Cyrus II the Great in 539 BC defeated the Chaldeans. Mesopotamia was incorporated into the Persian state of the Achaemenids. Between 334 and 327 BC the state was captured by the troops of Alexander the Great.
After 100 years, the territory of Iraq became part of the Parthian kingdom. In 227 AD it was conquered by the Sassanids. Their power extended over lands from Eastern Iran to the Syrian desert and Anatolia. They ruled for about 400 years.
In the Battle of Qadisiyah in 637 they were defeated by Arab troops. Almost the entire local population was converted to Islam.
After the death of the Prophet Muhammad, the Umayyad dynasty came to power in the country. They began to plant Sunnism. In 750 the Umayyads were defeated by the Abbasids. During their reign, Baghdad became the capital of the country. The Arab caliphate then stretched from Morocco to Northern India.
In 1258 the Abbasids were overthrown from the throne by the Mongols, led by Khan Hulagu. The rule of the Mongol dynasty continued until the middle of the 14th century. It was replaced by the Jalairid dynasty (1339–1410).
In 1509, the territory of Iraq was captured by the Safavid dynasty, who made Shiism the state religion.
The rulers of the neighboring Turkish state tried to prevent the spread of Shiism in their territory, where Sunnism dominated. In 1534, the area between the Tigris and Euphrates was captured by the Ottoman Turks, who ruled here for almost 400 years.
At the beginning of the 20th century, the ideas of the "Arab revival" began to penetrate into Iraq from Syria and other centers. The Iraqis were in favor of granting federal or autonomous status to the Arab provinces of the Ottoman Empire. In 1914, Iraq joined Germany and its allies. After that, Great Britain invaded southern Iraq, and in 1918 controlled almost the entire territory of the state.
Britain created the modern Iraqi state in 1920. It consisted of three vilayets of the Ottoman Empire: Basra (from which Kuwait had previously been separated), Mosul and Baghdad.
At the San Remo Conference in April 1920, the League of Nations gave Great Britain a mandate to govern Iraq. In 1921 Iraq was proclaimed a kingdom. Faisal of the Hashemite dynasty became emir. Iraq became a constitutional monarchy with a bicameral parliament.
In 1932, Iraq received formal independence, but in reality the country continued to be controlled by Britain. Iraq had an important strategic position on the way to India and had large oil reserves.
After the outbreak of World War II, Iraq severed relations with Germany and declared its neutrality. In January 1942, Iraq formally declared war on Germany and Italy. British troops were in the country until the autumn of 1947.
In 1946, civilian rule was restored in Iraq. The government remained in the hands of the conservatives, led by Nuri Said.
In 1948, Iraq took part in the unsuccessful first Arab-Israeli war. In 1949, the country refused to sign an armistice agreement with Israel.
In 1955, Iraq concluded a military treaty with Turkey. After that, Iran, Pakistan and Great Britain joined him. America supported this military bloc, known as the Baghdad Pact.
On July 14, 1958, a revolution took place in Iraq. The country was proclaimed a republic. Kings Faisal II, Nuri Said and Abdul Illah were executed. Brigadier General Abdel Kerim Qasem, leader of the Free Officers organization, headed the government. In 1959 the country withdrew from the Baghdad Pact.
In July 1958, a struggle broke out over the accession of Iraq to the United Arab Republic (UAR) created by Egypt and Syria. The communists opposed. In February 1963, there was a military coup by supporters of the nationalists and the Baath Party.
In July 1968, President Abdel Rahman Aref was overthrown in a military coup organized by the Ba'ath Party. The party advocated
consolidation of the country's political system.
Saddam Hussein became president in 1979. He brutally pursued potential opponents.
The Ba'athists sought to put an end to the Kurdish uprising. In March 1970, a peace agreement was concluded with their leader. However, the Kurds never received the promised autonomy. In 1974, the leader of the Kurdish Democratic Party, Mullah Mustafa Barzani, staged a full-scale uprising again. As a result, on March 11, 1974, the autonomy of Iraqi Kurdistan was proclaimed.
In 1972, Iraq signed a Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation with the USSR. The Baathist government nationalized Iraq Petroleum.
In 1975, an agreement was concluded with the Shah of Iran, according to which the border between both states was moved from the eastern bank of the Shatt al-Arab river to the middle of the river. Iran has closed its border to Kurdish rebels.
At the beginning of 1979, Kurdish actions in Iraq resumed. Saddam Hussein launched a military invasion of Iran on September 22, 1980.
In the spring of 1982, Iranian troops expelled the Iraqis from their territory. In 1986 they captured the city of Fao and moved closer to Basra.
In August 1988, an Iran-Iraq ceasefire agreement was signed. After that, the US banned the export of weapons to Iraq. Israel began threatening to attack Iraqi chemical and nuclear weapons factories.
In August 1990, the Iraqi army invaded Kuwait. The move was condemned by the UN Security Council. An embargo was placed on trade with Iraq.
The United States and its coalition allies condemned the occupation of Kuwait. On January 16, 1991, military operations began against Iraq using aviation and navy. At the same time, Kuwait was liberated and part of the territory of Iraq was occupied.
The US demanded the overthrow of Hussein and the destruction of all weapons of mass destruction.
From 1991 to 1998, UN inspectors supervised the process of weapons disposal. The resulting conflicts almost led to war with America.
Since the end of 1998, Hussein stopped allowing UN representatives into the country.
