt.
paraphernalia
The ancient pharaohs of Egypt without fail passed the rite of coronation. Memphis was the venue for the traditional solemn action. The new divine rulers received symbols of power from the priests. Among them were a diadem, a scepter, a whip, crowns and a cross. The last attribute was in the shape of the letter "t" and was crowned with a loop, symbolizing life itself.
The scepter was a short wand. Its upper end was curved. This attribute of power came from Such a thing could belong not only to kings and gods, but also to high officials.
Peculiarities
The ancient pharaohs of Egypt, like sons, could not appear before their people with their heads uncovered. The main royal headdress was the crown. There were many varieties of this symbol of power, among which are the White Crown of Upper Egypt, the Red Crown “deshret”, the crown of Lower Egypt, and also the “Pshent” - a double version consisting of the White and Red crowns (symbolized the unity of the two kingdoms). The pharaoh's power Ancient Egypt extended even to space - so strong was the admiration for each heir of the creator of the world. However, it would be wrong to say that all pharaohs were despotic rulers and sole rulers of destinies.
Some ancient images depict the pharaohs of Egypt, whose heads are covered with scarves. This royal attribute was gold with blue stripes. Often a crown was placed on him.
Appearance
According to tradition, the ancient pharaohs of Egypt were clean-shaven. Another external distinguishing feature rulers - a beard, which symbolized masculine strength and divine power. It is noteworthy that Hatshepsut also wore a beard, however, a consignment note.
Narmer
This pharaoh is a representative of the 0 or I dynasty. He ruled around the end of the third millennium BC. A plate from Hierakonpolis depicts him as the ruler of the united lands of Upper and Lower Egypt. It remains a mystery why his name is not included in the royal lists. Some historians believe that Narmer and Menes are the same person. Until now, many argue about whether all the ancient pharaohs of Egypt are really non-fictional characters.
Significant arguments in favor of the reality of Narmer are such found objects as a mace and a palette. The oldest artifacts glorify the conqueror of Lower Egypt named Narmer. It is claimed that he was the predecessor of Menes. However, this theory also has its opponents.
Menes
For the first time, Menes became the ruler of an entire country. This pharaoh laid the foundation for the 1st dynasty. Based on archaeological data, it can be assumed that the time of his reign was about 3050 BC. Translated from ancient Egyptian, his name means "strong", "durable".
Traditions dating back to the Ptolemaic era tell that Menes did a lot to unite the northern and southern parts of the country. In addition, his name was mentioned in the chronicles of Herodotus, Pliny the Elder, Plutarch, Elian, Diodorus and Manetho. It is believed that Menes is the founder of Egyptian statehood, writing and cults. In addition, he initiated the construction of Memphis, in which his residence was located.
Menes was famous as a wise politician and an experienced military leader. However, the period of his reign is characterized in different ways. According to some sources, the life of ordinary Egyptians became worse under the reign of Menes, while others note the establishment of worship and temple rites, which testifies to the wise government of the country.
Historians believe that Menes passed away in the sixty-third year of his reign. The culprit of the death of this ruler, as expected, was a hippopotamus. The enraged animal inflicted mortal injuries on Menes.
Chorus Aha
The history of the pharaohs of Egypt would be incomplete without mentioning this glorious ruler. Modern Egyptologists believe that it was Hor Aha who united Upper and Lower Egypt, and also founded Memphis. There is a version that he was the son of Menes. This pharaoh ascended the throne in 3118, 3110 or 3007 BC. e.
During his reign, ancient Egyptian chronicle writing was born. Each year received a special name for the brightest event that took place. So, one of the years of the reign of Hor Aha is called as follows: "the defeat and capture of Nubia." However, wars were not always waged. In general, the period of the reign of this son of the sun god is characterized as peaceful, calm.
The Abydos tomb of the pharaoh Hor Aha is the largest in the northwestern group of similar structures. However, the most pretentious is the Northern Tomb, which is located in Saqqara. It also contained objects carved with the name Hor Akha. For the most part, these are wooden labels and clay seals located on the vessels. On some products from Ivory the name Bener-Ib ("sweet in heart") was carved. Perhaps these artifacts brought to us the memory of the pharaoh's wife.
Jer
This son of the sun god belongs to the 1st dynasty. He is supposed to have reigned for forty-seven years (2870-2823 BC). Not all the ancient pharaohs of Egypt could boast of a large number of innovations during their reign. However, Jer was one of the most ardent reformers. It is assumed that he had success in the military field. Researchers found a rock inscription on the west bank of the Nile. It depicts Jer, and in front of him is a captive man kneeling.
The tomb of the pharaoh, located in Abydos, is a large rectangular pit lined with bricks. The crypt was made of wood. Near the main burial site, 338 additional ones were found. It is assumed that servants and women from Djer's harem are buried in them. All of them, as required by tradition, were sacrificed after the burial of the king. Another 269 graves became the place of the last refuge of the nobles and courtiers of the pharaoh.
