What was the harem in the XVII-XIX centuries. The location of the premises in the haremIn the XVII century. the structure of the Sultan's harem was finally formed, which, with minor changes, lasted until its liquidation in 1909. The current arrangement of rooms and apartments in the harem

A woman's life directly depended on her social status. Low-class women worked tirelessly, to the point of exhaustion, and occasionally interrupted work only at the time of the birth of a child. They aged quickly and died comparatively young. True, they still had a small chance to improve their share. In the event that the son of such a woman occupied a higher position in society (this happened in ancient Egypt and was not uncommon), she and her husband were provided with a calm old age, and instead of a grave, they could get a tomb for burial. But in most cases, luck was in no hurry to smile, and the fate of such women was bleak.

The position of a noble woman was quite different. Although she was inferior to a man, her legal status was much the same. She had her own possessions, which she could dispose of at her own discretion and independently receive reports on housekeeping from her personal manager. Such a lady priested in temples and at tombs, erected monuments to the dead, was engaged in science and, if there was a desire, she was in the public service. Known women who led the court food workshop, dining room, weaving establishments, palace singers and dancers. Some of the royal women of the Old Kingdom were credited with instructions for the manufacture of medicinal and cosmetic potions.

Many inscriptions on the walls of the tombs and preserved personal correspondence testify to love and respect for the fairer sex. Women's names speak eloquently of the tender feelings experienced by husbands. For example, "First Favorite", "Only Favorite". In frescoes or sculptures, family scenes are full of pastoral idyll. Husbands are often depicted embracing their wives. In response, the spouses touchingly and trustingly put their palm on the hand of their beloved. And how many passionately enthusiastic verses of the ancient Egyptian Shakespeares, which have come down to our days, tell about the depth and inviolability of the feelings of piites for their beloved! It is safe to say that love marriages were not considered something extraordinary in Egyptian society.

The family relations of Ancient Egypt are characterized by a rather high position of women, coming from the system of matriarchy, which served as the basis of the family. In turn, matriarchy as a social system received its recognition in Ancient Egypt due to the great importance that the goddess Isis had in the Ennead of the Gods.

Consider the Tale of Osiris. It tells of the birth of Osiris, Horus, Set, and their sisters Isis and Nephthys. Handsome, tall and noble Osiris is vividly opposed to the evil and ugly little Seth. Set's hatred for his brother eventually crosses all reasonable boundaries, and he decides to kill him in order to take the place of Osiris on the throne. However, all assassination attempts fail. Isis vigilantly guards her husband, protecting him from the intrigues of Set. The situation has remained unchanged for some time. And then Isis needed to leave for a short time, leaving her helpless husband alone with an envious brother. Seth was so delighted with the opportunity to realize his old dream that on the very first night of Isis's absence he took measurements from the sleeping Osiris, according to which zealous assistants made a wooden coffin.

On the evening of the next day, Seth gathered his friends for a feast and invited Osiris to it. At the table now and then there were jokes and laughter, wine flowed like a river. Suddenly, the servants of Set entered the banquet hall and brought in a coffin decorated with drawings and inscriptions.

The hospitable host, pointing to the box, said: - Here is a precious coffin! I will give it to the one who lies in it and fills it with his body so that there will be no free space left!

And the guests did not find anything better than how to fit into it in turn, trying on whether it would fit or not. According to the legend, Osiris was taller than all those living on earth, and the coffin, made to his size, should have simply screamed with its bulk, for whom it was so carefully made. Why, in this case, the guests tried to try it on themselves, is not entirely clear.

Finally, the turn of Osiris came, who during the entire comic performance behaved more than strange for the god. For some reason, the banal thought did not occur to him that the appearance of a coffin at a feast, especially at a feast of a brother who sleeps and sees taking the throne of Osiris in a not too decent way, should have looked at least ridiculous and suspicious, but more than a coffin of this size.

Without any hesitation, overly trusting, not to say stupid, the tsar stretched himself out in the coffin, and he, of course, fit him. At the same moment, Seth signaled to the guests, and they closed it by nailing the lid. In the silence of the night, the conspirators carried the sarcophagus with the body of Osiris out of the house and, having shaken it well, threw it far into the waters of the Nile. A strong current picked up the coffin and carried it out to sea. Some time later, waves washed the sarcophagus ashore near the city of Byblos on the eastern coast of the Mediterranean Sea.

Isis, returning, realized that her worst forebodings had come true. Seth managed to destroy sibling and hide the body in a secret place. She first crossed all of Egypt, and then traveled to Syria in search of the dismembered body of Osiris, her beloved husband. Having experienced considerable difficulties and hardships, Isis found the sarcophagus and returned with it to Egypt, to the city of Buto. Leaving the coffin, as it seemed to her, in a safe place, she went to find out about her son, whom she had left in Buto, not daring to take him with her to Syria.

At this time, Set hunted wild animals. There is another discrepancy in the legend, since the events take place on a moonlit night. What wild beasts could Set hunt at night? Let even bright, lunar?

Whatever it was, Seth, to his horror, notices a familiar box. Opening it, he sees the body of the murdered brother. Seething with rage that gripped him, the fratricide pulls out the corpse of Osiris and dismembers it into 14 pieces. This seemed to him insufficient, and he scatters the remains throughout the Egyptian land.

Again, a devoted and loving wife walks around the country, collecting pieces of the body of Osiris. With the help of the god Anubis, Isis put them together, immersed the body of the deceased in fragrant resin and soaked in the juice of medicinal plants. Then she wrapped it in shrouds, smeared it with fragrant oil and placed it on the burial bed.

Isis sobbed over the body of Osiris so bitterly, and her grief was so great that Osiris heard the cry of his wife and woke up again to life.

You can easily see that the red line through the narrative is the idea that only thanks to Isis, the resurrection of Osiris became possible. God, without his beloved wife, was unable to defend not only his rights to the crown and throne, but even to life. While Isis was near her husband, nothing threatened him. Set and other enemies of Osiris were powerless. As soon as she left her husband for a while, the conspirators, led by the envious Seth, immediately succeed. With exceptional perseverance and patience, Isis twice manages to find the body of Osiris, and the power of her love for him awakens life in the dead pharaoh. In fact, the goddess thus saved humanity. Isis never showed her weakness or indecision throughout the entire story, setting an example of true love, fidelity, diligence, fertility and purposefulness.

The honor and respect that was shown to the wife by the husband in everyday life, in fact, was a reflection of the worship of the goddess

Isis for saving Osiris. Attention should also be paid to the fact that in the pre-dynastic period preceding the appearance of the cult of the wife of Osiris, women in ancient Egypt were revered no less. They were considered the keepers of the mysterious source of life, the owners of powerful psychic power, the keepers of magical rituals and traditions. Probably, the basis of such beliefs was directly related to the mystery of the origin of life in the mother's womb. From the point of view of the Egyptians, everything that exists on earth was conceived in the feminine.

So, as we see, women in ancient Egyptian society had even greater property rights than men. All landed property was inherited through the female line from mother to daughter. Marriage was concluded on the basis of an agreement on behalf of the husband and wife. When marrying an heiress, the husband could own his wife's property only during the lifetime of his wife (it was also possible to transfer all family property to his wife). Divorce was free for both parties. The legal heirs were children of both sexes, but the personal (premarital property) of the wife went to the daughter. A will could be made by both husband and wife. It is worth paying attention: daughters were loved no less than sons. What a contrast with the present position of women in the East!

Although polygamy took place in ancient Egypt, it was not widespread, since only a very narrow circle of high-ranking dignitaries could afford to support several families. Of course, the pharaoh also belonged to him. The female entourage of the king was a harem, which is not surprising, because the gods of Egypt also had "harems" of goddesses (Bat, Isis, Hathor, Nekhbet, Bastet). To date, Egyptologists are not clear about this phenomenon. The conclusions reached by scientists are not always unambiguous. But one thing is for sure - the Arab-Turkish and ancient Egyptian harems were very different from each other.

Information about the presence of harems in Menes, Amenhotep III, Amenhotep IV, Ramses II, Ramses III has been preserved.

The harem brought up the children of the pharaoh and high dignitaries, leaders of foreign countries. Joint games prepared them well for the future life and accustomed them to the difficult management of the country. Foreign wives of the king also lived here. They did not become the main spouses of the ruler of Egypt (exceptions were rare). One of the main duties of women was to participate in religious events.

As you can see, the Arab harem and the ancient Egyptian do not really show similarities.

Regarding eunuchs, the opinions of researchers are divided. Some, like E. Reiser, for example, believe that the institution of eunuchs did not exist in ancient Egypt. It is hardly possible to agree with such an assumption.

Indeed, their presence during the Old Kingdom period has not been discovered to date. But during the Middle and New Kingdoms they already were. Eunuchs also took an active part in the conspiracy against Amenhotep I, who had matured in the silence of the harem (Middle Kingdom, XII dynasty). And in the tomb of Eye (New Kingdom, XVIII Dynasty), the harem is depicted in every detail, along with eunuchs bored under the doors of women's rooms.

In a word, from the era of the Middle Kingdom to the reign of the last of the Ptolemies, eunuchs and harems are inseparable. However, their role is not always passive. They are active and enterprising, participating in conspiracies and coup attempts, which their brothers from the Turkish seraglios rarely dared to do.

The pharaoh came to rest from the heavy burden of governing the country, and a successor was already chosen for him. Ancient Egyptian documents contain information about three conspiracies organized in the harem - under Pepi I, Amenemhat I and Ramses III. About the last of the attempts of the "harem" coup, the researchers became aware of the materials of the investigation. When the conspiracy was revealed, the pharaoh, offended in the best feelings, ordered one of his sons (the one who was predicted to take the throne instead of Ramses III) to commit suicide. Following the execution of female conspirators and their accomplices, among whom were the chief caretaker of the harem, the commander of the archers, the keeper of the fan, and even the personal valet of the king.

As a rule, one or two main wives stood out, the rest of the women were in the position of concubines, who could be expelled at the behest of the king. However, getting into the harem was not the worst option. So, a girl from the Chester-Beatty I papyrus dreams of such a turn of fate. She does not hide her desire to follow Mahi (as Pharaoh Horemheb is called in this document). It is unlikely that such dreams came into the minds of the future concubines of the Turkish Sultan.

Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation

Federal Agency for Education

State educational institution of higher professional education

Kursk State University

Faculty of History

Department of General History

Course work on the topic:

"Functions of the Pharaoh in Ancient Egypt"

Performed

3rd year student

Ivanova O. A.

Supervisor:

associate professor, candidate historical sciences

Ivanova O.S.