On March 27, 2000, parliamentary elections were held in Iraq. Representatives of the ruling Arab Socialist Renaissance Party - Baath came to power.
In September 2002, Iraq again allowed the activities of international inspectors. This move was prompted by the threat of military attack from the United States.
Plan
Introduction
1 Prehistory
2 Ancient written period
3 Persian period
4 Arab conquest
5 Abbasids
6 Mongol conquest
7 Ottoman Empire
8 British colonization and rule
9 Republican rule
9.1 Saddam Hussein's reign
9.2 Iraqi War
9.3 Political developments in 2004
9.3.1 November 2004
9.3.2 October 2004
9.3.3 September 2004
9.3.4 August 2004
Introduction
1. Prehistory
In the prehistoric period, the most ancient migrations of the Cro-Magnons towards Hindustan and East Asia passed through the territory of Iraq. Later, about 36,000 years ago, the Upper Paleolithic Baradost culture appeared on the territory of present-day Iraq and Iran. About 18 thousand years ago, it was replaced by the Zarzian culture, and in the Mesolithic era, about 9 thousand years BC. e., in the north-east of Iraq, the Shanidar-Karim-Shahir culture appears.
The pre-ceramic Neolithic in Iraq begins about 8 thousand years BC. e. (Jarm culture).
About 6 thousand years BC. e. in central Iraq, the Neolithic culture of Hassuna appears. Almost simultaneously with it, there is a very similar Samarra culture, which at the end of the 5th millennium BC. e. passes into the Ubaid culture, which spread far beyond the borders of Iraq, to the territory of the south of Anatolia. The Ubaid culture was at enmity with the Khalaf culture (the north of modern Syria) and eventually absorbed it.
2. The oldest written period
The fertile region of Mesopotamia, in the valley of the Tigris and Euphrates, was the birthplace of several ancient civilizations such as Sumer, Akkad, Babylonia and Assyria.
3. Persian period
For a long time, the territory of modern Iraq was part of Persia and the Seleucid state. In 539 BC e. Cyrus II the Great defeated the Chaldeans and included Mesopotamia in the Persian state of the Achaemenids. The reign of the Ahmenids continued until the collapse of the monarchy as a result of the conquests of Alexander the Great between 334 and 327 BC. e.
Approximately 100 years later, the territory of Iraq became part of the Parthian kingdom. In 115 AD e. Mesopotamia was conquered by Trajan and became a province of the Roman Empire. In 227 AD e. captured by the new Iranian rulers, the Sassanids.
4. Arab conquest
In 635, the Sassanids began to lose their positions before the onset of the Arabs, finally being defeated in 637 at the Battle of Qadisiya. The Arabs converted most of the local Christians to Islam in the 640s.
After the death of the Prophet Muhammad, a sharp struggle for the throne of the caliph began. Ali was Caliph from 656 to 661. cousin prophet Muhammad. In 661, the Umayyad dynasty seized power over the Arab Caliphate, moving the capital from Medina to Damascus, after which a period of long schism began in Islam. The inhabitants of the territory of present-day Iraq, as followers of Ali, professed Shiism. After the Umayyads came to power, the imposition of Sunnism began. The contradictions between the Shiites and the Umayyads became one of the reasons for their defeat in 750 by the Abbasids.
5. Abbasids
Under the Abbasids, during the reign of Caliph Al-Mansur (754-775), the city of Baghdad, founded in 762, became the center of the Arab Caliphate, stretching from the Atlantic coast North Africa(present-day Morocco) to Northern India.
The reign of the Abbasids was marked by the comprehensive development of culture, science, economy and trade. However, by the end of the 9th century, the Abbasids lost their dominance over the rest of the Islamic world as a result of the collapse of the Arab Caliphate. Zinj uprisings dealt a strong blow to the Caliphate.
6. Mongol conquest
In 1258, the territory of present-day Iraq was captured by the Mongols led by Hulagu Khan. The Mongols captured and plundered Baghdad and devastated Mesopotamia. The Mongol Hulaguid dynasty ruled the region until the mid-14th century. It was replaced by the Jalairid dynasty (1339-1410). In 1393 and 1401, Baghdad was destroyed by the troops of Timur (Tamerlane) and rebuilt twice. After the Jalairids, various dynasties that ruled for a short time were replaced on the throne, the last among them was the Iranian Safavid dynasty, which seized the territory of Iraq in 1509. The Safavids adopted Shiism as the state religion.
7. Ottoman Empire
In 1534, the territory of present-day Iraq was conquered by the Ottoman Turks, whose hegemony lasted almost 400 years. The real power in Mesopotamia was often in the hands of the governors due to the significant removal of Baghdad from the capital of the Ottoman Empire.
At the end of the 19th century, as a result of the administrative reform, a movement began to grant autonomy to Iraq.
8. British colonization and rule
In 1914, with the outbreak of World War I, the Ottoman Empire joined Germany and its allies. That same year, Britain invaded southern Iraq. In 1917, the British occupied Baghdad and Kirkuk, and by 1918 controlled almost all of Iraq.
As a state, Iraq was created in 1920 by allocating three vilayets of the Ottoman Empire to it: Basra, Mosul and Baghdad. In April 1920, the League of Nations at the San Remo conference issued a mandate to govern Iraq to Great Britain, which finally formalized the colonial status of Iraq. In 1921, Iraq was proclaimed a kingdom headed by Emir Faisal (son of the Sheriff of Mecca Hussein) from the Hashemite dynasty. A constitutional monarchy with a bicameral parliament was established. The real levers of power remained with the UK.