Den
This pharaoh ruled around 2950 AD. His personal name is Sepati (this became known thanks to the Abydos list). Some historians believe that it was this pharaoh who put on the double crown, symbolizing the unification of Egypt, for the first time. History says that he was the leader of military campaigns on From here it can be concluded that Den was set up for the further expansion of the Egyptian kingdom in this direction.
The pharaoh's mother was in a special position during the reign of her son. This is evidenced by the fact that she rests near the tomb of Den. Such an honor still needed to be awarded. In addition, it is assumed that Hemaka, the keeper of the state treasury, was also a highly respected person. On found ancient Egyptian labels, his name follows the name of the king. This is evidence of the special honor and trust of King Dan, who united Egypt.
The tombs of the pharaohs of that time were not distinguished by special architectural delights. However, the same cannot be said about Dan's tomb. So, an impressive staircase leads to his tomb (it goes to the east, directly towards the rising sun), and the crypt itself is decorated with red granite slabs.
Tutankhamun
The reign of this pharaoh is approximately 1332-1323 BC. e. Nominally, he began to rule the country at the age of ten. Naturally, the real power belonged to more experienced people - the courtier Aye and the commander Horemheb. During this period, the external position of Egypt was strengthened due to the pacification within the country. During the reign of Tutankhamun, the construction was intensified, as well as the restoration of the neglected and destroyed during the reign of the previous pharaoh - Akhenaten - the sanctuaries of the gods.
As was established during the anatomical studies of the mummy, Tutankhamun did not even live to be twenty years old. Two versions of his death are put forward: the fatal consequences of some kind of illness or complications after falling from the chariot. His tomb was found in the notorious Valley of the Kings near Thebes. It was practically not plundered by ancient Egyptian marauders. During archaeological sites a great variety of precious ornaments, garments, and works of art were found. Truly unique finds were a bed, seats and a gilded chariot.
It is noteworthy that the aforementioned successors of the king - Eye and Horemheb - tried in every possible way to consign his name to oblivion, classifying Tutankhamun among the heretics.
Ramses I
This pharaoh is believed to have ruled from 1292 to 1290 BC. Historians identify him with Horemheb's temporary worker - a powerful commander and supreme dignitary Paramessu. The honorary position he occupied was as follows: "the head of all the horses of Egypt, the commandant of the fortresses, the caretaker of the Nile entrance, the envoy of the pharaoh, the charioteer of His Majesty, the royal clerk, the commander, the common priest of the Gods of the Two Lands." It is assumed that Pharaoh Ramses I (Ramses) is the successor of Horemheb himself. An image of his magnificent ascension to the throne has been preserved on the pylon.
According to Egyptologists, the reign of Ramesses I is not distinguished by either duration or significant events. He is most often mentioned in connection with the fact that the pharaohs of Egypt, Seti I and Ramesses II, were his direct descendants (son and grandson, respectively).
Cleopatra
This famous queen is a representative of the Macedonian. Her feelings for the Roman commander were truly dramatic. The years of Cleopatra's reign are infamous due to the Roman conquest of Egypt. The obstinate queen was so disgusted with the idea of being a prisoner (of the first Roman emperor) that she chose to commit suicide. Cleopatra is the most popular ancient character in literary works and films. Her reign took place in co-rulership with her brothers, and after that with Mark Anthony, her legal husband.
Cleopatra is considered the last independent pharaoh in ancient Egypt before the Romans conquered the country. She is often mistakenly called the last pharaoh, but this is not so. A love affair with Caesar brought her a son, and with Mark Antony a daughter and two sons.
The pharaohs of Egypt are most fully described in the works of Plutarch, Appian, Suetonius, Flavius and Cassius. Cleopatra, of course, also did not go unnoticed. In many sources, she is described as a depraved woman of extraordinary beauty. For a night with Cleopatra, many were ready to pay with their own lives. However, this ruler was smart and courageous enough to pose a threat to the Romans.
Conclusion
The pharaohs of Egypt (the names and biographies of some of them are presented in the article) contributed to the formation of a powerful state that lasted more than twenty-seven centuries. The fertile waters of the Nile contributed greatly to the rise and improvement of this ancient kingdom. Annual floods perfectly fertilized the soil and contributed to the maturation of a rich crop of grain. Due to the surplus of food, there was a significant increase in the population. The concentration of human resources, in turn, favored the creation and maintenance of irrigation canals, the formation of a large army, and the development of trade relations. In addition, mining, field geodesy and construction technologies were gradually mastered.
The society was controlled by the administrative elite, which was formed by priests and clerks. At the head, of course, was the pharaoh. The deification of the bureaucratic apparatus contributed to prosperity and order.
Today we can say with confidence that Ancient Egypt became the source of the great heritage of world civilization.
Nefertiti and Akhenaten historical figures who lived about 3400 years ago in ancient Egypt. For the first time, archaeologists learned about the existence of Amenhotep, better known as Pharaoh Akhenaten, and his main wife Nefertiti thanks to a discovery made during the excavations of Akhetaten.