Introduction

Relevance of the topic: The question of the structure of ancient Eastern society is one of the most complex and controversial in Oriental studies. There is no doubt that by type of government Egypt is an oriental despotism. So, at the head of the state was a despot - a pharaoh. All Egyptologists agree that the pharaoh had great power and was revered as a god. However, practically no historian considers the functions of the pharaoh separately. The absence of a special study on this issue in domestic Egyptology determined the relevance of the topic of this work.

Objective: Consider the functions of the pharaoh, as well as his economic position.

Tasks:

1) describe the activities of the pharaoh;

2) to characterize the economic and everyday situation of the pharaoh.

Sources: The main sources on this topic are literary works.

"Biography of the nobleman Una" - a hieroglyphic inscription on the slab of a dignitary - a contemporary of the pharaohs of the IV dynasty Teti II, Piopi II, Merenra I (mid XXV century BC - early XXIV century BC). This source provides valuable information about the judicial system and court life.

"The Wanderings of Sinuhet" - a court novel of the 20th century. BC. The most complete lists of this work have been preserved on two hieratic papyri of the Middle Kingdom. Although Sinuhet's Wanderings is a work of fiction, it provides important information about court life in the Middle Kingdom. Especially valuable is the material concerning the audience of Sinuhet with the pharaoh.

Historiography. There are many scientific works devoted to the history of ancient Egypt. But not all authors consider the direct activities of the pharaoh. However, some authors, describing one or another side of the life of Egyptian society, refer to the pharaoh and his position. Some of the works of foreign Egyptologists were available to us.

The work of D. Breasted and B. Turaev "History of Ancient Egypt" gives a clear and complete picture of the history of ancient Egypt on the basis of the material available to researchers in the 19th century. Some conclusions of the authors are outdated, but the factual material presented retains its value. Modern historiography revised a number of provisions of their concept. The authors in chronological order give a description of each period of the reign of the pharaohs, and characterize their activities.

P. Monte in the book "Egypt of the Ramses" gives a broad description of all aspects of life in Egypt throughout its history. All segments of the population are considered separately, starting from their occupations and ending with everyday life. Particularly valuable is the material relating to the description of the appearance of the pharaoh and his personal life.

O. Eger in his four-volume work World History pays only a little attention to Ancient Egypt, but the factual material cited by the author is very valuable.

In the book by B. Mertz "Ancient Egypt. Temples, tombs, hieroglyphs." the religious side of the life of the ancient Egyptians is comprehensively considered. It is especially important that the author examines in detail the activities of the pharaohs-reformers.

Our theme has found some reflection in Russian historiography.

In the "Culture of Ancient Egypt", edited by I. S. Katsnelson, all aspects of the life of Egyptian society are considered. The book was written by a group of authors. All authors provide valuable descriptive material.

In the work of E.A. Razin "History of military art of the XXXI century BC-VI century AD." only a small section is devoted to the army of ancient Egypt. For us, the material relating to the participation of the pharaohs in the command of the troops is of interest.

"Interstate relations and Diplomacy in the Ancient East" edited by I. A. Struchevsky considers in great detail the diplomatic relations of Ancient Egypt with all the countries most influential in the East at that time.

Yu.A. Perepelkin in his work "History of Ancient Egypt" considers the history of ancient Egypt and the population at the modern level of Egyptology. The author gives an idea of ​​the functions of the pharaoh.

Tutorial on the history of the Ancient East, ed. V.A. Kuzishchina helps to get a general idea of ​​the historical, political and economic situation ancient Egypt.

Chapter I. Functions of the Pharaoh

1. Economic function

This function was the main one for the pharaoh. The prosperity of the country is the basis of prosperity. If the population is satisfied with its ruler, then there is peace and tranquility in the state.

Egypt is the gift of the Nile. Throughout the entire period of the existence of the country, irrigated agriculture was the main branch of agriculture. Therefore, concern for the expansion and preservation of irrigation canals was important and obligatory for the king. Pharaoh had to deal with the organization of labor-intensive irrigation work. King Ramesses IV, informing all the inhabitants of Egypt about his good deeds during his reign, calls on the people to follow the orders and orders of his son and successor: "Do all sorts of work for him! Drag monuments for him! Dig canals for him! Do work for him with your hands! ". The digging of canals was considered by the tsar to be one of the largest state works.

Kings often speak in the annals of their participation in drawing up the plan of the temple, or of their presence at the ceremonial laying of some important object (be it the temple of a deity, the pharaoh's own tomb, or some kind of administrative building). The pharaoh is not only obliged to be present during the opening, but also to personally lay the first stone of the future building. Ramesses IV wanted to erect a monument to his ancestors and temples to the gods of Egypt. He began his work by studying documents from the books of the "house of life" about the best ways to the "mountain of behena", in the subsequent examination of which he took a personal part. The position of Ramses II did not allow him to leave the banks of the Nile. So he simply learned how to get water in the Icaita desert while staying in his palace at Hut-ka-ptah (i.e., Memphis).

In addition, the king had to be not only a builder, but also a plowman. When the star Sirius appeared in the east, the agricultural season began in Egypt. The pharaoh made the first ritual furrow on the field. During the harvest, the first sheaf - "bedet" - was also cut by the head of state. According to the worldview of the Egyptians of that time, this is necessary in order for the gods to bless the work.

Pharaoh delved into all sorts of technical problems. He constantly received his ministers and engineers to discuss the needs of the country, especially the conservation of water supplies and the expansion of the irrigation system.

There is a scene depicting the king inspecting a public building together with the chief architect, the vizier. The chief architect sent plans for the arrangement of the royal estates, and we see the monarch discussing with him the question of digging a lake 2000 feet long in one of them.

At the end of his work in the royal offices, the monarch went on a stretcher, accompanied by a vizier and retinue, to inspect his buildings and public works, and his hand made itself felt in all the most important affairs of the country. The king visited quarries and mines in the desert and inspected the roads, looking for suitable places for wells and stations. So, the pharaoh Seti took care of the water for gold seekers in the area east of Edfu. This question worried him so much that he personally came to the place to see what was being done for the thirsty people who worked under the scorching sun. This is evidenced by one of the inscriptions of the temple.

The XII dynasty pharaoh Senusret I conquered Nubia and forced the tribal leaders to develop mines in the east. Ameni, the ruler of the Antelope nome, was sent with a detachment of 400 people for the extracted gold. Taking advantage of the opportunity, the pharaoh sent a young prince, the future Amenemhat II, with Amen to get acquainted with his country.

Many pharaohs certainly took their duties very seriously. The claims of the litigating heirs passed directly through the pharaoh. All the lands granted by the pharaoh were transferred on the basis of royal decrees entered into the "royal writings" in the offices of the vizier. The pharaoh read many tedious scrolls of state papers and dictated dispatches to the chiefs of work in the Sinai Peninsula, in Nubia and Punt, on the southern coast of the Red Sea. Also, the king received urgent reports daily and was aware of all events. He dictated answers, and, if necessary, convened his advisers. The phrase: "We came to report to His Majesty ..." - the inscriptions on many official steles begin. As we can see, the pharaoh was a very busy person.

2. Political and administrative function

The high position occupied by the pharaoh marked his active participation in the affairs of government. He used to receive every morning the vizier, who plays the main role in the administration, to consult with him about the needs of the country and the current affairs that were subject to his consideration. After the meeting with the vizier, he met with the chief treasurer. These two people were in charge of the most important departments of administration: the treasury and the court.

The chamber of the pharaoh, where they made daily reports to the ruler, was central authority of the entire administration, where all its threads converged. Other government reports were made equally here, and theoretically they all passed through the hands of the pharaoh. Even from the limited number of documents of this kind that have come down to us, we see great amount detailed administrative matters decided by the monarch.

In the interests of local government, Egypt was divided into administrative districts - nomes. The nomarchs were at the head of the district. According to existing documents, it is currently impossible to determine to what extent the local rulers felt the pressure of the pharaoh in their management and administration. In the nome, apparently, there was a royal representative, obliged to look after the interests of the pharaoh, and there were also "overseers of the crown possessions" (probably subordinate to him), who were in charge of the herds in each nome. But the nomarch himself was an intermediary through whose hands all the income of the treasury from the nome passed. "All the taxes of the royal house passed through my hands," says Ameni from the Antelope Nome.

As D. Breasted and B. Turaev point out, not all the estates that the nomarch ruled were his unlimited property. His property consisted of lands and incomes of two kinds: the "father's estate" received from the ancestors and the former family estate, and the "prince's estate", which could not be passed by will and in the event of the death of the nomarch, was each time re-granted as allotted by the pharaoh to his heirs. It was precisely this circumstance that made it possible to a certain extent for the pharaoh to keep the feudal rulers in his hands and imprison the supporters of his house throughout the country.

The main administrative body that coordinated and centralized the nomes was the treasury, thanks to the functioning of which annually flowed into the warehouses central control grain, livestock, poultry and handicrafts, and then money, were collected by local governors. There were also other sources of income for the treasury. In addition to internal income, which included taxes from nomes and residences, the pharaoh also received regular income from gold mines in Nubia and on the Coptic road to the Red Sea. "Trade with Punt and the southern shores of the Red Sea, apparently, was the exclusive prerogative of the pharaoh, and should have brought a significant income; likewise, the mines and quarries in the Sinai Peninsula, and also, perhaps, the Hammamat quarries were a regular source of income" .

Over all the financial management was the "chief treasurer", who, of course, lived at the court, and gave the pharaoh an annual financial report.

According to historians D. Breasted and B. Turaev, a state arranged in this way was strong as long as a strong man was at the head of the state. As soon as the pharaoh showed weakness, so that the nomarchs could become independent, and the whole was ready to fall apart.

3. Administration function

In order to manage a huge state, the pharaoh creates an extensive control apparatus. The number of officials of ancient Egypt could compete with modernity. Their appointment depended on the will of the king.

So, a certain official tells about his dark origin as follows: "You will talk about it with each other and the old men will teach them young men. I came from a poor family and from a small city, but the lord of Both Countries (the king) appreciated me. I took a great place in his heart. The king, the likeness of the sun god, in the splendor of his palace looked upon me. He elevated me above the (royal) comrades, introducing me into the midst of court princes ... he instructed me to carry out work when I was a youth, he found me, the news of me reached his heart. I was brought into the house of gold to make the figures and images of all the gods."

Pharaoh had to be especially careful in selecting people for important positions. The vizier was the most powerful person in the state after the pharaoh. It was an incredibly lucrative position with huge opportunities. The well-being of the country largely depended on the devotion of this person. Wise kings tried to appoint their successor to this position. If this was not possible, then a close friend of the pharaoh became the vizier.

After Hatshepsut's accession to the throne, "her supporters occupied the most influential positions." Closest to the queen was Senmut. He brought up the young queen Nefrut. The most influential of the queen's supporters was Khapuseneb, who was both the vizier and the high priest of Amun, that is, all the power of administration and all the power of the priesthood were concentrated in his hands.