In 1932, Iraq gained formal independence and joined the League of Nations, while Britain largely retained control over it. In particular, large oil reserves discovered in Iraq have been developed since 1925 by the Anglo-French-American consortium Turkish Petroleum.
· 1941 - Pro-Nazi coup by Rashid al-Gaylani. Escape of the king. "Thirty Day War" with England and the British occupation of Iraq.
· 1955 - Creation of the Baghdad Pact.
9. Republican government
In 1958, during the July Revolution, a group of "Free Officers" led by Abdel-Kerim Kasem and Abdel-Salam Aref overthrew the monarchy, King Faisal II was killed. Iraq withdrew from the Baghdad Pact, and British military bases were withdrawn from the country.
In 1959, an unsuccessful Nasser-Baathist military coup attempt took place in Mosul, ending in terror against the Nasserites and Baathists. In 1961, the September Uprising began in Iraqi Kurdistan.
In February 1963, a coup d'état took place, during which Qasem was overthrown and killed, the nationalists and the right wing of the Baath came to power, and mass terror began against the left and the communists. In November 1963, Prime Minister Abdel-Salam Aref overthrows his Ba'ath allies and establishes a military dictatorship. In 1966, Aref dies in a plane crash. His brother Abdel Rahman Aref becomes president.
In 1967, a communist insurgency flares up. In 1968, after the six-day war, the Ba'ath came back to power.
9.1. Saddam Hussein's reign
· In 1968 the military regime was overthrown by the Ba'ath Party. Ahmed Hasan Bakr declared President, Saddam Hussein Vice Chairman of the Iraqi Revolutionary Command Council
· 1972 - nationalization of the oil industry.
· 1975 - the suppression of the Kurdish uprising.
· 1979-2003 President Saddam Hussein.
1987-1988 - genocide against the Kurds (Anfal)
· 1988 - gas attack against the Kurdish city of Halabja.
· 1991, February-April - mass uprisings of Shiites and Kurds against Saddam Hussein. The suppression of the Shiite uprising, the NATO operation in Iraqi Kurdistan in defense of the Kurds and the creation of a "Free Kurdistan".
1998 - Operation "Desert Fox" (US air raids on Baghdad)
After the terrorist attack in New York on September 11, 2001, US President George W. Bush accused Iraq, among other "rogue states" of supporting international terrorism and trying to develop weapons of mass destruction.
9.2. Iraqi War
· 2004 June 28 - The interim US administration transferred power to the interim government headed by the Shiite Ayad Allawi. The President of Iraq is the Sunni Ghazi al-Yawyar.
· 2004, autumn - Battle for Fallujah.
· 2005 - Elections to the national assembly of Iraq, won by the Shiite "United Iraqi Alliance". Kurdish Jalal Talabani became President of Iraq, Shiite Prime Minister Ibrahim al-Jafari became Prime Minister, and Sunni Hajj al-Hasani became Speaker of Parliament.
· 2006 Ibrahim al-Jaafari had to give up his post to Jawad (Nuri) al-Maliki, who enjoys the support of Muqtada al-Sadr and the spiritual leader of Iraq, Grand Ayatollah Ali al-Sistani.
9.3. Political events in 2004
November 2004
November 22-23 - International Conference on the Settlement of the Situation in Iraq (see Parliamentary Elections in Iraq (2005))
October 2004
· On October 12, the UN General Assembly returned the right to vote to the representative of Iraq, thus restoring Baghdad's full membership in the UN.
September 2004
· September 30 - Syria promised to close the border with Iraq and start patrolling it together with the forces of the multinational coalition. According to Washington, most of the foreign mercenaries enter Iraq from Syria, and many militants fighting with coalition forces have Syrian passports.
September 14 - Turkey threatens to curtail cooperation with the United States in Iraq (the supply of Turkish food and essential goods to American soldiers) if US troops do not stop airstrikes on the city of Talafar in northern Iraq, 400 km from Baghdad, where Turkomans mainly live, ethnically close to the Turks. According to the Turkish Foreign Ministry, US troops use "excessive force against the civilian population", as a result of which about 50 thousand Turkomans were forced to leave their homes. In early September, American troops carried out a special operation in Talafara, which resulted in the death of 57 people (according to Turkish data, the losses amounted to 500 people). The American command claims that militants enter Iraq from Syria through this city. Turkey fears that US actions will provoke the Turkish Kurds living in the region to once again raise the issue of granting them autonomy. Turkey is convinced that the Iraqi Kurds are actively supporting the American operation, seeking to further destabilize the situation in Iraq.
I. is located in the interfluve of the Tigris and Euphrates (Greek - Mesopotamia, i.e. interfluve). Mesopotamia was the birthplace of the most ancient world civilizations: the Sumerian-Akkadian (3rd millennium BC), the Babylonian kingdom (21-6 centuries BC), ancient Assyria(3rd millennium - 7th century BC). In the 7th-8th centuries. AD Mesopotamia was conquered by the Arabs, Islam came here with them. Mesopotamia became part of the Umayyad and Abbasid caliphates (7-11 centuries AD). The Turkish sultan Suleiman the Magnificent subjugated all of Mesopotamia in 1534-46 and for almost 4 centuries it was one of the outskirts of the Ottoman Empire, which collapsed after the 1st World War.
