Reform of the central administration of peter 1 table. Reforms of Peter the Great and their role in the development of the state. Foreign policy and military reform of Peter I

Nesterov A.K. Reforms of Peter I // Encyclopedia of the Nesterovs

The reforms of Peter the Great are a topic of extreme importance today. Peter is a symbol of the urgent social need for change, and for cardinal, fast and at the same time successful change. Such a need, even a need, still exists today. And the experience of the transformations of those years can be invaluable for today's reformers in Russia. They can avoid those excesses that Peter allowed, trying to raise the country from its knees.

The value of the reforms of Peter the Great

The personality of the first emperor of Russia, his transformations and their results are an exceptional example for all generations.

In the history of each state there are turning points, after which the country rises to a qualitatively new stage of development. There were three such periods in Russia: the reforms of Peter the Great, the Great October Socialist Revolution, and the collapse of Soviet Union. Peter's reforms, carried out three centuries ago, had a huge impact on the imperial era, which lasted for almost two centuries; Unlike most tsars, Peter was not forgotten even in Soviet times.

In the last twenty-five years, the reforms of the first quarter of the eighteenth century are also relevant, because today, as well as at that time, reforms are needed that can put our country on a par with Western states.

As a result of Peter's reforms, a new strong state was created, capable of competing with the advanced powers of Europe. If it were not for Peter, then having no access to strategically important seas, unable to trade under the new conditions, uneducated Muscovy would become a province of Sweden or Turkey. To win, we had to learn from the Europeans. All civilizations adopted the experience of others, only two developed almost independently: India and China. Muscovy, which absorbed many positive and negative features of Asian culture during the Mongol yoke, combined them together with the remnants of Byzantine culture, with a certain share of European culture penetrating into the country through a few trade links. This indicates the absence of any originality even before Peter. Peter, having divided everything negative, obsolete, and progressive, completely destroyed the former and multiplied the latter many times over.

Peter the Great forced the country to take such a huge step forward in a quarter of a century as other countries did in several centuries.

But we must not forget about the price at which this was done, what the Russian people sacrificed in an effort to enter the European arena. The issue of violence in the reforms is very controversial. Peter forced everyone to obey his will, forced them with rods and sticks, and everyone submitted to his will. But on the other hand, there were government orders that were regularly paid. Without one or the other, such a grandiose success would have been unattainable. To the question of the possibility of avoiding violence in reformist activity, one can answer that without it, the Russian peasant and the Russian boyar were not raised from the bench. The rigidity of Muscovy was the main obstacle to any reforms. It was possible to overcome it only by force, and by force hard and cruel.

Chronological table of the main reforms of Peter I

Table. Reforms of Peter the Great.

	Reforms of Peter I	Description of reforms
	Fleet building Formation of a regular army urban reform The first reform of Russian life	The fleet was built in Voronezh and the surrounding area for a campaign against Azov. Kumppanstva were organized from peasants, landowners, clergy, townspeople and black-sowed population, merchants of the living room and cloth hundreds. 16 ships and 60 brigantines were built. The call to the service of all comers from among the non-enslaved people, the salary is 2 times higher than that of the archers. A recruiting system has been introduced. The urban reform transferred the townspeople to the jurisdiction of the Burmister Chamber, the role of the Boyar Duma was reduced, and Peter sent Russians to study in European countries to train specialists. The first reform of Russian life concerned the ban on wearing a beard, those who wanted to leave a beard paid a tax to the treasury (except for the clergy), peasants with a beard paid a fee at the entrance to the city.
	Start of military reform	The liquidation of the streltsy troops in 1698, the formation of regiments with foreign officers, which turned out to be insolvent. The formation of a new army on the basis of recruitment after the defeat near Narva.
	Military reform	The obligation for the nobles to carry out military service from the soldier's rank. Creation of 50 military schools. Shipbuilding moved to St. Petersburg.
	Start of construction of manufactories	Construction of iron manufactories in the Urals and in the Olonets region.
	Mint reform	The basis of the monetary system was based on the decimal principle: ruble - hryvnia - kopeck. It was an advanced division, unparalleled in many Western countries Oh. State monopoly on the minting of coins and a ban on the export of gold and silver from the country. The ruble is equal in weight to the thaler.
	Foreign Trade Reform	protectionist policy. High duties on the export of raw materials. Foreign trade is concentrated in the hands of the state.
	Administrative reform	The establishment of 8 provinces, the creation of the Senate, the introduction of the position of Prosecutor General of the Senate to control the activities of the Senate, the abolition of orders and the creation of boards. In 1714, a decree on uniform inheritance was issued to strengthen the absolute monarchy. In 1721 the Holy Synod was formed, the church became government agency.
	Education reform	Many schools were opened, textbooks appeared, applied disciplines came to the fore, civil script and Arabic numerals were introduced, the first library was created, which became the basis for the library of the Academy of Sciences, the appearance of the first newspaper, the Kunstkamera was opened - the first museum in Russia.
	Changes in Russian life	The prohibition of long-skimmed Russian clothes, tea and coffee are prescribed, assemblies are introduced, an end is put to the seclusion of Russian women. The life of the nobles and merchants has changed so much that they began to seem like foreigners to the peasants. The changes practically did not affect the life of the peasants.
	Change of chronology	The transition to the Julian calendar has been completed.
	The emergence of a public Russian theater	"Comedy Mansion" on Red Square in Moscow. Later, the theater of the Slavic-Greco-Roman Academy appeared.
	Changes in culture	There were portraits. The genre of "history" appeared in literature. The secular principle prevailed over the church one.

Prerequisites for the reforms of Peter I

French historians consider the Great French Revolution to be the most important milestone in the history of France. Peter's reforms can be cited as an analogue in the history of Russia. But one cannot think that the transformations began under Peter the Great, that all the merit in their implementation belongs only to him. The transformations began before him, he only found the means, opportunities and very timely completed everything that he inherited. By the time of Peter's accession to the throne, all the necessary prerequisites existed for reforms.

Russia at that time was the largest state of the Old World. Its territory stretched from the Arctic Ocean to the Caspian Sea, from the Dnieper to the shores of the Sea of Okhotsk, but the population was only 14 million people, concentrated mainly in the center and north of the European part of Russia. originality geographical location The country caused duality in the economic and political development of Russia: it aspired to Europe, but it also had significant interests in the east. To become the main intermediary in Europe's trade with Asia, Russia had to be able to do business in a European way. But until the end of the seventeenth century, the state had neither a merchant nor a navy, since there was no access to strategically important seas, and Russian merchants could not compete with foreigners. The Swedes, whose merchant fleet by the end of the seventeenth century amounted to 800 ships, dominated the shores of the Baltic, and Turkey and the Crimean Khanate owned the entire coast of the Black Sea.

Foreign trade was conducted only through two ports: Astrakhan and Arkhangelsk. But through Astrakhan, trade went only with the East, and the path to the White Sea was very long, difficult, dangerous and open only in the summer. Merchants from other countries were reluctant to use it, and upon arrival in Arkhangelsk, they lowered the price of goods, and the Russians refused to sell at a price other than the one they set themselves. As a result, the goods deteriorated right in the warehouses. Therefore, the first priority for the country was to gain access to the Baltic and the Black Sea. Karl Marx, not inclined to approve the crowned heads of absolute monarchies, studied the foreign policy of Russia and proved that Peter's territorial acquisitions were historically justified by the objective needs of Russia's development. Although Peter was not the initiator of these areas of foreign policy: attempts to recapture access to the seas were made before Peter: the Livonian War of Ivan the Terrible and the campaigns in the Crimea of Prince V.V. Golitsyn under Princess Sophia.

The level of development of Western countries was so superior to Russia's that it threatened to enslave the country, turning it into one of the colonies. In order to avoid this threat and eliminate backwardness in Russia, it was necessary to carry out a number of economic, military, administrative and political reforms. All the economic prerequisites for their implementation were already in place in the seventeenth century: the growth of production, the expansion of the range of agricultural products, the development of handicraft production, the emergence of manufactories, the development of trade. The political prerequisites for the reforms were a significant strengthening of the autocracy, which contributed to the rapid implementation of reforms, the growth of the economic role of merchants, and the desire for reforms on the part of the local nobility. By the end of the seventeenth century, the trend towards the formation of absolutism was more and more clearly observed in the country. The Zemsky Sobors ceased their activities, the Boyar Duma lost its role, along with it the personal office of the tsar appeared, which received the name of the Order of Secret Affairs.

To wage war with Sweden, which had the strongest army in Europe, a well-organized and experienced army was needed. The main striking force of the Russian army remained the noble cavalry, the streltsy troops were not a regular army, only during the war an army was assembled, more reminiscent of a people's militia, small mercenary regiments of the "new system" were not widely used. To reform the army, a good economic and administrative support was needed. Neither one nor the other in Russia, again, was not. Therefore, transformations had to be carried out in all three areas simultaneously.