Awards to officials and the military in ancient Egypt were quite common. Pharaohs have long noticed that nothing strengthens human loyalty as much as rewards. One courtier defined the pharaoh as follows: "He is the one who multiplies goodness, who knows how to give. He is a god, the king of the gods. He knows everyone who knows him. He rewards those who serve him. He protects his supporters. This is Ra, whose visible the body is the solar disc and which lives forever."

During the wars of liberation and the conquest of Syria, the pharaohs of the Middle Kingdom presented gold to the brave. The custom took root. And soon civilians also began to receive honorary awards.

It happened that the reward was handed over to one person, but more often in the palace they gathered many at once, honored with the mercy of the pharaoh. When they left the house, dressed in their best clothes, and got into the chariot, all the servants and neighbors lined up at the door to greet the lucky ones. In front of the palace, the chariot was left on a specially designated area. The charioteers talked among themselves or with the guards. Each praised his master and the rewards that awaited him.

When everyone gathered in the courtyard, the pharaoh went out onto the balcony, behind which was a hall with columns. From the street you can see a whole suite of royal chambers with armchairs and luxurious caskets. Gifts were laid out on the tables. They were served to the pharaoh and replaced by others as needed. The tsarist commanders lined up the recipients and led them one by one to the balcony. Here they greeted the pharaoh, but only with a show of hands, not prostrating themselves on the ground, and uttered laudatory words in honor of the ruler. Pharaoh responded with praise to his servant. He talked about his loyalty, ability and devotion. And he himself informed those who especially distinguished themselves about the promotion: “You are my great servant, you listened to everything related to your duties that you performed, and I am pleased with you. I entrust this position to you and say:“ You will eat Pharaoh’s bread, yes he will be alive, unharmed, healthy, your master in the temple of the Aten "". Such ceremonies were the privilege of only the highest nobility.

Sometimes these ceremonies took place not in the palace, but in the open air, either because the recipient was too important a person and he could not just throw a few necklaces from the balcony, or because a lot of people gathered. In such cases, a light gazebo with a canopy was built in a large courtyard, which skillful artisans turned into an exquisite and luxurious one.

The reward was not only jewelry, but also slaves, most often captured in battle. Horses were a special prize.

But for career success, a tactful attitude towards the pharaoh was also necessary, and the sages glorify the one who knows how to keep silent in the royal service. Sohetepibra, a nobleman in the court of Amenemhet III, left on his gravestone an exhortation to children to serve faithfully and faithfully to the king, and he says among many other things: "Fight for his name, justify yourself by swearing by him, and you will have no worries. The king's favorite is blessed but there is no grave for a man hostile to his majesty: his body will be thrown into the water."

In theory, there was no one who would limit the power of the pharaoh as head of government. In reality, he had to reckon with the demands of this or that class, this or that powerful family, party or individuals, and finally, the harem, just like his successors in the East at the beginning of the 20th century. Despite the luxury that the organization of the court staff testifies, the pharaoh did not lead the life of a wasteful despot. At least during the 4th Dynasty, while still a prince, he held difficult positions supervising the work in quarries and mines, or assisted his father by acting as a vizier or first minister, and he gained precious experience in business even before his accession to the throne. management.

One of the first pharaohs to experience co-ruling was Amenemhat I. In 1980 BC, under the influence of an assassination attempt that arose in the circle of close associates, Amenemhat appointed his son Senusret as his co-ruler. The prince took up his new high post and energetically set about his duties. Amenemhat had made Egypt a prosperous country even before the assassination attempt. Therefore, the prince had to take up foreign policy, where he achieved tremendous success.

Most likely, Senusret I appreciated the advantages that he received from the general government with his father, and it was this that prompted him to appoint his son Amenemhat as his co-ruler. After the death of his father, Amenemhat II easily became the sole head of state, as he was co-ruler with his father for three years. His son Senusret II also served as his father's co-ruler for three years. Most likely, such co-government played an important role in the fact that under these kings Egypt flourished. It is possible that the pharaohs of subsequent dynasties appreciated the usefulness of co-ruling, since many kings had such experience.

No matter how high was the official position of the pharaoh as the august god at the head of the state, he nevertheless maintained close personal relations with the most prominent representatives of the nobility. As a prince, he was brought up with a group of young men from noble families, and together they learned the noble art of swimming. Friendships that began in this way in youth were to have a powerful influence on the monarch in the subsequent years of his life. There were cases when the pharaoh gave his daughter as a wife to one of the nobles with whom he was brought up in his youth. And then the strict etiquette of the palace was violated for the sake of this favorite: on official occasions, he was not supposed to kiss the ashes of the pharaoh's feet, but enjoyed the unprecedented honor of kissing the king's foot. Since the matter concerned those close to him, it was a mere formality; in private, the pharaoh would sit simply, unashamedly, next to one of his favorites, without hesitation, while attending slaves anointed them both. The daughter of such a noble person could become the official queen and mother of the next king.

There is a scene depicting the king inspecting a public building together with the chief architect, the vizier. While the pharaoh admires the work and praises the faithful minister, he notices that he does not hear the words of the royal favor. The exclamation of the king set the waiting courtiers in motion, and the struck minister was quickly carried into the palace itself, where the pharaoh hurriedly summoned the priests and chief physicians. He sends to the library for a casket with medical scrolls, but all in vain. Doctors declare the vizier's condition hopeless. The king is overwhelmed with grief and retires to his chambers to pray to Ra. Then he orders to make all the preparations for the burial of the deceased nobleman, orders to make a coffin of ebony and anoint the body in his presence. Finally, the eldest son of the deceased is commissioned to build a tomb, which will then be furnished and endowed by the king. From this it is clear that the most powerful nobles in Egypt were connected with the special pharaoh by close ties of consanguinity and friendship.

4. Foreign policy, military function and diplomacy

Undoubtedly, no matter what natural resources the state has, its prosperity is not possible without an active, and sometimes aggressive, foreign policy. Egypt, especially during the empire, was a huge country. However, this country was not strong. After each period of unrest, the pharaohs had to reunite the country.

Almost until the New Kingdom, Egypt did not have a standing army. If the country was in danger, then the pharaoh mobilized the population, and it defended the state. Most often at that time, conflicts were local, and did not require the personal intervention of the pharaoh. The army was led either by the nomarch of the territory in danger, or by a specially appointed official. The pharaoh had with him "people of the retinue" who made up his personal guard, and "companions of the ruler" - a group of noble warriors devoted to him, from which, according to E. A Razin, military leaders were appointed: "head of the army", "head of recruits", " military commander of Middle Egypt" and other commanding persons.

The pharaoh personally led the army during punitive or conquest expeditions. The king tried to testify the results of especially successful campaigns in inscriptions. During the reign of Thutmose III, 17 military campaigns were made in Palestine and Syria. Conquest campaigns in Asia Minor were carried out under the personal command of Thutmose III. When the question was being decided which way it would be better to go to Megiddo: convenient, but long roads, or a narrow, but short path, Thutmose ordered to go a straight road, declaring that he would go "himself at the head of his army, showing the way with his own steps" .

Nubia brought Egypt the most trouble during the Middle Kingdom. The young pharaoh Senusret I personally led the troops that "infiltrated into Wauat to Korosko, the terminus of the road through the desert ... and captured many prisoners among the Majais in the country lying on the other side." Work was also resumed in the Hammamat quarries, in addition, "troglodytes, Asians and inhabitants of the sands" were punished. Later, under his personal leadership, a campaign was carried out in the country of Kush.

As the historian D. Breasted writes, Senusret I "attentively followed the development of Egypt's foreign interests." Most likely he was one of the first pharaohs who entered into relations with the oases.

Senusret III finally and completely conquered Nubia. For better communication with Nubia, the pharaoh ordered his engineers to clear a channel in a granite rock, which had been pierced under Senusret I. Several campaigns to Kush were personally led by the pharaoh, until the south was finally subdued.

Under the warlike Senusret III, the Egyptians invade Syria for the first time. One of his military companions named Sebekhu mentions in his memorial plate in Abydos that he accompanied the king during a campaign in Retenu (Syria), in the area called Sekmim. .

All issues relating to war and peace were decided by the pharaoh himself. Pharaoh Psammetich II was in Tanis and was engaged in charitable deeds when he was informed that the Negro Kuar had raised his sword against Egypt.

During the New Kingdom, the role of the army increased dramatically. Most importantly, the army has now become permanent. The pharaoh was at the head of the army. Egypt became a military state. This could not but affect the entire Egyptian society. The military career became prestigious, and the sons of the pharaoh, who had previously held high administrative positions, now became military leaders. From among the military ranks, the tsar now appointed deputies of administrative posts.

But foreign policy was not only conquest. The pharaohs closely followed the expansion of trade relations. An important direction in the foreign policy of Egypt was the expedition, organized personally by the pharaoh, for luxury goods for the royal needs.

Queen Hatshepsut decided to build an extraordinary temple. It was to become a heaven of god, where Amon should feel like at home in Punta. But the new temple needed myrtle trees. Then the queen organized an expedition to Punt after them. The campaign ended with an unprecedented success. The ships returned home laden "very heavily with the marvels of the country of Punta, every fragrant tree of the Divine Country, heaps of myrtle resin and fresh myrtle trees, ebony and pure ivory, emu green gold, cinnamon wood, frankincense, eye rubs, baboons, monkeys , dogs, skins of southern panthers, natives and their children. Nothing like this was brought to any king who ever lived in the north. "

Diplomatic ties were established between the pharaohs and the kings of other great powers. So between Ramesses II and Hattusilis III, the prince of the Hittites, an agreement was concluded. According to him, if any enemy decides to attack the lands subordinate to the Egyptian king, then after the request of the pharaoh "come, bring military forces with you against my enemy", then the prince should do this: "if you yourself cannot come, then at least you must send your archers and your war chariots." Pharaoh should do the same.

During the first period of the empire, Egypt was at the center of world politics. In Asia, the dominion of Amenhotep III was universally recognized; even the Babylonian court did not dispute his supremacy in Syria and Palestine. When the kings tried to involve the Babylonian king Kurigaltsu in an alliance directed against the pharaoh, he sent them a categorical refusal on the grounds that he was in alliance with the pharaoh: “Stop plotting an alliance with me. If you are plotting hostility against the king of Egypt, my brother, and If you want to unite with anyone, shall I not go out and destroy you, for he (Pharaoh) is in alliance with me? . All powers - Babylon, Assyria, Mitanni and Alasia (Cyprus) - did everything to gain the friendship of Egypt.