From the three provinces former empire- Baghdad, Basra and Mosul - and modern India was formed, which, in accordance with the decision of the Supreme Council of the Entente and the mandate of the League of Nations, was ruled by Great Britain in 1920-32. In July 1921, the provisional government of India elected Emir Faisal al-Hashimi as king, but the British High Commissioner in India remained the de facto leader of the country. In October 1932, after the cancellation of the mandate, India became formally an independent state and was admitted to the League of Nations.
The mandate regime left a heavy legacy - a backward economy, the omnipotence of feudal lords and usurers in the countryside, the poverty of millions of landless peasants in the countryside and workers, artisans, and the unemployed in the city, serious national and religious contradictions. After gaining independence, the country was ruled by proteges of the British - Prime Minister Nuri Said and Regent under the heir to the throne, Faisal, 2nd Emir Abdul Illah. Their dominance in the country was supported not only by the British, but also by local feudal lords and compradors.
The period after World War II was marked by an upsurge in the national liberation movement. The activity of political parties, which expressed the interests of the working class, the petty bourgeoisie and the national bourgeoisie, increased. Despite the establishment by N. Said of the regime of the most severe dictatorship, resistance to the anti-people policy of the ruling circles grew. Members of the national liberation movement focused their efforts on India's withdrawal from the Baghdad Pact (1955), and in October-November 1956 a powerful wave of demonstrations swept through here condemning the aggression of Great Britain, France, and Israel against Egypt. The national liberation movement finally took shape in 1957, when the National Unity Front (FNU) was created, which included the Iraqi Communist Party (ICP), the National Democratic Party (NDP), the Baath Party (Iraqi Arab Socialist Renaissance Party - PASN) and the Independence Party . The program of the FNE provided for the removal of the feudal-monarchist clique from power, Israel's withdrawal from the Baghdad Pact, and the granting of constitutional democratic freedoms to the population. The program of the Front was approved by the mass patriotic organizations, trade unions, as well as the underground organization "Free Officers", created in the Iraqi army in May 1956.
The revolution of July 14, 1958, abolished the feudal-monarchist regime. In place of the monarchy, the Republic of Iraq was proclaimed. The first republican government was headed by the leader of the Free Officers organization, which became at the forefront of the armed coup in the capital, Brigadier Abdel Kerim Kasem. During the first year of its existence, the republic has achieved significant success in internal and foreign policy: I. withdrew from the Baghdad Pact, liquidated foreign military bases, denounced agreements with the United States on military and economic issues, restored diplomatic relations with the USSR. In July 1958, the Interim Constitution was adopted, proclaiming the equality of all citizens before the law, for the first time women were equalized in rights with men, the activity of public organizations and trade unions, a purge of the state apparatus has begun, and key figures of the monarchist regime have been put on trial.
In September 1958, the agrarian reform law began to be implemented, undermining the foundations of the semi-feudal exploitation of the peasants. In 1959, the Provisional Plan was approved, and in 1961, the first five-year plan for the development of the national economy. In order to reduce its dependence on Western capital, Iran withdrew from the sterling bloc and established control over the activities of foreign companies, including the multinational Iraq Petroleum Company (IPK). Trade and economic ties were established with the socialist countries, primarily with the USSR. These states began to provide India with assistance in the development of the national economy, mainly in the sphere of industry, infrastructure, and in the training of national personnel.
In September 1961, the regime of A.K.Kasem started a war against the Kurdish people in the north of the country. This war continued intermittently for 30 years - until 1991. On February 8, 1963, the regime of A.K. Qasem was overthrown as a result of an armed coup organized by the Baath Party, the Arab Nationalist Movement and the military group of Colonel A.S. Aref.
The new supreme body of power - National Council Revolutionary Command (NSRK) appointed A.S. Aref as president of the country, but the actual power was in the hands of extremist Ba'ath leaders who occupied key positions in the NSRK and the government. In the first period of being in power (February-November 1963), the PASV showed itself to be the most severe repressions unleashed against the communists and other democratic forces of the country. As a result, about 5,000 people were killed without trial or investigation, and more than 10,000 were thrown into prisons and concentration camps. Almost the entire leadership of the ICP, including its general secretary, Salam Adil, was destroyed.
After the liquidation of its opponents, the Baath regime began in June 1963 a war of extermination against the Kurds, during which the civilian population of Kurdistan was subjected to violence and ill-treatment. The anti-popular political course of the ruling regime, its complete inability to solve critical issues countries plunged India into a deep economic crisis. All R. 1963 all political parties and groups that participated in the overthrow of Qasem, refused to ally with the PASV. On November 18, 1963, the Baathists were removed from power in a military coup. A.S.Aref took over the posts of the President of the country, the Chairman of the NSRK and the Commander-in-Chief. The short period of A.S. Aref's tenure in power, and after his death in a plane crash in 1966, of his brother, General Abdel Rahman Aref, who previously held the post of chief of the general staff of the Iraqi army, is characterized by a struggle within the ruling bloc. Trying to bring the country out of the crisis, the government expanded cooperation with the UAR, normalized relations with the USSR, and tried to normalize relations with the Kurds. On July 14, 1964, under the influence of supporters of the development of India along the path of the UAR, laws were passed on the nationalization of large enterprises in industry and trade, all banks and insurance companies, including branches of foreign banks and insurance companies. However, in reality, the most important problems related to the democratization of society, the Kurdish issue and the economy have not been resolved. A.R.Aref unsuccessfully tried to maneuver between the various forces of the opposition. On July 17-30, 1968, the Ba'ath Party again came to power in Baghdad, carrying out a coup d'état with the help of the army. A.R. Aref was removed from the presidency. To govern the country, the Revolutionary Command Council (RCC) was established, headed by brigadier Ahmed Hassan al Bakr, the general secretary of the Iraqi Baath, who simultaneously held the post of president of the republic.