The impetus for the beginning of the reforms was the participation of Peter the Great in the Great Embassy, during which the young tsar got acquainted with the economic, cultural and technical achievements of Europe. The reason for the beginning of the main transformations was the defeat near Narva at the very beginning of the Northern War, in November 1700. After him, military reform began, followed by economic reform.

The first transformations of Peter the Great

The first transformations began after the first Azov campaign in 1695, during which it was not possible to take the fortress at the mouth of the Don due to the lack of a fleet among the Russian troops. The Turks had free access to the fortress from the sea and supplied the besieged with supplies and weapons, and it was impossible to prevent them from doing this without the presence of a fleet. Peter, who personally took part in the siege, did not give up after the defeat. He entrusts the command of all ground forces to Generalissimo A.S. Shein, and the fleet, which still needed to be built, to Admiral Lefort. The decree on the construction of the fleet was issued in January 1696. The future fleet was to be built in Voronezh and the surrounding areas. Such a choice was not made by chance: flat-bottomed river vessels - plows - were built here for a long time, and during the Chigirin and Crimean campaigns, sea vessels were also built here; good ship pines grew around Voronezh. At the end of May 1696, the Russian army again approached Azov. Thanks to the built fleet, she was successful: the Turkish garrison capitulated.

The fleet was to be built by the so-called kumpanstvo, the principle of organization of which was quite simple: from ten thousand peasants it was necessary to launch one ship. Large landowners built ships alone, while the rest gathered in a company in such a way that all its members had a total of ten thousand peasants. Church soul owners had to launch a ship with eight thousand peasants, otherwise the principle remained the same. In total, 42 secular and 19 spiritual campants were formed. The townspeople and the black-sown population, as well as the merchants of the living room and the cloth hundreds, were united into one kumpanstvo, obliged to build 14 ships and headed by a commission of five guests. Another builder of the Voronezh fleet was the treasury. The Admiralty built ships with money collected from secular and spiritual soul owners, who had less than a hundred peasants. As a result, he built 16 ships and 60 brigantines.

Decrees of 8 and 17 November 1699 laid the foundation for the formation of a new regular army. The first called for the service of all comers from among the non-enslaved people, and the salary was 2 times more than that of the archers and amounted to 11 rubles a year. The Danish ambassador Paul Gaines wrote to Copenhagen: "Now he (Peter) has gone all into the organization of his army; he wants to bring his infantry to 50,000, the cavalry to 25,000." The second decree marked the beginning of the recruiting system. From a certain number of peasant and township households, one recruit was called up, depending on the needs of the army, the number of households was constantly changing.

The city reform of 1699 was of financial, economic and administrative significance at the same time: the townspeople were removed from the administration of the governor and transferred to the jurisdiction of the Burmister Chamber, which exercised judicial functions over the population and became a responsible collector of direct and indirect taxes. An important change took place in the Boyar Duma: its role practically disappeared, and an unborn element began to penetrate into it. F.Yu. became the first present in the Duma. Romodanovsky, who had only the rank of steward. Having no schools to train specialists, Peter sent Russian people to study abroad to acquire practical skills in shipbuilding and ship management.

The changes also affected the appearance: after returning from abroad, Peter himself cut off the beards of some boyars. Those who wished to keep the beard had to pay a tax for wearing it. Moreover, the size of the tax was determined by the social status of its owner: merchants paid the most, followed by service people and prominent representatives of the townspeople, they were the ones to know, ordinary townspeople and boyar serfs paid the least. Only clergy and peasants were allowed to leave beards, but the latter had to pay one kopeck at the entrance to the city. As a result, convinced bearded men suffered, and the royal treasury won.

The transformations were just beginning, they did not yet affect the essential foundations of the Russian state, but they were already quite tangible for the people and noticeable from the outside. The Danish ambassador Paul Gaines wrote to Copenhagen: "The king committed for recent times a series of miracles ... Compare his Russia with the old one - the difference is the same as between day and night.

Military reform of Peter I

One of the most significant and important transformations of Peter the Great can be considered a military reform, which made it possible to create an army that meets all the military standards of that time. At first, the Russian troops defeated the enemy in superior numbers, then equal, and finally smaller. Moreover, the enemy was one of the best armies in Europe at that time. As a result of the reform, the noble cavalry with marching yard people and the regiments of the foreign system, started by Peter's predecessors, were transformed by him into a regular army, which, as a result of a long war, became permanent by itself. Streltsy army after the rebellion of 1698 it was destroyed. But it was destroyed not only for political reasons; by the end of the century, archers no longer represented a real military force capable of resisting well-armed regular enemy troops. They were reluctant to go to war, as many had their own shops, the archers were much nicer in civilian occupations, and besides, salaries for service were not paid regularly.

In 1698 - 1700. several regiments were hastily formed, led by foreigners, sometimes not even knowing the Russian language. These regiments showed their complete failure during the siege of Narva in 1700, partly due to lack of experience, partly due to the betrayal of foreign officers, among whom were the Swedes. After the defeat, a new army was assembled and trained, which near Poltava proved to be at the level of the army of any European country. At the same time, recruitment duty was used for the first time in Russia. This system of formation of regiments provided greater efficiency in recruiting troops. In total, until 1725, 53 recruits were carried out, according to which more than 280 thousand people were mobilized into the army and navy. Initially, one recruit from 20 households was taken into the army, and from 1724 they began to be recruited in accordance with the principles underlying the poll tax. Recruits underwent military training, received uniforms, weapons, while until the eighteenth century, soldiers - both nobles and peasants - had to come to the service in full gear. Unlike other European monarchs, Peter did not use mercenaries, preferring Russian soldiers to them.

Fuseler (infantryman) of the army infantry regiment 1720

A distinctive feature of the new army was the duty of the nobles to carry out military service from the soldier's rank. Since 1714, nobles were forbidden to be promoted to officers if they were not soldiers. The most capable nobles were sent abroad to study, especially maritime affairs. But training was also carried out in domestic schools: Bombardirskaya, Preobrazhenskaya, Navigatskaya. By the end of Peter's reign, 50 schools were opened to train non-commissioned officers.

Much attention was paid to the fleet: at the end of the seventeenth century, ships were built in Voronezh and Arkhangelsk, and after the founding of St. Petersburg, military shipbuilding moved to the Baltic coast. The Admiralty and shipyards were founded in the future capital. Sailors for the fleet were also recruited by recruitment kits.

The need to contain new army, which required significant costs, forced Peter to modernize the economy and finances.

Economic reforms of Peter the Great

The first military failures made Peter seriously think about creating a domestic industry that could meet the needs of wartime. Prior to this, almost all iron and copper were imported from Sweden. Naturally, with the outbreak of war, supplies ceased. The existing Russian metallurgy was not enough for the successful conduct of the war. Creating the conditions for it rapid development has become a vital task.

In the first decade of the Northern War, iron-making manufactories were built at the expense of the royal treasury in the Urals and in the Olonets region. The transfer of state-owned enterprises into private hands began to be practiced. Sometimes they were even passed on to foreigners. Certain benefits were provided to those industries that provided the army and navy. Handicraft production remained the main competitor of manufactories, but the state stood on the side of large-scale industry and forbade artisans to produce cloth, iron smelted in hand forges, etc. A distinctive feature of state manufactories was that the government at first attributed entire villages and villages to enterprises only for the autumn-winter period, when it was not necessary to work in the field, but soon the villages and villages were assigned to manufactories forever. In patrimonial manufactories, the labor of serfs was used. In addition, there were also session manufactories, the owners of which, since 1721, were allowed to buy serfs for their factories. This was due to the desire of the government to help industrialists secure workers for enterprises, due to the absence of a large labor market in the conditions of serfdom.

There were no good roads in the country, trade routes in autumn and spring turned into real swamps. Therefore, in order to improve trade, Peter decided to use the rivers, which are available in sufficient quantities, as trade routes. But the rivers needed to be interconnected, and the government set about building canals. For 1703–1709 to connect St. Petersburg with the Volga, the Vyshnevolotsky Canal was built, the construction of the Mariinsky water system, the Ladoga Canal, completed after the death of Peter, began.

Trade was also constrained by the existing monetary system: mostly small copper money was used, and the silver kopeck was a rather large coin and it was chopped into pieces, each of which made its own trade route. In 1700–1704 The mint was reformed. As a result, the decimal principle was put in the basis of the monetary system: ruble - hryvnia - kopeck. Many Western countries came to this division much later. To facilitate foreign trade settlements, the ruble was equal in weight to the thaler, which was in circulation in a number of European countries.

The monopoly on the minting of money belonged to the state, and the export of gold and silver from the country was prohibited by a special decree of Peter the Great.

In foreign trade, following the teachings of the mercantilists, Peter achieved a predominance of exports over imports, which also contributed to the strengthening of trade. Peter pursued a protectionist policy towards the young domestic industry, imposing high duties on imported goods and low on exported ones. In order to prevent the export of raw materials necessary for Russian industry, Peter imposed high duties on them. Practically all foreign trade was in the hands of the state, which used monopoly trading companies for this.