The Tell el-Amarna archive is of great importance for studying the diplomatic relations of Egypt. About 400 letters were found, written in Babylonian cuneiform on clay tablets. These letters are the official correspondence between the pharaohs and the kings of the above states during the period of the new kingdom. The vast majority of letters came from Asia, and only a very small number of letters (copies, drafts, unsent letters) were destined for Asia. The latter are all written on behalf of the pharaoh. "Of these, three letters were addressed to the Babylonian kings, one letter to the king of Artsava and six letters to the dependent rulers of the conquered city-states of Syria, Palestine, and Phoenicia." Even if these letters were not written directly by the hand of the pharaoh, they were written directly under his dictation.

If the news was so important that it could not be trusted with a letter, then ambassadors were sent to Egypt. The reception of foreign ambassadors served as an occasion for a magnificent ceremony, and especially flattered the pharaoh when he gave an audience to many envoys from all over the world at once. The Rameses have always received Nubians, Negroes, people from Punt, Libyans, Syrians and envoys from Naharin. At their court, you no longer see Cretans with long curled hair, in colorful loincloths, who once brought rhytons, jugs with spouts, bowls with handles, large bowls decorated with flowers, and asked to be allowed "to be on the water of the King." These embassies ceased, but the glory of the pharaoh reached countries that Thutmose and Amenhotep had not even heard of: Media, Persia, Bactria and the banks of the Indus.

For these receptions, a gazebo was built in the center of a large square. She was surrounded by guards, servants with umbrellas and scribes. The ambassadors lined up on four sides, placing their precious offerings in front of them. The scribes wrote them down, and then sent them to the warehouses of the nearest temple. In return, the pharaoh gave the ambassadors the "breath of life" or bestowed gifts that were much more valuable than those presented to him. Pharaoh really liked to pretend to be a golden mountain among other countries. He did not refuse to help "princes" and kings who found themselves in a difficult situation. And they tried to contact him with a marriage contract or in some other way, without ceasing, however, to maintain relations with possible rivals of the Egyptians.

We see that the foreign policy of the pharaohs was extremely diverse, and it did not differ much from the modern foreign policy of modern states.

5. Legislative, judicial functions

Egypt was a highly developed country in all areas, including the legal one. But not a single complete code of laws has come down to us. Undoubtedly, the pharaoh was the main lawmaker in Egypt.

Several decrees of Pharaoh Seti I in favor of the temple of Osiris have been preserved, in which severe punishments are established for plundering the property of the temple. D. G. Reder believes that the usual punishments of the current legislation turned out to be insufficient, and emergency measures had to be resorted to.

There is an image of Ramesses II, where he is sitting on the throne, he says to his seal keeper: "Summon the nobles who are waiting in front of [the reception hall] so that I hear their opinion about this country. I myself will consider this matter."

The meeting is over. It remains only to get to work. The pharaoh will be kept up to date at all times. On a granite stele, it will later testify to the success of this enterprise.

Thus, we conclude that although there were advisers under the pharaoh, they did not play any significant role in the drafting of laws. However, it is impossible to say with certainty that the pharaoh was engaged in local legislation. Most likely, this function belonged to the nomarchs, who knew local features and traditions better.

The chief judge of all Egypt was the pharaoh. However, as in all other branches of government, the king had assistants. Like a treasury, judicial administration was subject to the whole management of one person - the supreme judge of the whole kingdom.

No matter how powerful the vizier was, the people turned to him as a person endowed with the highest judicial powers and able to restore trampled justice; his position was by tradition the most popular in the long line of the pharaoh's servants. The people looked at him as their great protector, and the highest praise for Amon in the mouth of his admirer was to call him "the vizier of the poor, who does not take bribes from the guilty." His appointment was considered so important that it was made by the king himself. When appointed to a new position, the tsar tells the vizier that he must behave like one who "does not tilt his face towards the princes and advisers, and also does not make the whole people his brothers"; and he says again: "It is a distaste for God to show affection. This is the instruction: you will do the same, you will look at the one who is known to you as well as at the one who is unknown to you, and at the one who is close. Also, as well as one who is far away... Such an official will prosper greatly in his place... Do not inflame with anger against a person unjustly... But inspire fear in yourself, let them fear you, for only that prince is the prince who is feared. Here, the true fear of the prince is to do justice. If people do not know who you are, they will not say: he is only a man. Likewise, the subordinates of the vizier must be just people; so the tsar advises the new vizier: "Here, they should talk about the chief scribe of the vizier:" A just scribe - they should talk about him ". In a country where the bribery of the court begins already with the lower employees, who are encountered before reaching the highest officials, such "justice" was truly necessary. So great was the respect for the people who occupied this high office that the words "life, prosperity, health" were sometimes added to the name of the vizier, which, in fact, should have accompanied only the name of the pharaoh or the prince of the royal house.

For a very long time in Egypt there was no specific class of professional judges. However, any person who occupied a high administrative position, and who knew most of the laws, could rule justice. That is exactly what happened most of the time.

The punishment of condemned criminals was appointed by the pharaoh, and therefore the relevant documents were sent to him for resolution, while the victims awaited their fate in imprisonment.

Under certain conditions that are still not entirely clear to us, it was possible to appeal directly to the tsar and offer at his discretion relevant documents. Such a document is the legal papyrus of the Old Kingdom, now stored in Berlin.

Claims from litigating heirs also passed directly through the pharaoh. All the lands granted by the pharaoh were transferred on the basis of royal decrees entered into the "royal writings" in the offices of the vizier.

"Wanderings of Sinuhet" is the only case known to us when the pharaoh pardoned the guilty. The narrator described in detail how it all happened. Pharaoh not only forgave Sinuhet, gave him gifts and allowed him to return to his homeland, but also wanted to look at him. Our hero has come to the border outpost of the Path of Horus. He distributed gifts received from the royal court to his nomad friends and trusted the guards who brought him by ship to the residence of Ichi-taui. Everyone in the palace had been warned in advance. The royal children gathered in the guardroom. The courtiers, whose duty it was to escort visitors to the hall of columns, showed Sinuhet the way, and now the sinning subject appeared before the ruler, who sat on the ceremonial throne in the gilded hall. Sinuhet prostrates before him on the floor. He is aware of the gravity of his offense, and horror seizes him: "I was like one covered in darkness. My soul disappeared, my body weakened, and there was no more heart in my chest, and I did not distinguish life from death."

Sinuhet was ordered to get up. Pharaoh, who had just severely rebuked him, relented and allowed Sinuhet to speak. Sinuhet did not abuse royal generosity and ended his short speech with the words: "Here I am before you - my life belongs to you. May your majesty do as he pleases."

Pharaoh orders the children to be brought. He draws the queen's attention to the fact that Sinuhet has changed a lot. He lived among the Asiatics for so long that he became like them. The queen screams in surprise, and the royal children confirm in chorus: "Truly, it is not he, the king, our lord!" .

After much praise, they ask to pardon Sinuhet, for he acted out of thoughtlessness. Sinuhet leaves the palace not only pardoned, but also rewarded: now he has a house and from now on he can enjoy the beautiful things presented to him by the pharaoh.

The pharaoh could be considered a god, the legitimate son of Amun, but this did not save him from enemies. Special cases of a private nature were "heard" by the chief judge and the judge "at Nekhen"; in one case, when a conspiracy arose in the harem, the accused queen appeared before two judges "at Nekhen", specially appointed for this by the crown, and among them was not the pharaoh himself - the supreme judge.

In the "Biography of the nobleman Una" a description of the process against the king's wife Urethetes is given. "The case was conducted in the royal women's house against the wife of King Urethetes in secret. His Majesty ordered me (the nobleman) to go down to conduct an interrogation alone, and there was not a single chief judge - a riding dignitary, not a single [other] dignitary except me alone, since I used the order and was pleasing to his majesty and since his majesty relied on me. It was I who kept the record alone with one judge and the mouth of Nekhen, and my position was [only] the head of the palace hentiu-she ".

Towards the end of the reign of Ramesses III, one of his wives, named Tii, conceived to pass the crown of the old pharaoh to her son, whom the Turin papyrus calls Pen-taur, although this was not his real name. She agreed with the chief administrator of the palace Pabakikamun ("Blind Servant"). It is not known how the pharaoh destroyed their plot. It is only known that the main instigators and their assistants were arrested, and with them all those who knew about their despicable plans and did not inform the pharaoh about this. Judges were appointed: two treasurers, a fan-bearer, four butlers, and one herald. The pharaoh preferred people from his entourage to ordinary judges. In a preliminary speech at the trial, the beginning of which has not been preserved, he says that no one will be spared.

In both cases described above, we have before us a conspiracy against God himself and the fact that in those distant times the people who took part in the harem conspiracy were not immediately put to death without distant reasoning, is a remarkable evidence of the pharaoh's high sense of justice and amazing judicial tolerance of that era. Immediate the death penalty, without the slightest attempt to legally establish the guilt of the convicted person, did not seem illegal in the same country in the last century.

6. Religious function

The ancient peoples gave great value religion, the Egyptians were no exception. The king was considered officially a god, and one of his most common titles was "Good God"; so great was the reverence that befitted him, that when speaking of him, they avoided mentioning his name. When the king died, he was ranked among the host of gods and, like them, received eternal worship in the temple in front of the huge pyramid in which he rested. To ensure peace and prosperity for the country, there must be a ruler on the throne, appointed by the gods and descended from their divine flesh. However, if this main basic condition - the divinity of the pharaoh - was not observed, everything went to dust. The country was in decline. No one else offered sacrifices to the gods, and they turned their backs on Egypt and its people. Thus, the main duty of the pharaoh is to express his gratitude to the gods, the rulers of all things.

On most of the steles it was reported that the pharaoh, being in Memphis, in Ona, in Per-Ramesses or in Thebes, did what was pleasing to the gods: he restored the sanctuaries that had fallen into decay, built new ones, strengthened the walls of temples, installed statues, updated furniture and sacred boats, set obelisks, decorated altars and sacrificial tables, and in his generosity surpassed everything that other kings had done before him.

Here, for example, is the prayer and confession of Ramesses III: "Glory to you, gods and goddesses, lords of heaven, earth, water! Your steps on the boat of millions of years are wide next to your father Ra, whose heart rejoices when he sees your perfection, sending down happiness the country of Ta-meri... He rejoices, he grows younger, seeing how great you are in heaven and mighty on earth, watching how you give air to breathless nostrils. I am your son, created by your two hands. may he be alive, unharmed and healthy, of the whole earth. You have created perfection for me on earth. I do my duty in peace. My heart is tirelessly looking for what is necessary and useful for your sanctuaries. By my commands, written in every office, I will give them men and lands, livestock and ships Their barges sail the Nile I have made your sanctuaries prosperous which were in decline I have instituted divine offerings for you besides those for you I have worked for you in your houses of gold with gold, silver, lapis lazuli and turquoise zoi. I have been watching over your treasures. I made up for them with numerous things. I have filled your bins with barley and wheat, I have built for you fortresses, sanctuaries, cities. Your names are carved there forever. I have increased the number of your employees by adding many people to them. I have not taken from you a man, not a dozen people in an army, and in ship crews from those in the sanctuaries of the gods, since the kings built them. I issued decrees to be eternal on earth for the kings who come after me. I have sacrificed all sorts of good things for you. I have built you warehouses for the festivities, filled them with food. I have made for you millions of ornamented vessels of gold, silver and copper. I have built for you boats that float on the river, with their great dwellings sheathed in gold."