The found tablets with records led scientists to the idea that the description of the ceremonies in these artifacts reliably confirms the marriage between the pharaoh and the queen. The enthusiastic epithets that described the beauty of a young girl made scientists doubt this statement, but the bust found later fully confirmed the validity of what was written in the ancient tablets.
Who is she
Scientists are still arguing about who she was Egyptian queen Nefertiti, her origin is not known for certain. Many questions remain: when exactly the queen died, whether a separate tomb of Nefertiti was erected or whether she was buried near Akhenaten, whether the mummy of Nefertiti was preserved. The tablets found during excavations in the 20th century allow us to put forward several versions of where the young beauty came from:
2. The young maiden belonged to the highest nobility and arrived at the court to become one of the favorites of the pharaoh. The ceremony of receiving the title "Nefertiti, Queen of Egypt" by her, the biography set out in ancient tablets - all this confirms this version and indicates the high origin of the beauty.
3. latest version is the wealthiest and says that Taduhepa (or Taduchepa) was the second daughter of the Mitannian king Tushratta, and she arrived in Egypt after her elder sister. As was customary at that time, the girl changed her name and began to be called Nefertiti, which meant "perfect." The disputes of scientists that Nefertiti was still the elder sister of Geluhepa were resolved after the discovery of a historical archive, which contained information about her age.
Disputes about the beauty of the queen
It is known for certain that in those days the Egyptians were considered one of the most beautiful women, and the historical evidence found confirms the existence of a cult of beauty.
The ancient Egyptians were truly virtuoso cosmetologists: the number of recipes for moisturizing, nourishing, anti-aging creams was in the hundreds. All of them were made on the basis of aromatic oils, medicinal herbs, milk or clay. At the same time, the prototype of the modern deodorant appeared - small bags with fragrant herbs, which were fixed at the armpits. Particular attention was paid to the body: recipes for ointments from peeling, redness, as well as massage and bathing products are known.
So what did the young queen look like in real life? Disputes about this ceased after the discovery of the bust of Nefertiti by Ludwig Borchardt during excavations near a small Egyptian village. The bust was made by the famous sculptor of antiquity Thutmose.
The archaeologist was so struck by the beauty of the queen that he made the following entry in his diary: “Watch and admire.” Borchardt disguised the find as an ordinary stone containing insignificant records, and then secretly took it abroad. Now this artifact is in the Berlin Museum dedicated to the history of Ancient Egypt.
We must pay tribute to the beauty of Nefertiti, she had a very refined, sophisticated appearance, very skillfully used cosmetics. There are several testimonies that Nefertiti took a bath at least five times a day, changed clothes and makeup, and did it on a grand scale.
Over a hundred subjects could attend the bathing ceremony, offering incense, ointments and creams, clothes and jewelry, as well as light snacks. The queen took a special bath of milk and aromatic tinctures every evening, thanks to which her skin was supposed to remain smooth and tender.
The appearance in the harem and the struggle for power
By chance, some Interesting Facts: Akhenaten was still playing with dolls when he got the throne and his father's huge harem. Tia, without any doubt, of all the girls chose Nefertiti as a wife for her son and married them. The perfection of the girl's features, her impeccable figure and sharp mind impressed the young pharaoh so much that he was not interested in other women of the harem.
Immediately, a fierce confrontation began between Tia and Nefertiti for influence on Akhenaten - thanks to cunning and intelligence, Nefertiti won. Mother was immediately removed from power, and her supporters were removed from important posts.
The queen always accompanied her husband: they went for walks together, oversaw the construction of the temple in honor of the Aton, and received important guests. They also checked the posts around the city together, and the guard had to give a brief report to both spouses. Such an idyll lasted for many years, during the marriage Nefertiti had six children, but all of them were girls, which made Akhenaten very sad.
last years of life
It is known from historical records that the huge influence that Nefertiti had on Akhenaten annoyed many. Their marriage began to crumble after it became clear that the queen would not be able to give birth to a boy. Disagreements between the spouses intensified when Nefertiti's middle daughter, Maketaton, died. The ill-wishers did not fail to take advantage of the chance and introduced the young beauty Kiya to the pharaoh.
After the death of her daughter, Nefertiti retired to another palace, and the new favorite completely took possession of the heart of Akhenaten. Vows of eternal love for the former wife were forgotten, and in order to emphasize the status of the new chosen one, Kiya was given the title of junior pharaoh. All images of Nefertiti begin to be destroyed, and tablets with records are removed from the archive of the palace. However, Kiya was not able to stay in power for long, after a few years she was expelled from the palace.
Nefertiti survived her husband, papyri have survived to this day, confirming the participation of the queen in government. In the chronicles, she is described as "sharp and omniscient", and a fragment of a document confirming the courtship of a noble nobleman has also been preserved.