The poll tax, introduced after the census of 1718–1724, instead of the previous household tax, obliged landlord peasants to pay 74 kopecks and 1 ruble 14 kopecks to state peasants. The poll tax was a progressive tax, it abolished all petty taxes that existed before, and the peasant always knew the amount of taxes, since it did not depend on the amount of the crop. The poll tax also began to be levied on the black-haired peasants of the northern regions, Siberia, the peoples of the middle Volga, townspeople and petty bourgeois. The poll tax, which provided the treasury with most of the income (4,656,000 in 1725), gave direct taxes a significant advantage in the composition of the budget over other sources of income. The entire amount of the poll tax went to the maintenance of the land army and artillery; the fleet was maintained on customs and drinking fees.

In parallel with the economic reforms of Peter I, private construction of factories began to develop. Among private entrepreneurs, the Tula breeder Nikita Demidov stands out, whom the Petrine government provided with great benefits and privileges.

Nikida Demidov

The Nevyansk plant "with all the buildings and supplies" and land for 30 miles in all directions was given to Demidov on very favorable terms for the breeder. Demidov did not pay anything upon receiving the plant. Only in the future was he obliged to return to the treasury its expenses for the construction of the plant: "although not all of a sudden, but the weather." This was motivated by the fact that "a great profitable source came from those factories, and from one blast furnace in two outputs per day of pig iron, little of it will be born from 400 pounds, and in a year, if both blast furnaces are blown without interference throughout the year, it will go to a smaller Article 260,000 pounds".

At the same time, the government, transferring the plant to Demidov, provided the breeder with government orders. He was obliged to put in the treasury iron, guns, mortars, fuzei, stays, cleavers, broadswords, spears, armor, shishaks, wire, steel and other gear. State orders were paid to Demidov very generously.

In addition, the treasury supplied Demidov with free or almost free labor.

In 1703, Peter I ordered: “To multiply iron and other factories and sovereign supplies ... to Nikita Demidov, assign to work and give the Verkhotursky district Aetskaya, Krasno-polskaya settlements and the monastic Pokrovskoye village with villages and with all the peasants with children and brothers and nephews and from the land and from all kinds of land ". Soon followed by a decree on a new registry of peasants. With these decrees, Peter I gave Demidov to the Nevyansk plant about 2,500 peasants of both sexes. The breeder was only obliged to pay taxes to the treasury for the peasants.

The exploitation of the labor of assigned peasants by Demidov had no limits. Already in 1708, the Nevyansk peasants complained about Demidov. The peasants pointed out that for their hard work they did not receive money from the planter "for no one knows why," as a result of which they "from him, Akinfiev, became impoverished and completely ruined by taxes and exorbitant exile," "and many peasant brothers dispersed to no one knows where ... and those who are dispersed from him will scatter."

Thus, the Petrine government laid the foundation for the "Demidov Urals" with its boundless cruelty, serf violence and boundless exploitation of the peasants and workers.

Other entrepreneurs began to build factories in the Urals: Osokins, Stroganovs, Tryapitsyn, Turchaninov, Vyazemsky, Nebogatov.

Cruelly exploiting bonded peasants and factory workers, serfs and civilians, Demidov quickly grows rich and expands his power and importance.

In the Urals, along with the Stroganovs, a new feudal lord is growing up, formidable and cruel to his workers and peasants, greedy and predatory in relation to the treasury and neighbors.

Peter also clearly saw the need to reform the administration of the country. This reform finally consolidated the position of absolute power in Russia, destroying the order system, the Boyar Duma. Without it, the further development of the country under the new developing capitalist relations would be impossible.

Administrative reforms of Peter I

At the end of 1708, Peter began the provincial reform. The decree of December 18 announced the tsar's intention "for the benefit of the whole people to create eight provinces and paint cities for them." As a result of the reform, the provinces were divided into provinces, and the provinces into counties. At the head of the province was the governor, who had full judicial, administrative, police and financial power. The duties of the governors included the collection of taxes, the investigation of fugitive serfs, recruitment sets, the provision of army regiments with food and fodder. The order system received a serious blow after this reform: many orders ceased to exist, as their functions and duties were transferred to the provincial administration.

As a result of the second reform, the power of the governor extended only to the province of the provincial city;

On February 22, 1711, before going to Turkey, Peter issues a decree on the creation of the Senate. The decree also reflects the reason for the creation of this body: "the Governing Senate was determined to be for the absence of our Governing Senate for management." The Senate was supposed to replace the sovereign in his absence, therefore everyone was obliged to obey the decrees of the Senate, as the decrees of Peter himself, under pain death penalty for disobedience. The Senate originally consisted of nine people who decided cases unanimously, without which the sentence of the Senate could not have a valid force. In 1722, the Senate Attorney General was created to control the activities of the Senate. Prosecutors subordinate to him were appointed to all state institutions. In 1717–1721 11 colleges were created according to the Swedish model, replacing the orders that existed before. The peculiarity of the colleges was that they had a nationwide level and controlled clearly defined parties government controlled. This provided a higher level of centralization. The Chief Magistrate and the Holy Synod also acted as colleges. The board was headed by the president, decisions were made by majority vote, in the event of a tie vote, the president's vote counted as two. Collaborative discussion was a hallmark of collegial management.

After the death of Patriarch Adrian in 1700, Peter did not allow the election of a new patriarch, but introduced the position of locum tenens of the patriarchal throne. In 1721, the Holy Synod was formed, headed by a secular official - the chief prosecutor. So the church became a state institution, the priests took an oath that they were obliged to convey if they found out at confession about any anti-state intentions. Violation of the oath was punishable by death.

The 1714 decree on single inheritance supported the interests of the local nobility, which supported the policy of strengthening the absolute monarchy. According to the decree, the final merger of the two types of property of the patrimony and the estate into a single legal concept of "immovable property" took place, they became equal in all respects. The estate became a hereditary possession. The estates could not be divided among the heirs, they were usually transferred to the eldest son, and the rest had to pursue a career in the military or civil field: sons who did not receive an immovable estate "will be forced to seek their bread by service, teaching, bidding" or other useful activities.

"Table of Ranks" was a natural continuation of this decree. All military and civil service positions were divided into 14 ranks. The Tabel introduced the principle of personal service and finally abolished localism, which had been abolished in 1682. Now the nobles could curry favor to the highest posts and really join the government. Moreover, this was due only to the personal qualities of a person, which did not allow people incapable of managing it.

Enormous successes in the economic, military and administrative area would not have been possible without a sufficient number of highly educated specialists. But it would be irrational to send Russians to study abroad all the time, in Russia it was necessary to create its own educational system.

Education reform under Peter the Great

Before Peter, the nobles were educated almost exclusively at home, but only elementary literacy and arithmetic were studied. Care for education permeates the entire reign of Peter the Great. Already in 1698, the first group of nobles was sent to study abroad, this practice continued in subsequent years. Upon their return, the nobles faced a rigorous examination. Peter himself acted as an examiner more than once.

The navigational school was opened already in 1701,
in 1707 - Medical School,
in 1712 - Engineering School.

For the provincial nobles, 42 digital schools were opened. Since the nobles were reluctant to study, Peter forbade them to marry until they graduated from the digital school. There were schools for the children of artisans, mining workers, garrison soldiers. The very concept of education has changed significantly: theological subjects have faded into the background, mathematics, astronomy, engineering and other practical knowledge have taken the first place. New textbooks appeared, for example, "Arithmetic" by L.F. Magnitsky. Studying in the time of Peter was equated with public service. This period is also characterized by the rapid development of printing. At the end of the first decade of the century, a civil script and Arabic numerals were introduced.

In 1714, the first state library was created, which became the basis for the library of the Academy of Sciences, opened after the death of the emperor, but conceived by him.

One of the biggest events of that period was the emergence of the first newspaper in the country. Vedomosti reported on events in the country and abroad.

In 1719, the Kunstkamera was opened - the first Russian museum.

Reforms of Peter the Great in the sphere of culture and Russian life

Under Peter the Great, modernization even touched everyday life, that is, the external side of Russian life. Peter the Great, who sought to bring Russia closer to Europe, tried to eliminate even the external differences between Russian people and Europeans. In addition to the prohibition of beards, it was forbidden to wear a long-skirted Russian dress. German, Hungarian or French toilets, in the view of old Moscow people, are completely indecent, were also put on by noble wives and daughters. In order to educate Russians in the European spirit, Peter ordered his subjects to drink tea and coffee, smoke tobacco, which was not liked by all the nobles of the "old school". Peter forcibly introduced new forms of leisure - assemblies, that is, receptions of guests in noble houses. They appeared with their wives and daughters. This meant the end of the terem seclusion of Russian women. The assemblies demanded the study of foreign languages, gallant manners, called in a foreign manner "polites", the ability to dance. The life of the nobility and the top of the merchant class changed seriously.