After this introduction, Ramesses lists everything he did in the main temples of Egypt. He speaks for a long time about the gifts brought in honor of Amon, the lord of the two thrones of the Two lands, Atum, the owner of the Two lands in On, the great Bird, located south of his wall, and in honor of other gods. Since the appearance of the pharaohs, one can say about almost every one of them what is inscribed on the stele from Amada:

"This is a beneficent king, for he does work for all the gods, erecting temples for them and carving their images." So Thutmose III decided to expand the Temple of Karnak. “At the end of February, on the feast of the new moon, which coincided by a happy coincidence with the day of the tenth feast of Amon, he could personally celebrate the laying ceremony with the greatest splendor. God appeared as a good omen and even took a personal part in measuring the future area of ​​the temple with a rope.

In addition to the construction of temples and sanctuaries, many pharaohs for some time were also the high priests of the main god.

The ruler had to perform various religious rites: he scatters grains of demons around him, strikes the temple doors twelve times with his mace, sanctifies the naos with fire, and then runs around the temple, holding a vessel in each hand, and in other cases - an oar with a square. In addition, the pharaoh had to participate in some great religious holidays. During the great festival of Opet, he was supposed to appear on a sacred boat over a hundred cubits long, which was towed from Karnak to Luxor. During the feast of the god Mina at the beginning of the "shemu" season, the pharaoh had to cut the "bedet" sheaf himself. Ramesses III, for example, could not entrust this duty to anyone else, even though this holiday coincided with the day of his coronation.

Ramesses II at the beginning of his reign took the rank of the great priest of Amon. This did not prevent him from immediately appointing another high priest, to whom the young pharaoh gladly conceded his burdensome and boring priestly duties. However, Ramesses II, like his predecessors and successors, never resigned his duties towards the gods. By this, he maintained calm in the country, since, while he himself was considered the son of God, ordinary people generally put up with their fate and did not dare to rebel: it was not in their interests to quarrel with God.

The official cults in the great temples demanded more and more time and attention from the monarch as the rites became more complex with the development of a complex state religion. Under such conditions, duties inevitably exceeded the strength of one person, so the pharaoh began to appoint priests.

The most important was the appointment of the high priest of Amon. Ramesses II, as we know, at the beginning of his reign, took the rank of high priest of Amon. Through a short time, having decided to transfer this sacred position to another, he appointed to it not the servant of Amon, but the first priest of the god Inkhar (Onuris) from the Tinite nome. Before making a final decision, he had the god choose his own priest. The pharaoh recited to him the names of all the courtiers, commanders, prophets, and palace dignitaries assembled before him, but the god expressed his approval only when the name of Nebunenef was called.

"Be grateful to him, for he called you!" - says the pharaoh in conclusion.

Then the pharaoh gave the new high priest two gold rings and a staff of gilded silver. All Egypt was informed that henceforth all the possessions and affairs of Amon were in the hands of Nebunenef.

Another duty of the ruler was to expand the domain of the god.

From ancient times, the pharaoh was the heir of the gods, the son of the sun god, and owned Egypt, which previously belonged directly to the gods. Therefore, the possessions of the gods spread along with the possessions of the pharaoh. The king at that distant time was called "the one who acquires the world for him (god), who elevated him (pharaoh) to the throne." For the ruler, the whole world is a huge area of ​​influence of the deity. Therefore, all military campaigns were made for the glory of God. And their results are imprinted on the walls of the temple so that God can see them.

To be a pharaoh, one must not only be born in the family of a king, but also have a huge supply of energy and knowledge.

Undoubtedly, the ruler of Egypt gave a lot of strength to the state, but he received no less. Pharaoh was surrounded by greatness and reverence. He lived in a beautiful palace, surrounded by concubines, and not only worked, but also enjoyed life.

Chapter II. The private life of the pharaoh

For a long time of the existence of Egypt, as a state, a strict etiquette developed at the court of the pharaoh, following which was mandatory for everyone. For example, no one was allowed to call the pharaoh by name. The courtier preferred to designate it as the impersonal "They", and "bring to Their attention" becomes the official formula instead of the phrase "report to the king". The tsarist government and personally the monarch himself were designated by the word " Big house", in Egyptian "Per-o", is an expression that has come down to us through the Jews in the form of "Pharaoh". There were also a number of other expressions that a scrupulous courtier could use when talking about his divine master.

From court customs, a complex official etiquette was gradually developed, the strict observance of which was monitored by many magnificent marshals and court chamberlains, who were constantly in the palace for this. Thus, a court life arose, probably similar to that which is now in the East.

For every need of the royal person there was a special court nobleman, whose duty was to satisfy it, and who bore the corresponding title, for example, court physician or court bandmaster. Despite the relatively simple toilet of the king, a whole small army of wigmakers, sandal makers, perfumers, laundries, bleachers and keepers of the royal wardrobe crowded the pharaoh's chambers. They bring their titles on their tombstones with visible satisfaction. Thus, if we take one of the examples, one of them calls himself "the caretaker of the casket with cosmetics, who knows the art of cosmetics to the satisfaction of his master, the caretaker of the cosmetic pencil, who knows everything relating to royal sandals, to the satisfaction of his master."

The royal attire not only exceeded the luxury of the attire of "princes", dignitaries and senior military leaders of the army - it had to correspond to the divine essence of His Majesty. The pharaoh never appeared with his head uncovered, and even in the family circle he wore a wig. He cut his hair short to wear different wigs, the simplest of which is round with a diadem attached at the back and pendants descending to the back of the head. The diadem was wrapped around a golden uraeus (cobra), whose head with a swollen neck rose above the middle of the forehead. Ceremonial headdresses were crowns of the South and North and a double crown. The first looked like a high pin-shaped cap, the second - like an elongated mortar with a straight arrow behind, from the base of which a metal band, rounded at the end, extended upwards. The double crown was a combination of the first two. In addition, the pharaoh willingly put on, especially during military parades and in war, an elegant and simple blue helmet with uraea and two ribbons at the back of the head. The "nemee" (special royal scarf) was large enough to hide a round wig. It was made of fabric, encircled the forehead, descended from both sides of the face to the chest and formed an acute-angled pocket at the back. "Numee", as a rule, was white with red stripes. It was prepared in advance. It was fixed on the head with a golden ribbon, which was simply necessary when the pharaoh placed a double crown, the crown of the South or the crown of the North, on top of the "nemes". In addition, two feathers or an "atef" crown were installed on the "nemes": a cap of Upper Egypt with two high feathers placed on the horns of a ram, between which a golden disc sparkled, framed by two uraeus crowned with the same golden discs. It is quite obvious that such headdresses were intended only for such ceremonies, when the pharaoh was sitting absolutely still.

Another indispensable accessory of ceremonial decoration is a false beard, braided into a pigtail, like the inhabitants of Punt, the Land of God. This false beard was connected to the wig by two garters. Usually the pharaoh shaved off his beard and mustache, but sometimes left a short square beard.

The main part of the pharaoh's attire, like all Egyptians, was a loincloth, but the royal one was made pleated. She held on to a wide belt with a metal buckle, with excellently executed hieroglyphs in the royal cartouche in front and an ox-tail at the back. Sometimes an apron in the form of a trapezoid was tied to the belt. This apron was entirely of precious metal, or strands of beads stretched over a frame. On both sides, the apron was decorated with uraei crowned with solar disks. The pharaoh did not hesitate to go barefoot, but he had a lot of sandals - leather, metal or woven from cane.

Jewelry and ornaments complete this decoration. The pharaoh wore a variety of necklaces. Most often, they were strung gold plates, balls and beads with a flat clasp at the back, from which a very beautiful gold brush descended from chains with flowers. Such necklaces appeared shortly before the era of the Ramesses. The classic necklace consisted of a series of strands of beads and a clasp in the form of two falcon heads and was tied at the back with two cords. The beads of the last bottom row were drop-shaped, the rest were round or oval. These necklaces sometimes weighed up to several kilograms. In addition, the pharaoh hung a pectoral in the shape of a temple facade around his neck on a double gold chain and put on at least three pairs of bracelets: one on the forearm, the second on the wrist, and the third on the ankles. And sometimes, on top of all these decorations, he put on a long transparent tunic with short sleeves and the same transparent belt tied in front.

The pharaoh lived in a palace, of which there were most often several. The pharaohs of the first dynasties preferred to build palaces of a rectangular shape. The house was divided into two halves, service and living: a reception hall, the ceiling of which was supported by two columns, a side gatehouse and a long hall with a column connecting the side rooms with living quarters. In a later period, they began to build houses according to an asymmetric plan, which consisted of four parts: the master's room, the harem, the servants' quarters, as well as utility and office premises.

The material for them was wood and sun-dried brick; the buildings were made lightly and included, according to the climate, a lot of air. They had many lattice windows, and all the walls in the living rooms were, to a large extent, simple shields, similar to those found in many Japanese houses. In the event of wind and sandstorms, brightly colored curtains could be lowered.

So that the pharaoh could enjoy the coolness, so necessary in hot Egypt, the palace was surrounded by magnificent gardens and ponds of various sizes and shapes. At the royal estate of Maru-Aton on the southern outskirts of El Amarna, eleven reservoirs in the shape of the letter T formed a cascade. A huge, but not deep pond was made in the park of the estate, there were many trees, which were carefully looked after. The park also had a small pond with blooming lotuses and thickets of papyrus, an island with elegant pavilions.

The atmosphere in the palace was magnificent. Beds, armchairs, chairs, and caskets of ebony, inlaid with ivory of the finest workmanship, constituted the most important pieces of furniture. Most likely there were no tables, but precious vessels made of alabaster and other valuable stones, copper, and sometimes gold and silver, were placed on stands and racks that raised them above the floor. The floors were covered with heavy carpets, on which guests often sat, especially the ladies, who preferred them to armchairs and chairs. The food was exquisite and varied; we find that even the deceased desired in the other world "ten different kinds of meat, five kinds of poultry, sixteen kinds of bread and biscuits, six kinds of wine, four kinds of beer, eleven kinds of fruit, not counting all sorts of sweets and many other things."

In his free time, the pharaoh liked to hunt. He had only to wish, and he could fight beyond the Euphrates or south of the great rapids with ferocious animals that were no longer in the deserts that flank the valley of the Egyptian Nile.