The activities of the PASV leadership in 1968-2003, which took into account its sad experience of a short reign of the country, can be reduced to several the most important areas: 1) strengthening the social base of the ruling party; 2) strengthening the financial and economic base for the socio-economic development of the country and for strengthening the strength of the regime; 3) the solution of all remaining major political problems (Kurds, communists, Shiites, the activities of bourgeois and nationalist parties and movements) with the aim of their maximum weakening and neutralization; 4) the creation of an authoritarian regime of personal power of President S. Hussein, who in November 1969 became the second person in the state and the party; 5) the expansion of India's influence in the region of the Middle East, the transformation of the country into a regional superpower.
With the coming to power of the Ba'ath Party, the "Ba'athization" of the officer corps of the army (completed by the beginning of 1970) and all civilian units of the state apparatus began to be carried out. The expansion and renewal of the social base was also carried out at the expense of the working people, the intelligentsia, and university students. The activities of trade unions were placed under the control of the Baath, new Baathist mass organizations were created, as well as "people's councils" and "people's army" (armed detachments of the party, personally subordinate to S. Hussein).
In 1972-75 the Ba'ath nationalized the multinational IPK and its subsidiaries in Mosul and Basra. By this, she took full control of the main natural wealth of the country - oil. In addition to the foreign policy significance of this move, the nationalization of the IPK led to a huge increase in the power of the PASV due to a sharp increase in world oil prices. In the course of 13 years (1968–80), India's revenues from oil exports grew almost 55 times, from $476 million to $26.1 billion. This gave the Baath a degree of financial power and independence that none of the previous governments of India had, and the financial managers turned out to be a small group of members of the SRC, among whom was S. Hussein, deputy chairman of the SRC. With such a solid financial base, the Baath was able to solve a number of important social issues related to improving social security, expanding free medical care, and creating one of the most advanced in the 1970s. in the Arab world education system.
In 1970, the Baath invited the ICP to recognize its (Baath) leading role in the government of the country and in the activities of mass organizations. In July 1973, the ICP joined the Progressive National Patriotic Front (PNPF) as a partner of the Baath, depriving itself of the opportunity to publicly criticize the actions of the ruling party. In 1978, when the alliance with the ICP was no longer needed by the Baath (the problems of the Kurds and the nationalization of the "IPK" were practically resolved), S. Hussein declared the communists of I. to be foreign agents, repressions were launched against them, 31 communist officers were executed. The IKP was forced to go underground, and the PPPF practically disintegrated. The problem of the Kurds was "resolved" by the adoption of the law of March 11, 1974 on Kurdish autonomy. Such a "decision" did not suit the Kurds at all. In Iraqi Kurdistan, ethnic cleansing began - instead of Kurds, Arabs from the southern regions were resettled in the north of the country. In the 2nd floor. 1970s from Iraqi Kurdistan, St. 700 thousand people, about 4 thousand Kurdish villages were destroyed from 1975 to 1988.
With rigidity, the problem of Shiites was also “resolved”. In March 1980, several tens of thousands of Iraqi Shiites of Iranian origin were deported to Iran. In the same year, by order of S. Hussein, the spiritual head of the Shiites of I. - Ayatollah Muhammad Bakr al-Sadr and his sister were executed. Before these events in the 1970s. Shiites were brutally suppressed in the south of the country.
In July 1979, S. Hussein completely seized power in the country, depriving President A.Kh. al-Bakr of all posts. S. Hussein's real and potential competitors were shot - a third of the members of the SRK. Only those who were able to unquestioningly obey their leader were left alive.
In order to strengthen Iran's power in the region and his own influence, in 1980 S. Hussein unleashed a war with Iran, which lasted 8 years. During the war, I. lost about 200 thousand people killed. and about 300,000 more were injured, and the external debt amounted to $80 billion.
In August 1990, S. Hussein unleashed a new war - against Kuwait, declaring it the 19th province of his country. This led to military operations by multinational forces from 33 countries against I. in January-February 1991. By a decision of the UN Security Council, an economic blockade was established against I., which lasted until April 2003. During the blockade, St. 1.5 million Iraqis.
In recent years, the US authorities have demanded from the leadership of I. to allow UN inspectors, who were expelled from this country in 1998, to check the presence or absence of weapons of mass destruction (WMD) or equipment for their production on the territory of I. I. constantly refused these demands. After a series of warnings to I. from the United States, on March 18, 2003, US President D. Bush in an ultimatum demanded that S. Hussein leave I. within 48 hours. S. Hussein publicly rejected this demand. On the morning of March 20, 2003, D. Bush announced the start of a military operation against I., called "Shock and Awe." The armed forces of the United States, Great Britain and Australia participated in it. During the operation, which lasted 3 weeks, the number of countries participating in the coalition increased to 45.
China, France, the Federal Republic of Germany, and India expressed their concern over the start of the war against Israel. President of the Russian Federation V.V. Putin condemned this military operation.