Unfortunately, the tomb of Nefertiti has not been found, and scientists are still arguing about who is buried in the tomb near the feet of Akhenaten. The legend that a golden coffin with the remains of the queen was found in the 19th century has no reliable evidence. Author: Natalia Ivanova
Ming is ancient god fertility, harvest, cattle breeding, giving rain and a rich harvest. Under his patronage were wanderers in the desert, trade caravans, it was believed that he helped the birth of people and the breeding of livestock. Originally in the era of the early dynasties, Ming, presumably, was also the god of the sky, the creator. Min was depicted as a white bull or a man in a crown with two feathers and with an erect phallus. One of Ming's hands was raised above his head, and in the other he held a whip or lightning bolt.
The Ming festival began on the first day of harvest and was celebrated with a ritual procession. Ahead of the procession was a white bull, the symbol of the god Ming, on whose head a crown was attached. Pharaoh walked along with his sons, accompanied by dignitaries of the nobility. On some reliefs (for example, in Medinet Habu, the memorial temple of Ramses III in Luxor), participants in the ritual procession wear crowns of feathers on their heads. In honor of the god Ming, a symbolic pillar was erected. The pharaoh, who participated in the ritual, cut off the first sheaf on the field with a golden sickle, brought it to the pillar and solemnly laid it at the foot. The holiday, apparently, was not as popular, noisy and cheerful as the holiday of Opet, but no less joyful for that. The farmers began harvesting and could not afford to indulge in prolonged gluttony and drunkenness. Even if the harvest was supposed to be rich, it still had to be harvested. And for the pharaoh, festive rituals were an essential part of the duties that lay on him as the ruler of the country and the main stronghold of Egyptian society.
Much has changed over the millennia in ancient Egypt. Mores and customs, apparently, also did not remain unchanged, but the traditions were very strong. So, for example, the great rulers of Upper and Lower Egypt were supposed to have a harem, and a very numerous one at that. The pharaoh had not even one harem, but several, evenly distributed along the entire length of the Nile. The pharaoh did not have to carry women with him, but in every palace where he stopped while traveling through his state, a rich selection of well-groomed beauties awaited him. In some remote harems lived women who had already grown old or no longer liked the pharaoh. Not only the pharaoh's concubines lived in harems, but also their children, as well as close and distant relatives of the ruler. For example, in the harem of Pharaoh Amenophis III there were about a thousand women, and a specially appointed official managed the harem.
For an Egyptian, getting into the harem of the pharaoh was a great success and a high honor. Unlike the concubines of the rulers of many other countries, in ancient Egypt, the inhabitants of the pharaoh's harem had certain rights and obligations. Women from the pharaoh's harem had their own estates, received income from them, could be mistresses of weaving workshops, and manage production.
The children of the concubines did not have any titles, and their names have not been preserved for centuries. Only in those cases when, after the death of the pharaoh, there was no legitimate heir born of the main wife of the pharaoh, the son of one of the secondary wives and concubines, who received the title of mother of the pharaoh, could claim the throne. But this happened extremely rarely, and was the lucky one who unexpectedly fell to the exceptional fate of the divine ruler of Egypt? Big question.
Not only Egyptian women lived in the harem, but also foreign women brought to Egypt as spoils of war. Sometimes royal daughters from neighboring states spent their days in the harem, whom they sent as a gift to the pharaoh not of their own free will.
Foreign princesses were a kind of hostages so that treacherous or warlike neighbors would not commit rash actions against Egypt. Some princesses, daughters and sisters of the rulers of strong and wealthy states called the pharaoh "brother" and considered themselves almost equal to him. The princesses arrived at the court of the pharaoh not in just a shirt and not empty-handed, but with an obligatory rich dowry. In particular, Princess Giluhepa from the country of Mittani brought with her a huge retinue of 317 women. Another Mittan princess named Taduchepa arrived in a wagon drawn by four excellent horses. This was her dowry, which included a whole host of household utensils, a pile of dresses, precious jewelry, a gold baker's spade for bread and a lapis lazuli-encrusted fly fan.
Despite the rich dowry, foreign princesses did not play a more significant role in the pharaoh's harem than other concubines. At the Egyptian court, laws and traditions were steadily observed, according to which the favorites from the harem had no influence on politics and state affairs, and in general the carnal pleasures of the pharaoh - this was a completely different side of life, although also strictly regulated.
For all his great power, the pharaoh was limited by rigidly established boundaries and was probably no more free in his actions than any of his subjects. The pharaoh, for sure, every minute remembered the presence of the powerful gods ruling the world, formidable and merciful. He felt his kinship with the gods, his involvement in great deeds, his responsibility for the well-being of Egypt. He believed in the afterlife, and almost all his life he was preparing for the upcoming journey to the next world, to the afterlife. Belief in the afterlife is one of the most important provisions of the ancient Egyptian worldview. And grandiose pyramids, and majestic tombs with huge memorial temples, and carefully preserved mummified bodies prove the primary importance of the preparations of the Egyptian rulers for the transition to another world.