Transformations in everyday life did not affect the mass of the urban population, and even more so the peasantry. The way of life of the nobility began to differ from the way of life of the common people so much that the nobleman, and subsequently any educated person, began to seem like a foreigner to the peasant.

Along with the introduction of a new way of life, professions began to appear that served the new needs of the nobility, merchants and wealthy townspeople. These were hairdressers, barbers and other professions that came with Peter from the Great Embassy.

Some relation to the change in the external side of Russian life was also the transition to a new calendar. At the end of 1699, Peter ordered the reckoning not from the creation of the world, but from the Nativity of Christ, but the transition was made not to the Gregorian calendar, but to the Julian, which already had significant differences. In addition, Peter issued a decree on celebrating the New Year on January 1, and as a sign of a good undertaking, celebrate this holiday with cannon fire and fireworks.

Under Peter, the first public Russian theater appeared. In 1702, German actors began to act out plays by foreign authors in the "comedy mansion" on Red Square in Moscow. Later, the theater of the Slavic-Greco-Roman Academy appeared, in which there was a Russian troupe and plays were staged on contemporary themes. Under Peter, the first portraits appeared, which, unlike parsuns, were completely free from the church canon and realistically portrayed specific people. A new genre appeared in literature - a story, the hero of which was an educated person who strives to see the world, travel to distant lands and always achieve success. Such a motif was absolutely unthinkable for the works of the Moscow period.

At the beginning of the eighteenth century, the secular principle finally triumphed over the church in Russian culture. The main merit in this, undoubtedly, belongs to Peter, although the "secularization" of culture began before him, and attempts to bring European innovations to the country were made under his predecessors, but they did not take root.

Conclusion

At the turn of the XVII-XVIII centuries. Peter the Great carried out a number of reforms in the economic, military, political, administrative and cultural areas. This allowed Russia to enter the European political system and take a serious position in it. Peter forced the Western powers to reckon with the interests of the young empire. He brought the country to a new level of development, which allowed it to stand on a par with the European powers. But the reforms themselves, the methods by which they were carried out, cause ambiguous assessments of his activities so far.

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Public Administration Reform

Creation of the Near Office (or Council of Ministers) in 1699. It was transformed in 1711 into the Governing Senate. Establishment of 12 collegiums with a specific scope of activity and authority.

The system of state administration has become more perfect. The activities of most state bodies became regulated, the collegiums had a clearly defined area of activity. Supervisory bodies were created.

Regional (provincial) reform

1708-1715 and 1719-1720.

At the first stage of the reform, Peter 1 divided Russia into 8 provinces: Moscow, Kiev, Kazan, Ingermandland (later St. Petersburg), Arkhangelsk, Smolensk, Azov, Siberia. They were ruled by governors who were in charge of the troops located on the territory of the province, and also possessed full administrative and judicial power. At the second stage of the reform, the provinces were divided into 50 provinces ruled by governors, and those were divided into districts led by zemstvo commissars. The governors were stripped of their administrative power and were in charge of judicial and military matters.

There was a centralization of power. Local governments have almost completely lost influence.

Judicial reform

1697, 1719, 1722

Peter 1 formed new judicial bodies: the Senate, the Justic College, the Hofgerichts, and the lower courts. Judicial functions were also performed by all colleagues, except for Foreign. The judges were separated from the administration. The court of kissers (an analogue of the jury trial) was canceled, the principle of the inviolability of an unconvicted person was lost.

A large number of judicial bodies and persons engaged in judicial activities (the emperor himself, governors, governors, etc.) brought confusion and confusion to the legal proceedings, the introduction of the possibility of "knocking out" testimony under torture created grounds for abuse and bias. At the same time, the adversarial nature of the process was established and the need for the verdict to be based on specific articles of the law corresponding to the case under consideration.

Military reforms

The introduction of recruitment, the creation of the navy, the establishment of the Military Collegium, which was in charge of all military affairs. Introduction using the "Table of Ranks" military ranks, common for all of Russia. Creation of military-industrial enterprises, as well as military educational institutions. Introduction of army discipline and military regulations.

With his reforms, Peter 1 created a formidable regular army, numbering up to 212 thousand people by 1725 and a strong Navy. Subdivisions were created in the army: regiments, brigades and divisions, in the navy - squadrons. Many military victories were won. These reforms (although ambiguously assessed by different historians) created a springboard for the further success of Russian weapons.

Church reform

1700-1701; 1721

After the death of Patriarch Adrian in 1700, the institution of the patriarchate was actually liquidated. In 1701, the management of church and monastery lands was reformed. Peter 1 restored the Monastic order, which controlled church revenues and the trial of the monastery peasants. In 1721, the Spiritual Regulations were adopted, which actually deprived the church of independence. To replace the patriarchate, the Holy Synod was created, whose members were subordinate to Peter 1, by whom they were appointed. Church property was often taken away and spent on the needs of the emperor.

The church reforms of Peter 1 led to the almost complete subordination of the clergy to secular power. In addition to the elimination of the patriarchate, many bishops and ordinary clergy were persecuted. The church could no longer pursue an independent spiritual policy and partly lost its authority in society.

Financial reforms

Almost the entire reign of Peter 1

The introduction of many new (including indirect) taxes, the monopolization of the sale of tar, alcohol, salt and other goods. Damage (reduction in weight) of the coin. Kopeck Stano Regional Reform

In 1708-1715, a regional reform was carried out in order to strengthen the vertical of power in the field and better provide the army with supplies and recruits. In 1708, the country was divided into 8 provinces headed by governors endowed with full judicial and administrative power: Moscow, Ingermanland (later St. Petersburg), Kiev, Smolensk, Azov, Kazan, Arkhangelsk and Siberia. The Moscow province gave more than a third of the proceeds to the treasury, followed by the Kazan province.

The governors were also in charge of the troops located on the territory of the province. In 1710, new administrative units appeared - shares, uniting 5536 households. The first regional reform did not solve the set tasks, but only significantly increased the number of civil servants and the cost of their maintenance.

Judicial reform

Under Peter, the judicial system underwent radical changes. The functions of the Supreme Court were given to the Senate and the College of Justice. Below them were: provinces - hofgerichts or court courts of appeal in major cities, and provincial collegiate lower courts. The provincial courts conducted civil and criminal cases of all categories of peasants except for the monastic ones, as well as townspeople not included in the settlement. Since 1721, the magistrate conducted the court cases of the townspeople included in the settlement. In other cases, the so-called one-man court acted (cases were decided solely by a zemstvo or city judge). However, in 1722 the lower courts were replaced by provincial courts headed by the voivode

Church reform

One of the transformations of Peter I was the reform of church administration he carried out, aimed at eliminating church jurisdiction autonomous from the state and subordinating the Russian church hierarchy to the Emperor. In 1700, after the death of Patriarch Adrian, Peter I, instead of convening a council to elect a new patriarch, temporarily appointed Metropolitan Stefan Yavorsky of Ryazan as the head of the clergy, who received the new title of Custodian of the Patriarchal Throne or "Exarch". including the peasants belonging to them (approximately 795 thousand), the Monastic order was restored, headed by I. A. Musin-Pushkin, who again became in charge of the court of the monastic peasants and controlled income from church and monastic land holdings. In 1701, a series of decrees was issued to reform the management of church and monastery possessions and the organization of monastic life; the most important were the decrees of January 24 and 31, 1701.

Reforms of the army and navy

Army reform: in particular, the introduction of regiments of a new order, reformed according to a foreign model, was begun long before Peter I, even under Alexei I. However, the combat effectiveness of this army was low. Reforming the army and creating a fleet became necessary conditions for victory in northern war 1700-1721.

> The article briefly describes the reforms of Peter I-the greatest transformation in the history of Russia. In general, the reforms played a positive role, accelerated the development of Russia, directed it along the European path of development.
The reforms of Peter I have not yet received an unambiguous assessment in historiography. The debate revolves around two questions: were the reforms necessary and justified; whether they were natural in the course of Russian history or were Peter's personal whim. The need for reforms is recognized in principle, but the methods by which they were carried out are condemned. Peter I acted like an oriental despot in achieving his goals. Cruelty and inexorability in the demands of Peter I is undeniable. However, the established traditions of Russian society, most likely, did not give the opportunity to act differently. The conservatism that permeated the entire state stubbornly resisted all necessary reforms.

Introduction
Social reforms of Peter I
The significance of the reforms of Peter I
Video

Regarding the regularity of the reforms, it should be said that they did not arise from scratch. The prerequisites and the first attempts to carry out transformations were made under Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich. In the development of Russia, a lagging behind the West was indeed manifested. The actions of Peter I should not be considered unnecessarily revolutionary, since they were nevertheless caused by necessity. They became radical thanks to the very personality of Peter I - a passionate and immoderate man in his actions.