Poland sent troops from European countries to help the US-British coalition. On May 1, 2003, D. Bush announced the end of the war in India. Baghdad was completely captured by US troops on April 9. PASV I. was outlawed.
Prior to the start of the war in the United States, a Bureau for the Reconstruction and Humanitarian Aid of Iran was created, which was transformed into the Provisional Coalition Administration in India. Twenty-three ministries were formed within it. Each is led by an American who has 4 Iraqi consultants. In May 2003, he was appointed the new head of the Provisional Administration former employee US State Department Paul Bremer. An Islamic Development Fund was established with separate accounts opened with the Central Bank of Iraq. Proceeds from the sale of Iraqi oil would be transferred to the Fund's accounts and distributed until the formation of the Islamic government by the Interim Administration.
The USA plans to carry out the transfer of power from the Provisional Administration to the government of India in 3 stages. Initially, the US military authorities will transfer cities one by one to the administration of the Interim Administration. At the second stage, power will pass into the hands of the Iraqi Interim Administration, in which representatives of the Iraqi opposition will occupy key posts, but on decisive issues the US will have the last word. At the third stage, it is planned to adopt a new Constitution, hold elections to the Iraqi parliament and transfer all power functions to the Iraqis (except for the ministries of internal affairs and defense - they will be transferred to the Iraqis later).
A temporary division of the country into 3 zones (sectors) of responsibility is planned: the USA, Great Britain and Poland. Peacekeepers from other countries are attached to help the peacekeeping contingents of these three states. It is planned to deploy peacekeepers from 23 countries in the Polish sector (including 1,650 from Ukraine, sent in July 2003 to the area of the city of Al-Kut, south of Baghdad).
In August 2003, there were 139,000 US servicemen in India, 11,000 from Great Britain, and about 10,000 from other 18 states. US military personnel will be present in all zones.
The US Provisional Administration allowed local elections to be held in India. In July 2003, the Provisional Governing Council of Iran (VSC) was formed in Baghdad, consisting of 25 people representing all major groups of the population - Shiites, Sunnis, Kurds, and former secular émigrés. On September 1, 2003, the Supreme Court of Justice, in agreement with the Provisional Coalition Administration in I., appointed the first cabinet of ministers. The cabinet includes 25 ministers: 13 Shiites, 5 Sunni Arabs, 5 Sunni Kurds, 1 Turkoman and 1 Assyrian Christian. On June 1, 2004, the Sunni Ghazi al Yawar, a member of the IAC since July 2003, was appointed to the post of president of I. The member of the IAC Shiite Ayad Alawi, who founded the Iraqi National Accord movement in 1991 in exile, was appointed Prime Minister.
In August 2003, the recruitment of citizens of I. began in a new national army. It is supposed to bring its number up to 40 thousand people. within 3 years. The task is to protect military facilities, power plants, and escort food cargo. The armed detachments of the two leading Kurdish parties - the KDP and the PUK, which, together with the United States, participated in the battles against the army of Saddam Hussein, will eventually join the new Iraqi army.
Modern Iraq covers almost the same area as ancient Mesopotamia, whose lands were concentrated between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. Mesopotamia, also known as the land of the Fertile Crescent, was an important center of civilization and saw the rise and fall of many cultures and states.
In the Middle Ages, Iraq was the name of one of the Arab provinces that made up the southern half of the modern country. Today, the country is called the Republic of Iraq, where Islam is the state religion, statistics claim that 95 percent of the population are indigenous Iraqis and identify with Arab culture.
The country's second largest group is a cultural group of Kurds who live in the highlands and mountain valleys of northern Iraq and consider themselves a politically autonomous country. The Kurds occupy the provinces of Sulaymaniyah, Dahuk and Erbil, the common territory of which is usually called Kurdistan.
The rise of a nation
If we talk about the prehistory of Iraq, then earlier these territories were called Mesopotamia, and it was under the control of several civilizations at once. Around 4000 BC, the territory belonged to the Sumerians, who built modern irrigation systems, developed grain agriculture, invented an early form of writing, a system of mathematics based on which the first wheel and the first plow were invented in modern times.
Literature in the Sumerian civilization also developed, as evidenced by the Epic of Gilgamesh. Unlike their Egyptian contemporaries, who believed that all land belonged to the pharaoh, the Sumerians believed that land should be privately owned, exactly the same concept held in Iraq today.
When the Sumerian civilization collapsed in 1700 BC, King Hammurabi conquered the Sumerian territories and renamed them Babylon. Hammurabi, the famous great leader, introduced the first written legal code in history. Thanks to this code, the Assyrians and Babylonians lived relatively peacefully.
After several power coups, Nebuchadnezzar II ascended the throne, who ruled from 604 to 562 BC. Thanks to him, Babylon earned great fame. Babylon, forty-eight kilometers south of present-day Baghdad, became the most famous city in the world, boasting the Hanging Gardens of Babylon among other virtues.
In 323 BC, Babylonia became part of the Persian Empire until the Muslim Arabs conquered it in 634. At the time of the Arab invasion, the inhabitants of Mesopotamia were mostly Christians, they were enslaved and paid taxes to their invaders. Gradually, the inhabitants of Mesopotamia began to convert to Islam and marry Arabs.
In 762, the capital Baghdad was founded, which became an important trade, cultural and educational center. The capital made it possible to have contact with the countries of Asia and the Mediterranean through trade. Important guests, scientists and major merchants from all over the world often received in the capital. Incredible philosophical and scientific works of famous Arab and Persian thinkers were written in Baghdad.