Immortal life
Preparing the Pharaoh for Eternity
The Egyptians believed that after death there was a new immortal life. However, apparently, they did not at all seek to quickly go to better world. The Egyptians were a cheerful cheerful people - in earthly life they tried to taste as many joys and blessings as possible. An example for mere mortals was the god Osiris, who conquered death and thereby proved that there is no death, that death is only a transition to another form of life. In fact, no one dies, life goes on, only in a modified form. The Egyptians did not have a cult of dead ancestors, because those who left earthly life are the same people who continue their eternal journey. Therefore, grief when parting with the dead should not be stronger than when separated for a long time from a living person - you just need to take care of the correct burial in order to ensure the deceased has a safe transition to the afterlife.
According to the beliefs of the ancient Egyptians, man is a complex creature, he consists of six (or even nine) parts or substances. The three earthly parts are "hat" - the body, "ren" - the name, "shuit" (or "shu") - the shadow that the dead also have and which can be separated from the body. "Khat" is fragile, it is subject to decomposition if the dead body is not embalmed.
To understand the eternal, immortal essence of man, other, one might say, spiritual substances are especially important: ka, ba, ah.
Ka- the life force of a person, inseparable from him in this or that world. Sometimes ka represented in the drawings as a dark human silhouette. Force ka accompanies a person from the moment of birth, takes care of him after the death of the body, therefore it is necessary to put a supply of food and drink in the grave. Ka preserved in drawings, reliefs and statues depicting the deceased.
Ba- personality, individual character of a person, ba partly can be compared with the Christian concept of "soul". Ba leaves the body after death. Ba represented in the form of a bird with a human head. Ba able to take different forms, but invariably returns back to his body. During the day, the deceased wanders in the world of the living in the guise of his ba, but in the evening he returns through his dead body to the afterlife.
Oh- the immortal, unearthly incarnation of man. Oh represented in the form of a sacred bird ibis with a characteristic tuft. Oh manifests its power of energy mainly in the next world, but can spread it to this world, for example, in the form of ghosts. Although the separated substances ka and ba, thanks to the funeral ritual, are again united in the body, the deceased person continues to live in the divine form of his Oh.
Statehood of ancient Egypt.
In the Ancient East - the predominant, but not overwhelming role of the general, public, while observing the Golden Mean.
State legal relations- the embodiment of living law (law enforcement). They are not relative and not absolute, in contrast to the manifestations of private wills. State-legal relations are the exercise of a right that is not formulated in an act of will, but is known in advance and pre-established. At the forefront is such a feature of state power as impartiality. What a government official does, he does not for himself, but for the state. Thus, he is impersonal. Hence the imperativeness of state acts.
Pharaoh - on the top state power. The name "pharaoh" - from "per-ao" - "high house, temple" or "neb-nuter" - "lord, god." When the pharaoh appeared, the subjects fell on their faces. Great honor - the right to kiss the knees of the pharaoh. In everyday speech, it is forbidden to mention his name, so as not to jinx it. Instead of a name, the indefinite personal pronoun of the third person "one" is used.
The personification of the pharaoh-god, but he is not quite a god, but
Head of the cult (spiritual ruler, sacred concept of the state)
It has partially secular functions:
* sovereign of both parts of the country,
* a symbol of the unity of the country (important, since separatism has not been completely eliminated).
* the chief judge - for the analysis of appeals, judged cases that concerned him personally, gave sanction for certain types of punishment (cutting off the ear). Here it is limited by the power of the vizier
* Commander-in-Chief of the Army and Navy. Here he was limited by the power of the vizier.
* higher control functions.
The pharaoh was surrounded by a magnificent palace and harem.
Pharaoh was not a guarantor of the welfare of his subjects, this is the Nile, and he was not higher than the Nile.
The throne was inherited through the maternal line. Hence the practice of incest in dynasties.
pharaoh's court- the highest administrative body + temple function (the pharaoh was a god) + management of the king's personal household.
Vizier (jati, chati)- secular ruler, the second powerful figure after the pharaoh. Until the IV Dynasty, inclusive, this position was occupied by princes-future heirs, after - the transition to persons of a non-royal dynasty. 6th Dynasty - the principle of succession to the position of vizier (as a rule, the successors of one of the strengthened nomarchs of Ancient Egypt). The vizier of the last pharaoh of the 11th dynasty overthrew the ruler and founded the next one. After the expulsion of the Hyksos, their positions of viziers were established for the south and north of the country, from now on their power and the power of the pharaoh were mutually balanced. The concentration of actual power in one hand. High priest of the god Thoth. Representing the interests of the feudal lords of the whole country before the center.