Public Administration Reform

The activity of Peter I was aimed at strengthening state power.
His adoption in 1721 of the title of emperor became the apogee of this process and was reflected in Russian culture. The state apparatus inherited by Peter I was imperfect, embezzlement and bribery flourished.
It cannot be said that Peter I managed to completely get rid of this traditional Russian misfortune, but there were certain positive developments in this area.
In 1711 he established a new supreme authority - the Governing Senate.
At the head of the Senate was the Prosecutor General. At this body there was an institution of fiscals who controlled the actions of officials. After some time, control over the activities of the Senate itself was introduced.
The old system of Orders, no longer meeting the requirements of the time, was replaced by colleges.
In 1718, 11 colleges were formed, dividing the main branches of government in the state among themselves.
Russia was divided into 8 provinces headed by governors and 50 provinces headed by governors. Smaller areas were called districts.
The state structure took the form of a clearly organized mechanism, the management of which was strictly hierarchical and directly subordinate to the emperor.
Power acquired a military-police character.
The creation of an extensive network of state control was, according to the plan of Peter I, to put an end to the abuses of officials. In fact, the country was permeated with the spirit of surveillance and espionage. Executions and harsh methods of reprisals did not lead to significant results.
The overgrown bureaucratic system constantly failed.

Economic reforms of Peter I

The Russian economy lagged far behind the West.
Peter I resolutely undertakes to correct this situation. Heavy and light industry is developing at a rapid pace by improving old and opening new factories and manufactories.
It is debatable whether these processes were the beginning of capitalist relations in Russia. Instead of hired labor in Russia, the labor of serfs was used.
The peasants were massively bought up and assigned to factories (possession peasants), which did not make them workers in the full sense of the word.
Peter I adhered to a policy of protectionism, which consisted in supporting and marketing products of his own production.
To provide finance for large-scale reforms, the emperor introduces a state monopoly on the production and sale of certain types of goods. Of particular importance was the monopoly on exports.
A new system of taxation was introduced - the poll tax. A general census was held, which increased the revenues of the treasury.

Social reforms of Peter I

In the social field great importance had a decree on single inheritance (1714).
According to this decree, only the eldest heir had the right to own property.
Thus, the position of the nobility was consolidated and the fragmentation of landowners' lands was stopped. At the same time, the decree erased the differences between local and patrimonial land tenure.
In 1722, a decree was issued, which for a long time became the basic law of Russia in the field of public service ("Table of Ranks").
In the civil, military service and in the navy, 14 parallel ranks or classes were introduced - a clear hierarchical system of positions.
The first eight classes gave the right to hereditary nobility.
Thus, the former system of occupying higher positions on the basis of origin and birth was completely eliminated.
From now on, any person in the public service could apply for the nobility.
The "Table of Ranks" contributed to an even greater bureaucratization of the state structure, but it really opened up wide opportunities for talented and capable people.
There was a clear division of urban residents.
According to the regulations of 1721, the "regular" (industrialists, merchants, small traders and artisans) and "irregular" (all the rest, "mean people") population of cities were distinguished.

The significance of the reforms of Peter I

The reforms of Peter I radically influenced all areas of the life of the Russian state.
In social terms, the formation of the main estates ended, there was a consolidation.
Russia became a centralized state with the absolute power of the emperor.
Support for domestic industry, the use of the experience of Western countries put Russia on a par with the leading powers.
The country's foreign policy successes also increased its prestige.
The proclamation of Russia as an empire was a natural result of the activities of Peter I.

Peter I and his reforms. The main directions of the Europeanization of the country.

1. Introduction

2. Beginning of Peter's reign

3. Prerequisites for reforms

4. Military reforms

5. Judicial reform

6. Church reform

7. economic reform

8. Administrative reforms

9. Conclusion

Introduction

According to many historians, the most striking example of a whole range of state reforms in a relatively short period of time are the reforms of Peter I, which allowed Russia to turn from a culturally, economically and militarily backward country into one of the leading European states in a quarter of a century.

The idea of serving the state, in which Peter I deeply believed and to which he subordinated his activity, was the essence of his life, permeated all his undertakings. Until his death, Peter continued to serve the Russian state.

Peter's transformations that affected almost all spheres of life Russian state, no doubt, had a decisive influence on the entire further course of the historical process in our country. During the reign of Peter I, our state made a huge leap forward in industrial development. Russia established itself on the shores of the Baltic, acquired the shortest trade route to Europe. The first printed newspaper appeared, the first military and professional schools were opened, the first printing houses appeared, printing secular books. The first museum in the country. First public library. First parks. Finally, the first decree on the organization of the Academy of Sciences.

The great reformer implemented numerous changes in the state structure: he made judicial and military reforms, changed Administrative division, actively participated in the drafting of legal codes, etc. A comprehensive consideration of the nature of Peter's state reforms is the purpose of this work.

Beginning of Peter's reign

After the death of Fyodor Alekseevich in 1682, a struggle began between various factions at the throne for the proclamation of 10-year-old Peter, the son of Alexei Mikhailovich from his second wife, N.K. Naryshkina, or 16-year-old poor health Ivan, the son of the king from his first wife, M. I. Miloslavskaya. The Miloslavsky group, led by the energetic and power-hungry Sofya Alekseevna, eventually achieved the approval of two brothers on the throne at once (an event unprecedented in the history of the Muscovite state, indicating a deep spiritual and political crisis in society) with Sophia's actual regency. Her government was led by the favorite of the princess V.V. Golitsyn, a European-educated man, according to some information, proposed to turn the landlord peasants into state ones. (Probably, the alignment of political forces, the fragility of his position and a certain softness of character, inconsistent with the spirit of the times, did not allow him to develop his reform potential, although it is possible that his plans could become an alternative to Peter's reform).

Formation of the personality of the king-reformer.

Peter and his entourage were removed from the Kremlin and lived in the village. Preobrazhensky near Moscow. Left to himself, the boy was drawn to knowledge, keenly fond of crafts. And although these activities contradicted the ideas about the image of the "Orthodox Tsar", they helped Peter to perceive the world as it is. From this, probably, his rationalism and pragmatism, the ability and desire to learn new things stemmed. From childhood, Peter's passion was military fun, in which the children of service people and commoners took part. It was from them that the "amusing regiments" - Preobrazhensky and Semenovsky - were formed, which later became the basis of the Russian regular army and the first guards regiments. In communication with ordinary people the democratic traits of the tsar's behavior were formed, his ability to understand people, appreciate and promote them for their abilities and merits, and not for their nobility of origin. At the same time, it also manifested such a quality as disregard for the life and interests of an individual for the sake of a common, primarily state business.

According to V. O. Klyuchevsky, "being kind by nature as a person, Peter was rude as a king."

The years of adolescence also had the first acquaintance of Peter with foreigners and European culture. Visiting the German settlement on the river. Yauze, he met a kind of cast of Western civilization and recognized a completely different type of interpersonal relations, a different type of culture and way of life. At the same time, Peter awakened a love for the sea and navigation.

Thus, already during this period of his life, Peter developed such views and character traits that not only pushed him to change, but also influenced the course and methods of reforms.

Beginning of Peter's independent reign I .

Power struggle. At the beginning of 1689, Peter married Evdokia Lopukhina, which meant his coming of age and gave him all the rights to independent rule. Relations between Peter and Sophia escalated, the regent again tried to rely on the archers, but, in the end, she was forced to give in to her half-brother. Her failure was due to a number of factors:

Sophia, as a ruler, managed to arouse dissatisfaction with various strata of society, which traditionally expected various indulgences and improvements in life from the new "sovereign";

The patriarchal consciousness of people was contradicted by the fact that a woman was at the head of the state;

The failures of the Crimean campaigns were blamed on Sophia and her favorite, V.V. Golitsyn.

However, direct power was in the hands of Peter's relatives - the Naryshkins and Lopukhins, who, according to contemporaries, primarily took care of their own interests.

This board, according to B. I. Kurakin, was “very dishonorable; great bribery and theft of the state.

Tsar Ivan V, who never participated in the affairs of the state, formally remained co-ruler of Peter until his death in 1696.

Azov campaigns. The direct state activity of Peter himself began with the organization in 1695 of the first Azov campaign. It was not possible to take the powerful Turkish fortress due to the lack of a fleet capable of blocking it from the sea. Peter, realizing the reasons for the failures, began energetic preparations for the second campaign and, thanks to the actions of the galleys built at the shipyards of Voronezh, managed to take Azov in 1696.

"Great Embassy" To develop success and make a breakthrough into the Black Sea, Peter decided to create a powerful fleet. In addition, he organized in 1697 the "Great Embassy" to Europe. The goals of the embassy were:

Strengthening and expanding the anti-Turkish alliance;

Invitation to the Russian service of specialists, purchase and order of weapons;

Peter's personal acquaintance with the political situation, economic and cultural achievements of the countries of Western Europe. For the first time, the "Orthodox Tsar", left, however, incognito under the name of the volunteer Peter Mikhailov, his country and entered the "unclean" land of foreigners.

Embassy results. In the context of the preparation of European countries for the war for the "Spanish Succession", Peter failed to solve the main diplomatic problem and prevent the signing of a separate peace between Austria and Turkey.