In 1200, another conquest took place, this time the Mongols invaded the country, who ruled until 1400. After that, power over the territory of present-day Iraq passed to the Turks, this happened in the sixteenth century. The reign of the Turks lasted until the end of the First World War, after which the Ottoman Empire was defeated.
After the defeat of the Ottoman Empire, the League of Nations placed the rule of the territory in the hands of Great Britain, which paid little attention to natural borders and ethnic divisions. introduced its own political system, which was the monarchy, and also created the first written constitution.
On July 14, 1958, the monarchy was overthrown and Iraq was proclaimed a free republic. This was followed by ten years of political unrest and instability. Then, on July 17, 1968, another coup d'état took place that brought the Ba'ath Party to power, which is the current leader in government.
Iraqi national unity
Arab rule during the Middle Ages has a major cultural impact on modern Iraq. The dominant culture in Iraq is the Arab culture and the majority of the Arabs are Muslims. Iraqi Muslims are divided into two groups: Sunnis and Shiites.
Sunnis, who are the majority in Islam, are a minority in Iraq, and Shiites, a minority in the Arab world, are a majority in Iraq. An interesting relationship has developed between Sunnis and Shiites over the centuries.
Although they have different opinions regarding religion, both Sunnis and Shiites hold high leadership positions in government (including Saddam Hussein held the Sunni post), and some Christians do the same.
Arab culture, which came under the influence of the conquerors in the seventh century, has endured many changes of power over the centuries, but it has managed to remain influential.
In the nineteenth century, while the Ottoman Empire was focused on "turkification" of its people, Mesopotamian rebels organized an Arab nationalist movement. They were able to operate during World War II when the British agreed to recognize Arab independence in Mesopotamia if they would help fight against the Turks.
Although Iraq was a state under British rule, after the defeat of the Ottoman Empire, Arab nationalism became even stronger. Over the next few decades, even after gaining independence from Britain, government attitudes wavered between staying under British rule or allowing Arab nationalists to take over. Today, Arab nationalism is firmly recognized in Iraq.
ethnic relations
Throughout the history of Iraq there has been a cultural confrontation between two ethnic groups: Arabs and Kurds. The Kurds have always tried to defend their mentality and culture, to show how different they are from the Arabs. The Turkmens, who inhabit the northern mountainous regions, have also had tense relations with the Kurds due to their historical situation of asserting their own identity.
There are other cultural groups in Iraq that have sometimes succumbed to the will of the Arab majority. Among them are the Yezidis of Kurdish origin, who differ from the Kurds due to their uniqueness of their religion. There are Assyrians who are direct descendants of the ancient Mesopotamian peoples who speak Aramaic.
They are predominantly Christian, and although they are a significant minority in Iraq, the government does not officially recognize them as a distinct ethnic group. As for relations with other countries, the Iraqi Shiites have always been at enmity with the Persians.
From 1980 to 1988, Iraq and Iran fought a long bloody war over land disputes. The Iraqi Kurdish population lives surrounded by Kurdish fellow soldiers from other countries: from Iran, Turkey, Syria and Azerbaijan.
Iraq is a state located in the Middle East near the Tiber and Euphrates rivers and neighbors with Turkey, Iran, Syria, Jordan, Saudi Arabia and Kuwait. The name of the country comes from the Arabic word for coast. Iraq, this is clearly not the best territory for tourism, unless, of course, you are a fan of extreme recreation and are not afraid to unexpectedly come under fire or be blown up by a mine forgotten by the Iraqi military.
Capital of Iraq?
The capital of the state of Iraq is Baghdad, a huge metropolis rich in ancient architectural and cultural monuments dating back to antiquity. In addition, it is the main transport hub of the entire state.
Official language?
The country has two official languages - Arabic and Kurdish. Only 20% of the population speak Kurdish, and all of them, while being residents of Kurdistan. However, even they speak Arabic fluently. Many Iraqis are fluent in English and French. Sometimes you can even meet people who speak Russian.
Currency?
The official currency of Iraq is the Iraqi dinar (IQD). It is equal to 1000 fils. In circulation there are banknotes of the following denominations: 50, 250, 500, 1000, 5000, 10000 and 25000 dinars, and coins of 25, 50 and 100 dinars.
At the same time, 1 dollar is equal to approximately 1.168 dinars
Timezone?
We have no time difference with Baghdad. This year there was no daylight saving time.
Climate?
Iraq has a subtropical Mediterranean climate. Summers are usually hot and dry, while winters are warm and rainy. In the northern mountainous regions, as a rule, winters are warm with frequent snowfalls and frosts. In Lower Mesopotamia, there are hot summers and rainy winters with high humidity. In the South-West region, it is hot in summer and cool in winter and it rarely rains.
Average monthly air and water temperature in Iraq °C
| Jan | Feb | March | Apr | May | June | July | Aug | sen | Oct | But I | Dec | |
| Happy | +17 | +17 | +23 | +30 | +33 | +40 | +44 | +42 | +40 | +33 | +22 | +18 |
| At night | +8 | +10 | +13 | +20 | +28 | +30 | +33 | +32 | +30 | +24 | +17 | +12 |
| Water | +15 | +15 | +18 | +21 | +26 | +29 | +30 | +32 | +30 | +27 | +22 | +18 |
What is the best time of the year to visit the country?