To carry out tasks - a large staff of officials - couriers, clerks, bailiffs - branched vizier's administrative office. By the era of the New Kingdom, a "ministerial system" was taking shape. Vizier leads big kenbet(personal office of the vizier, the highest judicial and administrative body of the country, "government"). The court is not separate from the administration
Powers of the vizier set out in the legal act “Instruction to the Vizier”:
Beloved comrade of the king;
Permission to speak in the palace;
Bears responsibility for national economy(regulation of crops, irrigation systems, land relations);
Head of the bureaucratic corps;
- "the only comrade of the king."
Judicial functions:
High Judge (consideration of appeals of complaints before submitting them to the pharaoh),
Boundary disputes between nomes and field boundaries between communities (the main concern for drawing administrative boundaries in the state),
Monitors the legality of the process in the courts,
Appoints judges of the kenbets of the country - Serov.
General management:
Appointment of officials to the lower and middle state. positions,
Considers and approves the reports of the main government bodies of the country,
Foreign policy (appointment and acceptance of ambassadors),
He corrects the mistakes of his subordinates by his decision.
Commands the army and navy,
Maintenance of the yard
Preliminarily considers petitions "in the highest name"
Control of the work of the apparatus of officials of the country.
Household:
Monitors the correct collection and assignment of taxes,
Manages the treasury with the treasurer,
Governs the Pharaoh's property,
Gives orders for the holding of liturgies,
Keeps the state seal.
Territory and territorial administration.
Historically, Egypt has developed from several territories.
In the pre-dynastic era - the unification of tribes in Upper (the entire course of the Nile south of Memphis) and Lower Egypt (to the north of the delta). In addition, there are some oases in the Libyan desert. In different eras of the imperial dominant, the border was in the north to the Euphrates. In the era of the ancient kingdom, Egypt took possession of almost the entire Sinai Peninsula, extended power to the African coast of the Red Sea.
Menes (the ancestor of the first dynasty), the southern ruler - subjugated the north (more backward, the Delta) and united Egypt. Crown of Egypt - for two parts of the country. The southern crown is a tall white hat, Khvostov is a “pin”. North - truncated red cap. Menes combined the crowns.
Territorial division.
Strabo: the country was divided into nomes, nomes - on toparchies, toparchy - into other divisions. The smallest administrative-territorial unit arur.
Nome(Greek "country, region") - the Egyptian name "tesh", "sep", "hesep". Basic tax unit. Nome had its own patron god and its coat of arms (totem)
After the unification of Egypt into one state (22 century BC), the former kings - the heads of the nomes - turned into officials dependent on the pharaoh - nomarch governors(“first after the king”) - as a rule, representatives of the most noble local family. The position is hereditary at least until the end of the Hyksos rule (the accession of the 18th dynasty). Inheritance- cognate - as a rule, a grandson along the line of a daughter. Before the fall of the nomarchs (that is, before the expulsion of the hexons), the pharaoh is a formal confirmation by decree of the fact of the transfer of office. Nomarchs - feudal dependence on the pharaohs. In the era of the New Kingdom - the disappearance of feudal dependence. The nomarchs had the highest judicial and administrative power within the nomes and collected taxes for the treasury. They had a staff of officials at their disposal.
Nome feudalism.
Nomes have always been similar to hereditary destinies, thus, the ancient kingdom can be considered as an era of the formation of an early feudal monarchy, which subsequently changed its basis from appanage (recognizing the formal sovereignty of the main nome, but retaining the right to further unhindered possession of destinies-nomes) to beneficiary, granted.
In the era of the Old Kingdom - the folding of the foundations of feudal sovereignty.
In the era of the Middle Kingdom, columns - yahty (“belonging to the field”) continue to be preserved. During this period, the peasants are dispossessed of land - they are attached to the lands of the feudal lord and work for him, but do not become slaves, retaining partial rights and legal capacity.
The nomarch turns into a real king - hatya - with his own court and palace, organizes his own administration, the judicial power is also in his hands. Therefore, the Hyksos, not meeting a unified armed force, seized power. 1580 B.C. - The nomarchs of Thebes drive out the Hyksos, forming the 18th dynasty of Thebes.
Local administration of the nome.
The central authority in the nome is kenbet("angle, focus"). It is believed that the extensive system of kenbets of nomes was subordinate to the main kenbet of the country, the head is the vizier. In kenbet noma:
Local feudal lords
Representatives of the central bureaucracy on a parity basis
The number of members of kenbets - always even(for social balance).
The noma noma temple and the smaller temples in its districts, economic management units, owned vast tracts of land that were their exclusive property. Temples are also popular courts (the bulk of civil lawsuits).
Jajat- presumably, an analogue of the national assembly, initially - at the level of the entire tribe, then - at the level of rural communities. The governing bodies had a tribal basis.
A woman's life directly depended on her social status. Low-class women worked tirelessly, to the point of exhaustion, and occasionally interrupted work only at the time of the birth of a child. They aged quickly and died comparatively young. True, they still had a small chance to improve their share. In the event that the son of such a woman occupied a higher position in society (this happened in ancient Egypt and was not uncommon), she and her husband were provided with a calm old age, and instead of a grave, they could get a tomb for burial. But in most cases, luck was in no hurry to smile, and the fate of such women was bleak.