Prerequisites for reforms

The country was on the eve of great transformations. What were the prerequisites for Peter's reforms?

Russia was a backward country. This backwardness was a serious danger to the independence of the Russian people.

Industry in its structure was serf-owning, and in terms of output it was significantly inferior to the industry of Western European countries.

The Russian army for the most part consisted of a backward noble militia and archers, poorly armed and trained. The complex and clumsy ordering state apparatus, headed by the boyar aristocracy, did not meet the needs of the country.

Russia also lagged behind in the field of spiritual culture. Enlightenment hardly penetrated the masses of the people, and even in the ruling circles there were many uneducated and completely illiterate people.

Russia of the 17th century, by the very course of historical development, was faced with the need for radical reforms, since only in this way could it secure a worthy place among the states of the West and East.

Already before Peter the Great, a fairly cohesive program of transformation had been outlined, which in many respects coincided with Peter's reforms, and in other ways went even further than them. A transformation in general was being prepared, which, in the peaceful course of affairs, could be spread over a number of generations. At the end of the 17th century, when the young Tsar Peter I came to the Russian throne, our country was going through a turning point in its history.

In Russia, unlike the main Western European countries, there were almost no large industrial enterprises capable of providing the country with weapons, fabrics, and agricultural implements. She had no access to the seas - neither the Black nor the Baltic, through which she could develop foreign trade. Therefore, Russia did not have its own military fleet, which would guard its borders. The land army was built according to outdated principles and consisted mainly of noble militia. The nobles were reluctant to leave their estates for military campaigns, their weapons and military training lagged behind the advanced European armies.

There was a fierce struggle for power between the old, well-born boyars and the nobles serving people. There were continuous uprisings of peasants and urban lower classes in the country, who fought both against the nobles and against the boyars, since they were all feudal feudal lords. Russia attracted the greedy eyes of neighboring states - Sweden, the Commonwealth, which were not averse to seizing and subjugating Russian lands.

It was necessary to reorganize the army, build a navy, take possession of the sea coast, create a domestic industry, and rebuild the system of government.

In the history of the Petrine reforms, researchers distinguish two stages: before and after 1715. At the first stage, the reforms were mostly chaotic and were caused primarily by the military needs of the state associated with the conduct of the Northern War, were carried out mainly by violent methods and were accompanied by active state intervention in economic affairs. Many reforms were ill-conceived, hasty in nature, which was caused both by failures in the war and by the lack of personnel, experience, and pressure from the old conservative apparatus of power. At the second stage, when hostilities had already been transferred to enemy territory, the transformations became more systematic. There was a further strengthening of the apparatus of power, manufactories not only served military needs, but also produced consumer goods for the population, state regulation of the economy was somewhat weakened, merchants and entrepreneurs were given a certain freedom of action. Basically, the reforms were subordinated not to the interests of individual estates, but to the state as a whole: its prosperity, well-being and familiarization with Western European civilization. The goal of the reforms was to acquire the role of Russia as one of the leading world powers, capable of competing with Western countries militarily and economically. The main instrument of reform was deliberately applied violence.

Military reform

The main content of the military reform was the creation of a regular Russian army and Russian navy, recruited on the basis of recruitment. Previously existing troops were gradually abolished, and their personnel were used for new formations. The army and navy began to be maintained at the expense of the state. To control the armed forces, instead of orders, the Military Collegium and the Admiralty Collegium were established; the post of commander-in-chief (for wartime) was introduced. A unified training system was established in the army and navy, and military educational institutions (navigation, artillery, and engineering schools) were opened. The Preobrazhensky and Semenovsky regiments, as well as a number of newly opened special schools and the Maritime Academy. The organization of the armed forces, the main issues of training, methods of warfare were legally enshrined in the Military Charter (1716), the Marine Charter Book (1720). In general, the military reforms of Peter I contributed to the development of military art, were one of the factors that determined the success of the Russian army and fleet in the Northern War.

Reforms in the economy covered agriculture, large and small production, craft, trade and financial policy. Agriculture under Peter I developed slowly, mainly in an extensive way. In the economic sphere, the concept of mercantilism dominated - encouraging the development of domestic trade and industry with an active foreign trade balance. The development of industry was dictated solely by the needs of warfare and was a special concern of Peter. During the first quarter of the 18th century 200 manufactories were created. The main attention was paid to metallurgy, the center of which moved to the Urals. The growth of industrial production was accompanied by the intensification of feudal exploitation, the widespread use of forced labor in manufactories: the use of serfs, bought (possession) peasants, as well as the labor of the state (black-eared) peasantry, which was attributed to the plant as a permanent source of labor. In 1711, craft schools were established at the manufactories. By decrees of 1722, a shop device was introduced in the cities. The creation of workshops testified to the patronage of the authorities to the development of crafts and their regulation. In the field of domestic and foreign trade, a large role was played by the state monopoly on the procurement and sale of basic goods (salt, flax, hemp, furs, lard, caviar, bread, etc.), which significantly replenished the treasury. The creation of merchant "kuppanstvo" and the expansion of trade relations with foreign countries were encouraged in every possible way. The government of Peter gave great attention development waterways- the main mode of transport at this time. Active construction of canals was carried out: the Volga-Don, Vyshnevolotsky, Ladoga, work began on the construction of the Moscow-Volga canal.

financial policy state during the reign of Peter I was characterized by unprecedented tax oppression. The growth of the state budget, necessary for the conduct of the war, an active domestic and foreign policy, was achieved by expanding indirect and increasing direct taxes. Special "profit-makers" headed by A. Kurbatov sought out new sources of income: bath, fish, honey, horse and other taxes were introduced, up to the tax on beards. In total, by 1724 there were up to 40 types of indirect collections. Along with the specified fees, direct taxes were also introduced: recruitment, dragoon, ship and special "fees". Significant incomes were brought by the minting of coins of lesser weight and a decrease in the content of silver in it. The search for new sources of income led to a radical reform of the entire tax system - the introduction of a poll tax, which replaced household taxation. As a result of this, firstly, the amount of tax revenues from peasants almost doubled. Secondly, the tax reform became an important stage in serfdom in Russia, extending it to those sections of the population that were previously free (“walking people”), or could gain freedom after the death of the master (bonded serfs). Thirdly, the passport system was introduced. Every peasant who went to work more than 30 versts from his place of residence had to have a passport indicating the date of return.

Reorganization of public administration.

The strengthening of the absolute monarchy required a radical restructuring and extreme centralization of the entire system of state administration, its higher, central and local bodies. The king was at the head of the state. In 1721, Peter was proclaimed emperor, which meant a further strengthening of the power of the king himself. In 1711, instead of the Boyar Duma and the Council (Council) of Ministers that replaced it since 1701, the Senate was established. It included nine dignitaries closest to Peter I. The Senate was instructed to develop new laws, monitor the country's finances, and control the activities of the administration. In 1722, the leadership of the work of the senators was entrusted to the prosecutor general, whom Peter I called "the sovereign's eye." In 1718 - 1721, the cumbersome and intricate system of command administration of the country was transformed. Instead of fifty orders, whose functions often coincided and did not have clear boundaries, 11 colleges were established. Each collegium was in charge of a strictly defined branch of government. Collegium of Foreign Affairs - foreign relations, Military - ground armed forces, Admiralty - fleet, Chamber Collegium - revenue collection, Staff Collegium - state expenditures, Votchinnaya - noble land ownership, Manufactory Collegium - industry, except for the metallurgical, which was in charge of the Berg Collegium . In fact, as a collegium, there was a Chief Magistrate who was in charge of Russian cities. In addition, there were the Preobrazhensky Prikaz (political investigation), the Salt Office, the Copper Department, and the Land Survey Office. Along with the strengthening of the central administrative apparatus, the reform of local institutions. Instead of the voivodship administration in 1708 - 1715, the provincial system of government was introduced. Initially, the country was divided into eight provinces: Moscow, St. Petersburg, Kiev, Arkhangelsk, Smolensk, Kazan, Azov and Siberia. They were headed by governors who were in charge of the troops and administration of subordinate territories. Each province occupied a vast territory and was therefore divided into provinces. There were 50 of them (the governor was at the head). Provinces, in turn, were divided into counties. Thus, a single centralized administrative-bureaucratic system of government was formed for the whole country, in which the monarch, who relied on the nobility, played a decisive role. The number of officials has increased significantly. The cost of maintaining the administrative apparatus has also increased. The General Regulations of 1720 introduced a single system of office work in the state apparatus for the whole country.

The Church and the liquidation of the patriarchate.