The most favorable time to visit Iraq is the so-called "off-season", the period from late March to mid-November. At this time, the temperature is the most comfortable, sunny and not hot.
Economic situation?
Agriculture occupies about 11% of GDP. The main crops are wheat, barley, rice and date palm. However, the main source of state income is the oil and gas industry. Iraq is also rich in minerals: phosphorites, clay, asbestos, gypsum, sulfur, copper and zinc ores, and many others.
Political situation?
The political situation in Iraq is characterized by tension and heightened complexity. Despite the constant monitoring of peacekeeping groups, there are constant suicide attacks. And the victims of these attacks are often foreigners. Therefore, we advise you to think carefully before visiting the country and check the current information on the situation.
Religious affiliation of the population?
The vast majority of the population professes the Islamic religion. Only 3% adhere to Christianity.
Customs rules and regulations?
When visiting Iraq, please be aware of the following customs regulations:
Import and export of foreign currency is limited. We advise you to check before traveling this information, because the amount is constantly changing.
From Iraq, the export of personal belongings, as well as goods purchased in the country, is allowed.
It is forbidden to import into the territory of Iraq:
Israeli currency
Drugs and some medical preparations
Weapon
Pornographic content
Meat and dairy products
It is also mandatory to take an AIDS test before visiting the country.
It is allowed to import into the country: 200 cigarettes or 50 cigars or 250 g of tobacco, 1 liter of wine or other strong liquor, 2 open bottles of perfume
Visa?
Citizens of Belarus do not need to apply for a visa to Iraq. To do this, you need to enter the country through the northern autonomy - Iraqi Kurdistan. In this case, you will be issued a 10-day visa upon arrival. Those wishing to extend their stay in Iraq can register with the police, paying in advance for this service.
What should you visit first?
If you still dared to spend your vacation in Iraq, then we definitely recommend visiting the capital Baghdad. First of all, it is the oldest city on the planet. Here you can stroll through the old quarters of the city, with its uneven streets, see ancient adobe houses, enjoy the beauty of cobblestone pavements and three-story houses with fancy windows and doorways.
The most interesting sights are the houses of the Shiites - An-Najaf and Karbala. These are places of pilgrimage for Shiites from all over the world, where you can see the tombs of Shiite temples.
The main areas of tourism?
The main tourism areas in Iraq are:
The capital of the State of Baghdad The largest city countries. It seems to be divided into two parts,
That Old Baghdad with narrow streets and pavements, as well as Modern Baghdad, where a large number of cafes, cinemas, administrative buildings and foreign firms.
Basra is the second largest city after Baghdad. It is located on the coast of the Persian Gulf and is the main water artery of Iraq. It resembles Venice with its many canals and bridges, and boats and feluccas are the main mode of transport here.
Mosul is the third largest city in Iraq. It is located in the north of the country.
Main attractions?
The main attractions of Iraq are the ruins of the ancient city of Babylon. At one time, majestic palaces and temples, hanging gardens and the Tower of Babel were built there. Only a few parts of it have survived to this day. ancient city, among them:
The Winter and Summer Palaces of Nebuchadnezzar II, the Procession Street, the seven-tiered ziggurat, the Ishtar Gate and the famous Lion of Babylon.
In addition to Babylon, it is also worth visiting the Sumerian city of Shur, the city of Ashur, the city of Hatra - the capital of the first Arab state, the great mosque of Askaria in the city of Samarra.
Holidays and festivals?
The main holidays in Iraq are: January 1 - New Year. Nine days later, Muslims celebrate another new year - this time a Muslim one.
January 19 is Ashura Day
March 19 - Prophet Muhammad's birthday
July 31 is the day of the ascension of the prophet Muhammad
October 1 is the end of Ramadan.
The Feast of the Sacrifice of Eid-al-Adha is the last of the year. The days of its celebration change every year.
National cuisine?
Iraqi cuisine is famous for its handmade barley and wheat cakes. Dishes with the addition of dates, rice, vegetables and sour milk are also common. Burgul porridge is prepared from rice, washed down with sour milk. You can also find dishes with the addition of meat. As a rule, this is lamb, beef or poultry. The most popular meat dishes are: kebabs, tikka, kibe, kuzi, dolma and kebab.
Iraq is also famous for its sweets. The most popular are pumpkin pudding, baklava, sweet candied citrus fruits, and stuffed dates.
Drinks include coffee and tea. The only alcoholic drink in Iraq is arak or aniseed vodka.
How much is it customary to leave a tip in the visited country?
Tipping in Iraq is optional, as 10% tax is already included in the bill.
Where can you exchange money?
Currency can be changed at the airport, hotels or bank. There are also illegal exchange offices in the markets, but the exchange rate there is unfavorable. But we do not recommend taking credit cards with you, since their service is extremely complicated.
Until what time are shops, bars, cafes, restaurants open?
Shops and markets usually open at 8 am and work until 7 pm. Government agencies close earlier - at 14:00.
Banks are open from Saturday to Wednesday from 8:00 to 12:30, on Thursdays - until 11:00. Friday is considered a day off. It should also be remembered that during the holy month of Ramadan, banks are open until 10:00
Crime situation?
If you find yourself in Iraq, we recommend that you move through the streets with caution, since after the war most of the buildings are in a dilapidated state, and there is a risk of their collapse, and in some parts of the country shells still rattle. And the criminogenic level in the country is quite high, crime is developed.
The most stable situation is currently observed in northern Iraq in Kurdistan.