So, Pharaoh Menkheperra once met in the Euphrates valley, in the town of Niy, a herd of one hundred and twenty wild elephants. The battle with them began in the water. "Never has a pharaoh done anything like this since the time of the gods!" The largest elephant turned out to be opposite the pharaoh and could trample him. But he was saved by his old comrade in arms, Amenemheb. He cut off the monster's trunk. His master praised him and rewarded him with gold. Amenemheb recounted this memorable hunt in his short story.

In Medinet Habu, a relief has been preserved in which Ramesses III hunts a lion, a wild buffalo and an antelope.

The pharaoh had a large family. The beloved wife of the pharaoh was the official queen, and her eldest son was usually appointed heir to the royal throne even during the life of his father. But, as in all eastern courts, there was also a royal harem with many odalisques. A mass of sons usually surrounded the monarch, and the huge income of the palace was generously distributed among them. One of the sons of the king of the IV dynasty Khafre left behind private property, which consisted of 14 cities, one city house and two possessions in the royal residence-city at the pyramid. In addition, the provision of his tomb consisted of 12 other cities. But the princes did not lead an idle and luxurious life, but helped their father in management.

In addition, the prince also had to be very strong in order to lead soldiers into battle on a military campaign. The father taught the future Ramesses II and his comrades to difficult exercises, to the ability to overcome fatigue. None of them received a crumb until they ran one hundred and eighty stadia. Therefore, they all became real athletes.

We learn about the exploits of Amenhotep II from a memorial stele. They said about him: “He reached his prime at the age of eighteen. By that time he knew all the exploits of Montu. He had no equal on the battlefield. And he learned the art of driving horses. He had no equal in the entire large army. who could draw his bow. And no one could catch up with him in the run."

In general, a real athlete. He practiced at once in three types: rowing, archery and equestrian sports.

“His hand was powerful and tireless when he held the steering oar at the stern of his royal ship with a team of two hundred people. At the end of the distances, when his people sailed half the distance, they could no longer swim, they were suffocating, their hands were like rags. And his majesty, on the contrary, firmly held his oar, twenty cubits long. The royal vessel moored, having passed three aturas without stopping. People watched and rejoiced."

Then there were archery competitions. "He (Akheperura) pulled three hundred bows in order to compare them and distinguish the product of the master from the work of the ignorant." Having chosen a real, impeccable bow, which no one could pull except him, the prince appeared at the shooting range: “He saw that he was given four targets of Asian copper a span thick. Twenty cubits separated one target from another. When his majesty the pharaoh appeared on chariot, like the mighty Montu, he grabbed his bow, grabbed four arrows at once and started shooting like Montu. The first arrow came out from the other side of the target. Then he aimed at the other. It was a shot like no one else had ever heard of : an arrow pierced copper and fell on the other side to the ground. Only a king, mighty and strong, whom Amon created a winner, could do such a thing.

The Hyksos brought more than just trouble to Egypt. It was they who brought horses to Egypt. The pharaohs appreciated these beautiful animals, and the royal stables were filled with thousands of magnificent horses.

Ramesses III did not even trust his commanders and himself made sure that his horses were well-groomed and ready for battle. He came to the great palace stable with a staff in one hand and a whip in the other. He was accompanied by servants with umbrellas and fans and soldiers on duty. There was a signal about the arrival of the pharaoh. The grooms jumped up and rushed to their places. Each grabbed the reins of his pair of horses. Pharaoh examined them one by one.

To live in such splendor, the pharaoh needed funds. First, there was an extensive palace economy. According to Perepelkin, managing it was no different from managing the economy of a nobleman. The possessions of rich people, to whom the pharaoh belonged, were scattered throughout the country. For the general management of management, a household manager was needed - a housekeeper. He headed the "government of his own house." It also included the keeper of the statements, scribes, measurer and grain counter. The pharaoh's possessions were divided into separate settlements: "yards" and "villages". They were headed by a manager. He was responsible for the economy, was present at all the work and reported to the "uprava".

In addition, the nobleman's "own house" included handicraft production. As Yu. A. Perepelkin writes: "Some of its branches were willingly united into multi-craft workshops, but weaving and food production stood out as separate branches." Handicraft industries were subordinate to their superiors, they were not under the jurisdiction of the rulers. But, despite the unification, individual crafts had their own premises and their bosses.

Food workshops simultaneously served as warehouses for ready-made supplies. There were their own administrators, who reported to the council or scribes of "their own house."

Animals were raised in the royal household. These were cows being milked and magnificent bulls being fattened for slaughter. According to I. S. Katsnelson, during the New Kingdom, such bulls were branded. The great economic importance of cattle was reflected in the deification of the cow in the image of the sky goddess Hathor. In addition to cattle, the pharaoh's farm raised goats, long-maned sheep, bred birds and fish.

The pharaoh's treasury was in charge of the southern vizier. The pharaoh received most of his income in the form of taxes. The size of the tax depended on the height of the flood of the Nile, and, accordingly, on the amount of the expected harvest. Viceroy ancient city El-Kaba, for example, contributed annually to the vizier about 5600 grams of gold, 4200 grams of silver, 1 bull, and one "two-year-old", while his subordinate paid 4200 grams of silver, a necklace of gold beads, two bulls and two boxes of linen. This is taken from a list in the tomb of the vizier Rehmir in Thebes. Every year, the pharaoh was paid about 220,000 grams of gold, 9 gold necklaces, over 16,000 grams of silver, about 40 boxes and other measures of linen, 106 head of cattle, including calves, and some grain.

He received part of it in the form of various incomes: income from the gold mines of Nubia, funds from the sale, rich gifts from nomarchs or dependent rulers.

The pharaoh received huge funds from conquest expeditions. So D. Breasted gives a list of booty after the conquest of Megiddo by Thutmose III: "924 chariots, including those that belonged to the kings of Kadesh and Megiddo, 2238 horses, 200 weapons, luxurious tents of the king of Kadesh, about 2000 heads of cattle and 22,500 heads of small cattle. Magnificent the home furnishings of the king of Kadesh, and including his royal scepter, a silver statue, an ivory statue of the king himself covered in gold and lapis lazuli, a vast amount of gold and silver."

These funds were enough not only for the maintenance of magnificent palaces, a huge staff of servants, for the rich attire of the pharaoh and his family. But there was plenty of money left for the construction of rich burials, for luxurious gifts to those close to him, and, simply, for a “fun life”. However, even such wealth could end if it was not increased, which was what the great pharaohs, or their great viziers, did.

Conclusion

Throughout the history of ancient Egypt, the head of state was the pharaoh. He had unlimited power, and it was she who demanded direct participation in the affairs of government. However, the participation of the ruler in state affairs most often depended on the personality of the pharaoh. If the king was smart and hardworking, then a huge amount of work fell to his lot. Under strong and powerful kings, Egypt prospered. His economic and political position was stable. If the king did not want to govern, then it was enough for him to find a devoted and capable person for the position of vizier. The appointment of officials and nomarchs depended only on the will of the pharaoh.

Not the last role was played by the commander's talent of the ruler. It was in battles and conquests that the names of the pharaohs were glorified.

However, no one could replace the pharaoh in the performance of religious duties. The main duty of the whole life of the pharaoh is to carry out proper service to the cults of the supreme gods of Egypt.

In order for the pharaoh to adequately fulfill the difficult duties of governing Egypt, he needed rest. The king was surrounded by luxury and divine reverence. The ruler received funds for this from a variety of sources. It was the independence of the receipt of some income from others that made the pharaoh relatively independent in the economic situation.

Bibliography

1. History of the Ancient East. Texts and documents: Proc. allowance. / Ed. V. I. Kuzishchina. - M .: Higher. school, 2002. - 719p.

2. Breasted D., Turaev B. History of Ancient Egypt - Minsk: Harvest, 2003. - 832 p.

3. Eger O. World history: in 4 volumes. T. 1. The ancient world. - M .: OOO "AST Publishing House", 2000. - 824 p.

4. History of the Ancient East: Textbook. / Under. ed. V. I. Kuzishchina - M .: Higher. school, 1979. - 456 p.

5. Culture of Ancient Egypt. / Rev. ed. I. S. Katsnelson. - M .: "Nauka", 1975. - 445 p.

6. Interstate relations and diplomacy in the Ancient East. / Rev. ed. I. A. Struchevsky. - M .: "Nauka", 1987. - 312 p.

7. Mertz B. Ancient Egypt. Temples, tombs, hieroglyphs. / Per. from English. B. E. Verpakhovsky. - M .: CJSC Publishing House Tsentrpoligraf, 2003. - 363 p.

8. Monte P. Egypt of the Ramses. / Per. from French F. L. Mendelssohn. - Smolensk: Rusich, 2000. - 416 p.

9. Perepelkin Yu. A. History of Ancient Egypt. - under the general editorship. A. A. Vassoevich. - S. - Pb.: "Summer Garden", 2001. - 874 p.

10. Razin E. A. History of military art of the XXXI century. BC e. - VI century. n. e. - S. - Pb.: LLC "Polygon Publishing House", 1999. - 560 p.

Breasted D., Turaev B. Decree. op. S. 185.

Monte P. Egypt of the Ramses. Smolensk, 2000, p. 236.

Cit. by: Breasted D., Turaev B. Decree. op. S. 267.

Eger O. World history: T. 1. Ancient world. M., 2000. S. 27.

Cit. Quoted from: Interstate Relations and Diplomacy in the Ancient East. / Rev. ed. I. A. Struchevsky. M., 1987. S. 50.

Monte P. Decree. op. S. 258.

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Some words are magical. The word "pharaoh" is one of them. But who really was this man, who stopped halfway between earth and sky, between the desert and the Nile? For the first time in France, an exposition takes place that puts an end to our knowledge of the kings of Egypt secrets of the pharaohs and their secrets. The exposition is exhibited at the Institute of the Arab World.

Hundreds of the rarest exhibits, some of which are monumental, all the wonderful curiosities full of secrets, are on display to the public, and interest and admiration for Ancient Egypt is only growing. "L" Express "gives the keys to the cherished door of the tomb of the secret world, where the sacred coexists with human weakness, where art and politics are in harmony, where gigantism is crowned with intimacy, where man lives in peace with nature. A world that tells us about eternity .

Mummies Secrets of the Pharaohs watch online

The realm of darkness is finally coming to light! Egyptology has existed for two centuries, it has been enchanting us for two centuries, but the pharaohs remain inaccessible to us, they are surrounded by a halo of holiness, they are dressed in armor. secret laws, they are sealed in their sarcophagi, buried in secret chambers. To lift the edge of the veil, it was necessary to organize a dazzling exhibition, sponsored by the two heads of state Jacques Chirac and Hosni Moubarak, modestly titled "The Pharaoh", will be held at the Arab World Institute from October 15, 2004 to April 10, 2005.