The position of a noble woman was quite different. Although she was inferior to a man, her legal status was much the same. She had her own possessions, which she could dispose of at her own discretion and independently receive reports on housekeeping from her personal manager. Such a lady priested in temples and at tombs, built monuments to the dead, was engaged in science and, if there was a desire, she was on public service. Known women who led the court food workshop, dining room, weaving establishments, palace singers and dancers. Some of the royal women of the Old Kingdom were credited with instructions for the manufacture of medicinal and cosmetic potions.
Many inscriptions on the walls of the tombs and preserved personal correspondence testify to love and respect for the fairer sex. Women's names speak eloquently of the tender feelings experienced by husbands. For example, "First Favorite", "Only Favorite". In frescoes or sculptures, family scenes are full of pastoral idyll. Husbands are often depicted embracing their wives. In response, the spouses touchingly and trustingly put their palm on the hand of their beloved. And how many passionately enthusiastic verses of the ancient Egyptian Shakespeares, which have come down to our days, tell about the depth and inviolability of the feelings of piites for their beloved! It is safe to say that love marriages were not considered something extraordinary in Egyptian society.
For family relations Ancient Egypt is characterized by a rather high position of women, emanating from the system of matriarchy, which served as the basis of the family. In turn, matriarchy as a social system received its recognition in ancient Egypt due to the fact great value, which the goddess Isis had in the Ennead of the Gods.
Consider the Tale of Osiris. It tells of the birth of Osiris, Horus, Set, and their sisters Isis and Nephthys. Handsome, tall and noble Osiris is vividly opposed to the evil and ugly little Seth. Set's hatred for his brother eventually crosses all reasonable boundaries, and he decides to kill him in order to take the place of Osiris on the throne. However, all assassination attempts fail. Isis vigilantly guards her husband, protecting him from the intrigues of Set. The situation has remained unchanged for some time. And then Isis needed to leave for a short time, leaving her helpless husband alone with an envious brother. Seth was so delighted with the opportunity to realize his old dream that on the very first night of Isis's absence he took measurements from the sleeping Osiris, according to which zealous assistants made a wooden coffin.
On the evening of the next day, Seth gathered his friends for a feast and invited Osiris to it. At the table now and then there were jokes and laughter, wine flowed like a river. Suddenly, the servants of Set entered the banquet hall and brought in a coffin decorated with drawings and inscriptions.
The hospitable host, pointing to the box, said: - Here is a precious coffin! I will give it to the one who lies in it and fills it with his body so that there will be no free space left!
And the guests did not find anything better than how to fit into it in turn, trying on whether it would fit or not. According to the legend, Osiris was taller than all those living on earth, and the coffin, made to his size, should have simply screamed with its bulk, for whom it was so carefully made. Why, in this case, the guests tried to try it on themselves, is not entirely clear.
Finally, the turn of Osiris came, who during the entire comic performance behaved more than strange for the god. For some reason, the banal thought did not occur to him that the appearance of a coffin at a feast, especially at a feast of a brother who sleeps and sees taking the throne of Osiris in a not too decent way, should have looked at least ridiculous and suspicious, but more than a coffin of this size.
Without any hesitation, overly trusting, not to say stupid, the tsar stretched himself out in the coffin, and he, of course, fit him. At the same moment, Seth signaled to the guests, and they closed it by nailing the lid. In the silence of the night, the conspirators carried the sarcophagus with the body of Osiris out of the house and, having shaken it well, threw it far into the waters of the Nile. A strong current picked up the coffin and carried it out to sea. Some time later, waves washed the sarcophagus ashore near the city of Byblos on the eastern coast of the Mediterranean Sea.
Isis, returning, realized that her worst forebodings had come true. Seth managed to destroy sibling and hide the body in a secret place. She first crossed all of Egypt, and then traveled to Syria in search of the dismembered body of Osiris, her beloved husband. Having experienced considerable difficulties and hardships, Isis found the sarcophagus and returned with it to Egypt, to the city of Buto. Leaving the coffin, as it seemed to her, in a safe place, she went to find out about her son, whom she had left in Buto, not daring to take him with her to Syria.
At this time, Set hunted wild animals. There is another discrepancy in the legend, since the events take place on a moonlit night. What wild beasts could Set hunt at night? Let even bright, lunar?
Whatever it was, Seth, to his horror, notices a familiar box. Opening it, he sees the body of the murdered brother. Seething with rage that gripped him, the fratricide pulls out the corpse of Osiris and dismembers it into 14 pieces. This seemed to him insufficient, and he scatters the remains throughout the Egyptian land.
Again, a devoted and loving wife walks around the country, collecting pieces of the body of Osiris. With the help of the god Anubis, Isis put them together, immersed the body of the deceased in fragrant resin and soaked in the juice of medicinal plants. Then she wrapped it in shrouds, smeared it with fragrant oil and placed it on the burial bed.