After the death in 1700 of Patriarch Adrian, Peter I decided not to appoint a new patriarch. Metropolitan Stefan Yavorsky of Ryazan was temporarily placed at the head of the clergy, although he was not vested with patriarchal powers. In 1721, Peter approved the "Spiritual Regulations" developed by his supporter, Bishop Feofan Prokopovich of Pskov. According to the new law, a fundamental church reform was carried out, which eliminated the autonomy of the church and completely subordinated it to the state. The patriarchate in Russia was abolished, and a special Theological College was established to manage the church, which was soon transformed into the Holy Governing Synod to give greater authority. He was in charge of purely church affairs: the interpretation of church dogmas, orders for prayers and church services, censorship of spiritual books, the fight against heresies, the management of educational institutions and the removal of church officials, etc. The synod also had the functions of a spiritual court. All the property and finances of the church, the lands assigned to it and the peasants were under the jurisdiction of the Monastic order, subordinate to the Synod. Thus, it meant the subordination of the church to the state.

Social politics.

In 1714, the “Decree on Single Inheritance” was issued, according to which the noble estate was equalized in rights with the boyar estate. The decree marked the final merger of the two estates of feudal lords. Since that time, secular feudal lords began to be called nobles. The decree on single inheritance ordered the transfer of estates and estates to one of the sons. The rest of the nobles had to carry out compulsory service in the army, navy or in public authorities. In 1722, the publication of the “Table of Ranks” followed, dividing the military, civil and court services. All positions (both civil and military) were divided into 14 ranks. It was possible to occupy each next rank only by passing all the previous ones. An official who reached the eighth grade (collegiate assessor), or an officer received hereditary nobility (until the middle of the 19th century). The rest of the population, excluding the nobility and the clergy, was obliged to pay tax to the state.

Under Peter I, there was new structure a society in which the principle of regulation by state legislation is clearly traced. Reforms in the field of education and culture. The policy of the state was aimed at educating society, reorganizing the education system. Enlightenment at the same time acted as a special value, partly opposed to religious values. Theological subjects at school gave way to natural sciences and technical subjects: mathematics, astronomy, geodesy, fortification, and engineering. The Navigation and Artillery schools (1701), the Engineering School (1712), and the Medical School (1707) were the first to appear. To simplify the learning process, the complex Church Slavonic script was replaced with a civil one. The publishing business was developed, printing houses were created in Moscow, St. Petersburg and other cities. The foundations for the development of Russian science were laid. In 1725, the Academy of Sciences was established in St. Petersburg. A great deal of work has begun to study the history, geography and natural resources of Russia. Propaganda of scientific knowledge was carried out by the Kunstkamera, opened in 1719, the first national museum of natural history. On January 1, 1700, a new chronology according to the Julian calendar was introduced in Russia. As a result of the calendar reform, Russia began to live in the same time as Europe. There was a radical break in all traditional ideas about the everyday way of life in Russian society. The tsar, by order of order, introduced fermentation, European clothes, and the obligatory wearing of uniforms for military and civil officials. The behavior of young nobles in society was regulated by Western European norms set forth in the translated book “Youth's Honest Mirror”. In 1718, a Decree appeared on holding assemblies with the obligatory presence of women. Assemblies were held not only for fun and entertainment, but also for business meetings. Peter's transformations in the sphere of culture, life and customs were often introduced by violent methods and were of a pronounced political nature. The main thing in these reforms was the observance of the interests of the state.

Significance of reforms: 1. The reforms of Peter I marked the formation of an absolute monarchy, unlike the classical Western one, not under the influence of the genesis of capitalism, balancing the monarch between the feudal lords and the third estate, but on a serf-noble basis.

2. The new state created by Peter I not only significantly increased the efficiency of public administration, but also served as the main lever for the modernization of the country. 3. Based on some trends emerging in the 17th century. in Russia, Peter I not only developed them, but also brought it to a qualitatively higher level in a minimal historical period of time, turning Russia into a powerful state.

The payment for these radical changes was the further strengthening of serfdom, the temporary inhibition of the formation of capitalist relations, and the strongest tax and tax pressure on the population. The repeated increase in taxes led to the impoverishment and enslavement of the bulk of the population. Various social actions - the rebellion of the archers in Astrakhan (1705 - 1706), the uprising of the Cossacks on the Don under the leadership of Kondraty Bulavin (1707 - 1708), in Ukraine and the Volga region - were directed not so much against the transformations as against the methods and means of their implementation.

21. Reforms of Peter the Great and their significance for Russian history: opinions of historians.

Foreign policy Peter I. The main goal of Peter I's foreign policy was access to the Baltic Sea, which would provide Russia with a connection with Western Europe. In 1699, Russia, having entered into an alliance with Poland and Denmark, declared war on Sweden. The outcome of the Northern War, which lasted 21 years, was influenced by the victory of the Russians in Poltava battle June 27, 1709 and the victory over the Swedish fleet at Gangut on July 27, 1714.

On August 30, 1721, the Treaty of Nystadt was signed, according to which Russia retained the conquered lands of Livonia, Estland, Ingermanland, part of Karelia and all the islands of the Gulf of Finland and Riga. Access to the Baltic Sea was secured.

In commemoration of what was achieved in the Great Northern War, on October 20, 1721, the Senate and the Synod awarded the tsar with the title of Father of the Fatherland, Peter the Great and Emperor of All Russia.

In 1723, after a month and a half of hostilities with Persia, Peter I acquired the western shore of the Caspian Sea.

Simultaneously with the conduct of hostilities, the vigorous activity of Peter I was also aimed at carrying out numerous reforms, the purpose of which was to bring the country closer to European civilization, increase the education of the Russian people, and strengthen the power and international position of Russia. A lot has been done by the great tsar, here are just the main reforms of Peter I.

Peter I

Instead of the Boyar Duma, in 1700 the Council of Ministers was created, which met in the Near Chancellery, and in 1711 - the Senate, which by 1719 had become the highest state body. With the creation of the provinces, numerous Orders ceased their activity, they were replaced by Collegia, which were subordinate to the Senate. The secret police also operated in the management system - the Preobrazhensky order (in charge of state crimes) and the Secret Chancellery. Both institutions were under the jurisdiction of the emperor himself.

Administrative reforms of Peter I

Regional (provincial) reform of Peter I

The biggest administrative reform local government was the creation in 1708 of 8 provinces headed by governors, in 1719 their number increased to 11. The second administrative reform divided the provinces into provinces headed by governors, and the provinces into districts (counties) headed by zemstvo commissars.

Urban reform (1699-1720)

To manage the city, the Burmister Chamber in Moscow was created, renamed in November 1699 into the City Hall, and magistrates subordinate to the Chief Magistrate in St. Petersburg (1720). The members of the City Hall and the magistrates were elected through elections.

Estate reforms

The main goal of the estate reform of Peter I was to formalize the rights and obligations of each estate - the nobility, the peasantry and the urban population.

Nobility.

Decree on estates (1704), according to which both boyars and nobles received estates and estates.

Decree on Education (1706) - all boyar children are required to receive primary education.

Decree on single inheritance (1714), according to which a nobleman could leave an inheritance only to one of his sons.

Table of Ranks (1721): the service to the sovereign was divided into three departments - the army, the state and the court - each of which was divided into 14 ranks. This document allowed a man of the lower class to curry favor with the nobility.

Peasantry

Most of the peasants were serfs. Kholops could sign up as soldiers, which freed them from serfdom.

Among the free peasants were:

state, with personal freedom, but limited in the right to move (i.e., by the will of the monarch, they could be transferred to serfs);

palace, which belonged personally to the king;

sessional, assigned to manufactories. The owner had no right to sell them.

urban estate

Urban people were divided into "regular" and "irregular". The regular ones were divided into guilds: the 1st guild - the richest, the 2nd guild - small merchants and wealthy artisans. Irregulars, or "mean people", made up the majority of the urban population.

In 1722, workshops appeared that united masters of one craft.

Judicial reform of Peter I

The functions of the Supreme Court were carried out by the Senate and the College of Justice. Courts of appeal and provincial courts headed by governors operated in the provinces. The provincial courts dealt with the cases of peasants (except for monasteries) and townspeople not included in the settlement. Since 1721, the court cases of the townspeople included in the settlement were conducted by the magistrate. In other cases, cases were decided by the Zemstvo or city judge alone.

Church reform of Peter I

Peter I abolished the patriarchate, deprived the church of power, and transferred its funds to the state treasury. Instead of the post of patriarch, the tsar introduced a collegiate supreme administrative church body - the Holy Synod.

Financial reforms of Peter I

The first stage of the financial reform of Peter I was reduced to collecting money for the maintenance of the army and the conduct of wars. Benefits from the monopoly sale of certain types of goods (vodka, salt, etc.) were added, indirect taxes (bath, horse, beard, etc.) were introduced.

In 1704, a monetary reform, according to which the penny became the main monetary unit. The fiat ruble was abolished.

Tax reform of Peter I consisted in the transition from the household taxation to the poll tax. In this regard, the government included in the tax all categories of the peasant and townspeople, who had previously been exempt from tax.

Thus, during tax reform of Peter I a single monetary tax (poll tax) was introduced and the number of taxpayers increased.