This is an amazing collection of miracles - the catalog was compiled by the Flammarion publishing house - the exhibition presents about 230 works, the main selection criterion is their beauty, among them 115 objects belong to the wonderful museum in Cairo, among them - the incredible colossus of Tutankhamun, a statue of quartzite three meters high and weighing 4 tons, previously unseen objects from the same tomb of Tutankhamun, as well as the famous Tanis treasury, one of the largest collections of jewels and jewelry that has never been brought to light.

The dress rehearsal was already held two years ago in the Venetian Palazzo Grassi: 620,000 visitors gathered there to admire the treasures of a civilization that links earth and sky, a civilization that destined all kinds of living beings - insects, animals, people - to one destiny. The Paris version of the exposition promises to be even richer. Christiane Ziegler, chief curator of Egyptian antiquities at the Louvre and organizer of both exhibitions, has devoted many months of work to the preparations for this event. This is where we can learn a lot about these great silent pharaohs.

We don’t know too much about them, mostly they are familiar to us from clichés. "Kings such as Cheops, Akhenaten, Ramses II, whose names entered the culture, to whom books are dedicated, even musical compositions, they remain translucent for the historian," say Pascal Vernus and Jean Yoyotte, two great viziers from Egyptology, in their shocking "Dictionary of the Pharaohs" (ed. Noesis). We learn about them only thanks to the fasts in which they are mentioned posthumously. And it is in this posthumous light that their life appears to us, in any archaeological find. Official, religious art is not aware of the daily life of these Egyptian sovereigns, as mere mortals.

"What is the difference between the sumptuous robes in which the imagination dresses them and the scraps of facts obtained in the scientific search of an Egyptologist?" ask Vernius and Yoyot. Without a hallucination of the cult of the other world, the Egyptians remain practically unknown to us, to which one more difficulty is added, private tombs, where household items lie, only indirectly tell us about the life and deeds of the pharaohs. Ultimately, there was something true about the Egyptian religion. She secured eternity for her servants and brought them to us on the millennial river of time, she was able to keep almost all of their secrets.

Almost everything, because the exposition "Pharaoh" in one place has collected all the basic knowledge about the nature and functions of this phenomenon since the time of Champollion. For the first time, interest is directed not to a certain era, not to one burial place, not to one special character, but to the very nature of the phenomenon, to the image of the pharaoh in all his guises. Four large sections, illustrated by the art of the New Kingdom, define the range of questions: the lord of the divine nature, the son of Horus, the king-priest, the mediator between the gods and man; military leader, invincible conqueror; head of state at the head of a massive apparatus; a courtier surrounded by women; a dead man whose funeral is grandiose. The most inquisitive minds will be satisfied. From pre-dynastic era to Ptolemaic Egypt, 15 statues, heads and reliefs of pharaohs cover 3,500 years of history. So that, through the rules of representation, step by step, a man in a demigod mask, a mortal in the halo of an immortal, a military leader who knows defeat under a cloak of invulnerability, emerges.

In the halls one can find a gigantic head of Queen Hatshepsut, a small figurine of the "Bearded Man of Lyon", or an imposing bust of Sesostris III, surrounded by objects of everyday life, which suddenly give each son of the Sun the appearance of a mere mortal. Here's a bed, here's a pair of sandals. . . Simply put, this man was gaining monstrous power over his people. Heavenly and earthly power, a power as mystical as it is political, which is still far from explored, and far from having exhausted its charms. From the birth of the pharaoh to his death - "L" Express "gives five keys to the heart of mystery.


god man

The man-god according to Egyptian myths, the pharaoh takes the throne at the direction of the gods themselves. In reality, the king's son - preferably the eldest - may be the son of the queen, or of more minor spouses, or the son of one of the concubines. In the event of the suppression of the tribe of the dynasty, the throne is occupied by a male heir or, due to dramatic events, a newcomer, even if we are talking about the usurper, he acquires the legal right to the funeral ceremony of his predecessor. This, obviously, does not interfere with intrigues, with each inheritance there are games of ambition.

"That is why," write Pascal Verus and Jean Yoyot, in their Dictionary of the Pharaohs, "the pharaohs tried to strengthen the position of their eldest sons by naming them 'erpa' (crown prince) and placing them at the head of the army, or binding themselves with a joint regency This is why, conversely, newly crowned pharaohs had to try to consolidate their position through massive propaganda, for example by publishing apologetic accounts of the reigns of their predecessors."

The birth ritual is known from the reign of Queen Hatshepsut, the former wife of first her half-brother Thutmose II, and then her nephew Thutmose III, who received the regency under the latter, and enjoyed all the power of the pharaoh. In her temple, Deir el-Bahari, a cycle dedicated to the divine birth is depicted, this fresco was supposed to legitimize the power of Hatshepsut. God Amon - gradually becomes the supreme god of the kingdom; he was depicted with the head of a man, a ram or a goose, perhaps he was the personification of air or divine breath that came from the other world, he takes on a human form - in the form of a king, and by immaculate conception gives birth to a son from the queen. The god of potters Khnum, a man with a ram's head, makes the body of a child out of clay, and the resolution occurs with the help of the goddesses.

This is followed by feeding, the child is fed heavenly milk, most often it is obtained from the udder of the goddess Gator, the nurse cow. Thus, human food contains a particle of the divine, receiving it, a person becomes a pharaoh. In order to be completely satisfied with heavenly things, the pharaoh is fed milk for the second time, during the coronation, and for the third time after death. The temple tombs of the 5th and 6th dynasties represent in reality a series of feedings in which the pharaoh reaches eternity after his earthly journey.

His "Ka" (double of the soul) goes through the same ritual. "Ka" is a representation of the king, symbolizing his divine incarnation. This is his divine counterpart, who is depicted as a shadow following the king in frescoes and sculptures. "Ka" differs from the king in its curved beard, he raises two hands above his head, they symbolize hugs, filial and paternal kinship, that is, kinship between God and the king. After death, of course, the lord merges with his "ka".


Logically, the coronation is celebrated after the funeral of the predecessor. This is a very ancient ritual, its first images date back to the reign of Montuhotep II (2033 -1982 BC). The complex course of the ritual has changed over the centuries. The constant is the purification by Horus, the son of Isis and Osiris, represented as a falcon or a man with the head of a falcon, the god of heaven, whose eyes symbolize the sun and moon, Horus is the first, mythical ruler of Egypt. Through purification, the pharaoh is elevated to the rank of heir and son of Horus, to the point that he himself becomes Horus, Horus of the earth. This title is retained until the end of Egyptian history, even the Roman Augustus will be called "Horus, with a strong hand." This is followed by the laying on of the crown, in which Horus intervenes again, then follows the roll call, the evocation of souls, the ordination of the god Amon, and the feeding.

Kingship is the principle around which the entire Egyptian cosmos is organized. Christian Ziegler recalls that the pharaoh appears in official texts as a perfect being. "He is a god. He has no likeness, and no one has existed before him," says the laudatory chant.

absolute monarch

The king has absolute power. First of all, religious, since, on the one hand, the lord is the chosen one of the gods, on the other hand, religion is completely mixed with political power. The first priest of the country, the pharaoh performs as the main function of the successor of the work of the creator and builds the dwellings of the gods on Earth, in other words, temples. When he comes to power, he begins to carry out a real building program, more or less ambitious, according to his will and based on the economic situation. This is how Karnak, Luxor or Abu Simbel appeared. But while forbidden to the public, reserved for the court, the temples hide secret rites that were supposed to keep the world in balance. In practice, the lord delegates most of the religious obligations to the priesthood, whose hierarchy he observes.

During the coronation ceremony, the king receives signs of power. First of all, these are two crowns. One, white, in the shape of a miter with an onion, represents Upper Egypt, southern region country lying between the Arabian Desert in the east and the Libyan Desert in the west. The second crown is red, decorated with a hook and a spiral tip, it denotes Lower Egypt, that is, the Nile Delta, from the Mediterranean Sea to Cairo. Two crowns, connected to each other, form a "pshent", a symbol of absolute power over all of Egypt, over all subjects, in any position. According to Sophie Labbe-Toutee and Florence Maruejol, co-authors of the entertaining and informative ABC of the Pharaohs (Flammarion, 2004), the two crowns prove "that the natural division of the country into two geographical areas has imposed a deep imprint on the royal power, which is presented in the form of a dual monarchy.In the pre-dynastic era (3800-3100 BC), the culture of Upper Egypt gradually invaded Lower Egypt.Cultural unity was accompanied by political unification, which was completed under Pharaoh Narmer (the first pharaoh, proclaimed, on famous tablets, his power over the country as a whole).

There are many other headdresses of the pharaoh, but objects and signs also occupy an important place and have a deep political meaning. These include a false beard, woven in the shape of a horn, which is fixed on the king's chin with a ribbon, as well as scepters, in particular "hega", both a hook and a shepherd's stick, and "nekhaha", like a fan from flies. The king holds these two objects on his chest, arms folded. In particular, emphasize Verus and Yoyot, "a common feature is an almost indispensable item in royal attire - a cobra (uraeus), fixed on the forehead."

All this splendor makes the lord untouchable, sacred, magical, terrifying and formidable. He is approached in fear, prostrated before him and "kissed the ground," according to the Egyptian texts. Each curtsey is made to the point of dizziness: "When I was stretched out on my stomach, I lost consciousness," says the nobleman Sinuhe. Everything that the pharaoh touches is practically deified, becomes an object of worship or causes horror, and often, as such, ends up in the tomb along with the king's mummy. In the grave of Tutankhamun, a bag was found in which lay the banal eyebrow pencils that he used as a child.

"Each pharaoh," emphasizes Christian Ziegler, "is the master of time, his measurement begins from the first year of the reign until the death of the ruler. Scribes date the events "23 years of the reign of Thutmose" or "5 years of the reign of Ramses." Thus, any change of kingship threatens cosmic balance : the death of the king heralds a return to primal chaos." This is often the explanation for climate disasters or natural disasters. But during the coronation ceremony, the heir resumes the former order; balance is maintained by regular holidays, rituals.


In terms of political power in the modern sense, the pharaoh is the sole owner of all of Egypt, land, subsoil, water, people and animals. He reigns supreme, which distinguishes him from most of his contemporaries in the Middle East and Africa, or from city-states, from principates, where neighboring tribes are ruled by leaders. On the other hand, he is responsible for the distribution of wealth and has for this purpose a massive state apparatus headed by a vizier. The Egyptian word for vizier is "chati", but early 19th-century Egyptologists, following Champollion, used this Ottoman term, which stuck.

The vizier is something like a prime minister, who enforces the decisions of the pharaoh, and concentrates all administrative, tax, legislative functions, is in charge of agriculture, etc. This is how his role is described in the Egyptian texts: "His potion is as bitter as bile." He must collect the council of courtiers and nobles, but he has the privilege, he is inspired by the divine word (Hu) and the divine mind (Sia), in his power is the adoption of royal decrees, this helps him govern, he has the last word.