Isis sobbed over the body of Osiris so bitterly, and her grief was so great that Osiris heard the cry of his wife and woke up again to life.
You can easily see that the red line through the narrative is the idea that only thanks to Isis, the resurrection of Osiris became possible. God, without his beloved wife, was unable to defend not only his rights to the crown and throne, but even to life. While Isis was near her husband, nothing threatened him. Set and other enemies of Osiris were powerless. As soon as she left her husband for a while, the conspirators, led by the envious Seth, immediately succeed. With exceptional perseverance and patience, Isis twice manages to find the body of Osiris, and the power of her love for him awakens life in the dead pharaoh. In fact, the goddess thus saved humanity. Isis never showed her weakness or indecision throughout the entire story, setting an example of true love, fidelity, diligence, fertility and purposefulness.
The honor and respect that was shown to the wife by the husband in everyday life, in fact, was a reflection of the worship of the goddess
Isis for saving Osiris. Attention should also be paid to the fact that in the pre-dynastic period preceding the appearance of the cult of the wife of Osiris, women in ancient Egypt were revered no less. They were considered the keepers of the mysterious source of life, the owners of powerful psychic power, the keepers of magical rituals and traditions. Probably, the basis of such beliefs was directly related to the mystery of the origin of life in the mother's womb. From the point of view of the Egyptians, everything that exists on earth was conceived in the feminine.
So, as we see, women in ancient Egyptian society had even greater property rights than men. All landed property inherited in the female line from mother to daughter. Marriage was concluded on the basis of an agreement on behalf of the husband and wife. When marrying an heiress, the husband could own his wife's property only during the lifetime of his wife (it was also possible to transfer all family property to his wife). Divorce was free for both parties. The legal heirs were children of both sexes, but the personal (premarital property) of the wife went to the daughter. A will could be made by both husband and wife. It is worth paying attention: daughters were loved no less than sons. What a contrast with the present position of women in the East!
Although polygamy took place in ancient Egypt, it was not widespread, since only a very narrow circle of high-ranking dignitaries could afford to support several families. Of course, the pharaoh also belonged to him. The female entourage of the king was a harem, which is not surprising, because the gods of Egypt also had "harems" of goddesses (Bat, Isis, Hathor, Nekhbet, Bastet). To date, Egyptologists are not clear about this phenomenon. The conclusions reached by scientists are not always unambiguous. But one thing is for sure - the Arab-Turkish and ancient Egyptian harems were very different from each other.
Information about the presence of harems in Menes, Amenhotep III, Amenhotep IV, Ramses II, Ramses III has been preserved.
The harem brought up the children of the pharaoh and high dignitaries, leaders of foreign countries. Joint games prepared them well for the future life and accustomed them to the difficult management of the country. Foreign wives of the king also lived here. They did not become the main spouses of the ruler of Egypt (exceptions were rare). One of the main duties of women was to participate in religious events.
As you can see, the Arab harem and the ancient Egyptian do not really show similarities.
Regarding eunuchs, the opinions of researchers are divided. Some, like E. Reiser, for example, believe that the institution of eunuchs did not exist in ancient Egypt. It is hardly possible to agree with such an assumption.
Indeed, their presence during the Old Kingdom period has not been discovered to date. But during the Middle and New Kingdoms they already were. Eunuchs also took an active part in the conspiracy against Amenhotep I, who had matured in the silence of the harem (Middle Kingdom, XII dynasty). And in the tomb of Eye (New Kingdom, XVIII Dynasty), the harem is depicted in every detail, along with eunuchs bored under the doors of women's rooms.
In a word, from the era of the Middle Kingdom to the reign of the last of the Ptolemies, eunuchs and harems are inseparable. However, their role is not always passive. They are active and enterprising, participating in conspiracies and coup attempts, which their brothers from the Turkish seraglios rarely dared to do.
The pharaoh came to rest from the heavy burden of governing the country, and a successor was already chosen for him. Ancient Egyptian documents contain information about three conspiracies organized in the harem - under Pepi I, Amenemhat I and Ramses III. About the last of the attempts of the "harem" coup, the researchers became aware of the materials of the investigation. When the conspiracy was revealed, the pharaoh, offended in the best feelings, ordered one of his sons (the one who was predicted instead of Ramses III to the throne) to commit suicide. Following the execution of female conspirators and their accomplices, among whom were the chief caretaker of the harem, the commander of the archers, the keeper of the fan, and even the personal valet of the king.
As a rule, one or two main wives stood out, the rest of the women were in the position of concubines, who could be expelled at the behest of the king. However, getting into the harem was not the worst option. So, a girl from the Chester-Beatty I papyrus dreams of such a turn of fate. She does not hide her desire to follow Mahi (as Pharaoh Horemheb is called in this document). It is unlikely that such dreams came into the minds of the future concubines of the Turkish Sultan.