Its administration is codified. He approves decrees, decrees of the pharaoh, keeps a copy of all private affairs (transfer of goods, cadastres of cultivated land), he has access to the archives of any administration, heads the judiciary, decides major litigations, resorting to laws, and launches sanctions. He also controls all the production of the kingdom, monitors the floods, supervises the construction of dams, establishes taxes on crops. He sends the police in case of trouble, regulates the course of ships, ensures the safety of transportation and mining of precious metals. . . There were so many tasks that during the XVIII dynasty, a second vizier appeared, one for Upper Egypt, the other for Lower. Lower in rank are ministers such as the treasurer or viceroy of Nubia, high priests such as the first prophet of Amun, and commanders-in-chief of armies. This ruling stratum relies on a structured administration. The country is divided into nomes, or provinces, each of which is ruled by a nomarch, whose most important function is to regulate the flood of the Nile, which is a generous source of fertility. Diversion channels, dams and dams are provided and constructed everywhere, they are monitored by special teams. "A functionary is first of all a scribe," says Sophie Labbé-Toutet, meaning that he knows the secret of hieroglyphic writing, which gives him important power. All scripts must first of all count, register, organize. Many papyri are calculations, properly transcribed. All documents drawn up in the province are sent to the residence."

The residence is, at the same time, both the royal palace and the government building. They don't have to be in the same place. So, under the descendants of Ramses, the palace of the pharaoh was in Pi-Ramses (mentioned in the Bible), and not in Thebes, as before, while the administration was divided between Thebes and Memphis. In any case, the pharaoh owns palaces in many cities, perhaps only in order to participate in local religious festivals. But we are not in Babylon! The buildings are built of raw brick and wood, they are similar to the houses of the nobility, despite the fact that they are covered with frescoes to the glory of the lord, their function does not include the resistance of time, these are not temples and not graves. For this reason, very little has been preserved in good condition, apart from the palace of Ramses III at Medinet Habu.


Warlord

Only the pharaoh receives from heaven the power necessary to protect Egypt from any enemy. "Scenes of 'enemies being put to death' in the presence of a deity," Vernius and Yoyot say, "are presented on the facades of temples, demonstrating this protective function of the pharaoh." In fact, military iconography is plentiful and shows us a king accepting a sword from the hands of God, or a crowd of peoples chained, brought to God by a victorious pharaoh, or we see a crowd of defeated enemies of a pharaoh who restores cosmic order, having won over chaos. It seems that not being great strategists, or at least not always, the Egyptian rulers rather played the role of inspirers, leading people to war, inspiring them with their ardor and courage, in short, they embodied military prowess rather than really dealt with with weapon. This patriotic role was necessary as Egypt experienced foreign occupation many times.

In particular, the Hyksos (in the second period of the interregnum) captured the north of the country and held it for a century, but there were also Libyans (XXII and XXIII dynasties), Sudanese (746 BC), and Persians (twice, in IV and V BC) until the conquest of Alexander the Great, which became the sign of the decline of Egypt. But military action is not only sorcery, far from it. There are also terrible battles, such as the battle of Kadesh in Syria, a glorious victory. Ramses II paid for it with his life, and if the enemies, the Hittites, were not literally defeated, they had to abandon the conquest of Egypt. Due to the fact that the pharaoh is a cosmic mediator, it is not good when his life is endangered all the time, his life is very important for Egypt.

Starting from the period of the New Kingdom, an era of high instability, they begin to distinguish between the "exit of the king", when the lord himself leads the troops and the "exit of the archers", when the troops are led by officers armed with the "sword of the pharaoh", as if the lord with his spirit influenced the outcome of the battle. Therefore, the magnificent chariot found in excellent condition in the tomb of Tutankhamun should not mislead us.

If she again gives the image of the triumph of the victorious monarchy, it nevertheless testifies that her purpose was to symbolize the magnificence and power of order, trampling chaos. In practice, the rider drove the chariot, and the pharaoh, armed with a bow and a curved sword, stood next to him, firing arrows from a bow, hiding behind a shield, in armor made of bronze scales. It remains to be noted that the Egyptian chariot was an effective combat weapon for its era.

Do not underestimate the diplomatic role of the pharaoh - to prevent conflicts. "Egypt knew how to bargain, his neutrality and the alliances he made are evidence of this, the search for a peaceful solution to the conflict with other empires was to use intrigues that corroded western Asia and threatened the international balance of power," sums up Florence Maruejol, "diplomacy also regulated trade agreements relating to products for which states had a monopoly." Thus, relations with Lebanon, a major producer of raw materials and various foodstuffs, were maintained with particular care. With Syria-Palestine, vassal countries, the pharaoh tried to maintain good relations, inviting the sons of local sovereigns to the Egyptian court, then, having given them education, sent them to their countries. That's not counting the numerous marriages to foreign princesses, which is a classic ploy of diplomacy.

Women

Depending on their role - spouses, regents or concubines, women occupy a certain place in the environment of the pharaoh. Let's start with the queen. According to the official characteristics, she is given a number of differences, "a hairstyle like a goddess," says Florence Maruezhol, "the plumage of the kite Nekhebet, or "neret", and a cap with two feathers, with a solar sign. The wife enjoys the privilege of wearing the sign "ankh", a symbol of life given to man by gods and kings. This is the famous "sign of life", the ankh, which so many tourists rush to purchase and wear on a chain upon arrival in Egypt.

The royal couple in religious images is a tracing-paper from the divine model - Osiris and Isis, and this gives a very high status to the lady. This is confirmed by the fact that, starting from the New Kingdom, she is buried in a special place, in the Valley of the Queens. This is also indicated by the incredible beauty of paintings, sculptures, masks and images of female faces (Nefertiti). In fact, the queen lives in her own residence, various means of exploitation bring her income, she has an army of servants and functionaries. Behind this ideal image lies a complex reality. If it is true that a woman is treated better in Egypt than in general in Antiquity, then the queen knows little happiness.

“The Egyptian couple was extremely modern,” Vernius and Yoyot note, “men had only one legal wife. The woman enjoyed her special benefits and complete legal freedom; in the paintings she is depicted as the same height as her husband. At the same time, the king is a superman. The matrimonial regime and the status of a woman is another confirmation of this." In reality, the pharaoh was the only Egyptian who had multiple wives, even if one of them bore the title of "great queen". He could marry his sisters (as was the case in the 17th dynasty and under the Ptolemies) and even his daughters.

It seems that since the 2nd dynasty it was decided that a woman could reign. In reality, this happened only four times, and these were queens who reigned for a short time and had no future. Hatshepsut's reign became the object of a strong propaganda attack, it had to be erased from memory the day after her death. On the contrary, there are many cases of regency.

The true kingdom of the wife of the pharaoh is a harem. This word, also borrowed from the language of the Ottoman Empire by the first Egyptologists, denotes private house king, and this is by no means a Turkish-Muslim gyno, in which women are locked up only for the pleasure of the king. The wife is surrounded by her children, her servants and maids, in places intended only for her. There are also "royal harems" inside the palace, these are protected places where children are raised, as well as foreign captives, trained in the Egyptian manner (which the Bible describes when talking about Moses!) Under the rule of women. In general, women are very numerous in these harems, they are engaged in various work, they weave, dye fabrics, sew. . ., but also engaged in music, singing and dancing, they are served by servants and slaves, women and men, but there are also managers who oversee everything. For these harems are real "centers of profit", agricultural or handicraft exploitation. An important detail: Egyptologists are not aware of the presence of eunuchs, contrary to the cliché.

Finally, harems have a reputation as "conspiracy theatre". In the Dictionary of the Pharaohs, Pascal Vernus and Jean Yoyot write about it cautiously: "On the whole, one autobiography of a manager, two passages in a literary work, and one incomplete judicial dossier indicate the existence of three conspiracies ... over two millennia." However, the papyrus "Rollin" speaks of a trial of conspirators organized by Tiy, one of the minor consorts of Ramses III. She vows to end her husband and replace him with her son Pentaur. The intrigue is revealed and ends with executions, cutting off the noses of the ladies of the harem, "who indulge in subtle games with the judges in order to propitiate them."

Eternity

In Egypt, death is the center of life. We know this civilization by its funeral cult and the monumental forms it takes. Pyramids, burial temples, the Valley of the Kings and the Valley of the Queens, as well as incredible frescoes or other monuments, are tombs, places of worship, or forms directly associated with death. It is a very extended universe, with a huge religious offshoot, but also contains very specific aspects that are most impressive. All this is spelled out in detail in the famous "Book of the Dead".

The principle is this - the pharaoh must take with him everything that is necessary to overcome the obstacles between earthly and otherworldly life. And, above all, to prepare his own body - since physical integrity is necessary for him to resurrect and to meet the gods, this is facilitated by his mummification. "The good condition of the mummy is a condition for the resurrection of the dead," insists Sophie Labbe-Toute. "The carnal shell preserves the various components of the human being, material or invisible," adds Florence Maruejols. Thus, a natural chemical procedure is used, the purpose of which is to avoid decomposition and accelerate the drying of the body. The embalming, a sacral ritual, and in a small sense medical, lasts about seventy days under the supervision of priests in the necropolis, many servants participate in it. The body of the lord is washed, the brain and entrails are removed, with the exception of the heart and loins, which are the object of special care, they are placed in vessels, away from the tomb. The body is rubbed with sodium, then with sodium salts and ointments, it is wrapped and placed in a shroud. Amulets are placed on the ribbons in which it is wrapped and the words of a prayer are written. The scarab is placed on the chest, instead of the heart, the feet and hands are covered with gold, this material is considered the flesh of the gods.


Then the mummy is dressed in numerous jewels, rings and breast ornaments are put on. The body is then placed in one or more sarcophagi. Finally, in addition to the sarcophagus, the tomb contains numerous objects of daily use, furniture, beds, armchairs, toiletries. . . Everything is ready for a long journey. . . to the other world, in the footsteps of the sun god. On this celestial journey, the soul of the pharaoh boards the beautiful barque of the sun, a copy of which is exhibited today at the foot of the pyramids of Gizeh. In Thebes, to further strengthen the power of the symbol, tomb temples are located on the western bank of the Nile, where the sun sets. The pharaoh leaves, the tomb remains. From this point of view, the treasury of Tutankhamun, one of the rare graves found intact in 1922, is extremely informative and exciting (rare samples are exhibited at the Institute of the Arab World as part of the Pharaoh exposition). This amount of wealth explains why grave robbing was a profitable business from the 20th Dynasty onwards. . . to the present day. This is an eternal theme.

Neferteshcha of the three pharaohs