Social reforms of Peter I

Education reform of Peter I

In the period from 1700 to 1721. many civilian and military schools were opened in Russia. Among them are the School of Mathematical and Navigational Sciences; artillery, engineering, medical, mining, garrison, theological schools; digital schools free education children of all ranks; Maritime Academy in St. Petersburg.

Peter I created the Academy of Sciences, under which the first Russian university, and with him the first gymnasium. But this system began to operate after the death of Peter.

Reforms of Peter I in culture

Peter I introduced a new alphabet, which facilitated literacy and promoted book printing. The first Russian newspaper Vedomosti began to be published, in 1703 the first book in Russian with Arabic numerals appeared.

The tsar developed a plan for the stone construction of St. Petersburg, paying special attention to the beauty of architecture. He invited foreign artists, and also sent talented young people abroad to study "arts". Peter I laid the foundation for the Hermitage.

Socio-economic reforms of Peter I

To boost industrial production and develop trade relations with foreign countries, Peter I invited foreign specialists, but at the same time encouraged the domestic industrialist and merchant. Peter I sought to ensure that more goods were exported from Russia than were imported. During his reign, 200 plants and factories operated on the territory of Russia.

Reforms of Peter I in the army

Peter I introduced annual recruitment sets of young Russians (from 15 to 20 years old) and ordered the training of soldiers to begin. In 1716, the Military Regulations were issued, outlining the service, rights and duties of the military.

As a result military reform of Peter I a powerful regular army and navy was created.

The reform activities of Peter had the support of a wide range of nobility, but caused discontent and resistance among the boyars, archers and the clergy, because. transformations entailed the loss of their leading role in public administration. Among the opponents of the reforms of Peter I was his son Alexei.

The results of the reforms of Peter I

The regime of absolutism is established in Russia. During the years of his reign, Peter created a state with a more advanced system of government, a strong army and navy, and a stable economy. There was a centralization of power.

Rapid development of foreign and domestic trade.

The abolition of the patriarchate, the church lost its independence and authority in society.

Enormous progress has been made in science and culture. A task of national importance was set - the creation of a Russian medical education, as well as the beginning of Russian surgery.

Features of the reforms of Peter I

The reforms were carried out according to the European model and covered all spheres of activity and life of society.

Lack of reform system.

The reforms were carried out mainly through harsh exploitation and coercion.

Peter, impatient by nature, innovated at a rapid pace.

Reasons for the reforms of Peter I

By the 18th century, Russia was a backward country. It was significantly inferior to Western European countries in terms of industrial output, level of education and culture (even in the ruling circles there were many illiterate people). The boyar aristocracy, which was at the head of the state apparatus, did not meet the needs of the country. The Russian army, which consisted of archers and noble militia, was poorly armed, untrained and could not cope with its task.

The main result of the totality of the Petrine reforms was the establishment in Russia of the regime of absolutism, the crown of which was the change in 1721. title Russian monarch- Peter declared himself emperor, and the country became

be called the Russian Empire. Thus, what Peter was going for all the years of his reign was formalized - the creation of a state with a coherent system of government, a strong army and navy, a powerful economy that had an impact on international politics. As a result of the Petrine reforms, the state was not bound by anything and could use any means to achieve its goals. As a result, Peter came to his ideal state structure - a warship, where everything and everything is subject to the will of one person - the captain, and managed to bring this ship out of the swamp into the stormy waters of the ocean, bypassing all the reefs and shoals. Russia became an autocratic, military-bureaucratic state, the central role in which belonged to the nobility. At the same time, Russia's backwardness was not completely overcome, and the reforms were carried out mainly through the most severe exploitation and coercion. The complexity and inconsistency of Russia's development during this period also determined the inconsistency of Peter's activities and the reforms he carried out. On the one hand, they had great historical significance, since they contributed to the progress of the country and were aimed at eliminating its backwardness. On the other hand, they were carried out by the feudal lords, using feudal methods, and were aimed at strengthening their rule. Therefore, the progressive transformations of the time of Peter the Great from the very beginning carried conservative features, which, in the course of the further development of the country, became stronger and could not ensure the elimination of socio-economic backwardness. As a result of Peter's transformations, Russia quickly caught up with those European countries where the dominance of feudal-serf relations was preserved, but it could not catch up with those countries that embarked on the capitalist path of development. , laws, foundations and way of life and way of life. The family of Peter the Great in the history of Russia is difficult to overestimate. No matter how one relates to the methods and style of carrying out transformations, one cannot but admit that Peter the Great is one of the most prominent figures in world history.

Table "Reforms of Peter 1" (briefly). The main reforms of Peter 1: table, summary

The table "Reforms of Peter 1" briefly outlines the features of the transformational activities of the first emperor of Russia. With its help, one can concisely, concisely and clearly outline the main directions of his steps to change all spheres of life in Russian society in the first quarter of the 18th century. Perhaps this is the best way for middle-level students to learn this difficult and rather voluminous material, which is very important for analyzing and correctly understanding the features of the historical process in our country in the following centuries.

Features of the emperor's activities

One of the most complex, difficult and at the same time interesting topics is the "Reforms of Peter 1". Briefly, a table on this topic demonstrates all the data necessary for schoolchildren.

In the introductory lesson, it should immediately be noted that the activities of Pyotr Alekseevich affected all sectors of society and determined the further history of the country. This is the uniqueness of the era of his reign. However, he was a very practical man and innovated based on specific needs.

This can be clearly demonstrated with a more detailed coverage of the topic "Reforms of Peter 1". Briefly, the table on the problem posed clearly shows the wide scope with which the emperor acted. It seemed that he managed to have a hand in everything: he reorganized the army, government bodies, made significant changes in the social structure, economic sphere, diplomacy, and, finally, contributed to the spread of Western European culture and way of life among the Russian nobility.

Transformations in the army

At the middle level, it is very important that schoolchildren learn the basic facts of the topic "Peter 1's Reforms". Briefly, a table on this problem helps students to familiarize themselves with the data and systematize the accumulated material. Almost all of his reign, the emperor waged war with Sweden for access to the Baltic Sea. The need for strong and powerful troops arose with particular urgency at the very beginning of his reign. Therefore, the new ruler immediately began to reorganize the army.

One of the most interesting sections in the topic under study is the “Military reforms of Peter 1”. Briefly, the table can be depicted as follows.

The Importance of Military Innovation

It can be seen from it that the steps of the emperor were dictated by the specific needs of his contemporary time, however, many of his innovations continued to exist for a very long time. The main goal of the reforms was to create a permanent and regular army. The fact is that earlier there was a so-called local system of recruiting troops: i.e. the landowner appeared at the reviews along with several servants who were also supposed to serve with him.

However, by the beginning of the 18th century, this principle had become obsolete. By this time, serfdom had finally taken shape, and the state began to recruit soldiers from the peasants. Another very important measure was the creation of professional military schools for the training of officers and commanders.

Transformations of power structures

Practice shows that one of the most difficult topics is "Peter 1's political reforms." Briefly, the table on this issue clearly demonstrates how deep the transformational activity of the emperor was in the governing bodies. He completely changed the central and local administration. Instead of the Boyar Duma, which had previously performed advisory functions under the tsar, he created the Senate on the model of Western European countries. Instead of orders, colleges were created, each of which performed a specific function in management. Their activities were strictly controlled by the Prosecutor General. In addition, a special secret fiscal body was created to control the bureaucracy.

New administrative division

No less complex is the topic and “State reforms of Peter 1. Briefly, the table on this issue reflects the cardinal changes that have taken place in the organization of local government. Provinces were created, which were in charge of the affairs of a certain area. The provinces were divided into provinces, and those, in turn, into counties. Such a structure was very convenient for management and met the challenges of the time in question. At the head of the provinces was the governor, and at the head of the provinces and counties - the governor.

Changes in industry and commerce

Of particular difficulty is often the study of the topic “Economic reforms of Peter 1. Briefly, the table on this issue reflects the complexity and ambiguity of the emperor’s activities in relation to merchants and merchants, who, on the one hand, sought to create the most favorable conditions for the development of the country’s economy, but at the same time acted almost feudal methods, which could not contribute to the development of market relations in our country. The economic activity of Peter Alekseevich was not as effective as the transformations in other areas. At the same time, this was the first experience in the development of trade according to the Western European model.

Transformations in the social structure

The topic “Social reforms of Peter 1” seems to be simpler. A brief table on this issue clearly demonstrates the fundamental changes that have occurred in Russian society of the studied time. Unlike his predecessors, the emperor introduced the principle of distinction in the military and state spheres, depending not on tribal affiliation, but on personal merit. His famous "Table of Ranks" introduced a new principle of service. From now on, a person, in order to get a promotion or rank, had to achieve any success.

It was under Peter that the social structure of society was finally formalized. The main support of the autocracy was the nobility, which replaced the tribal aristocracy. The emperor's successors also relied on this estate, which indicates the effectiveness of the measures taken.

The study of this problem can be completed by summarizing the results. What was the significance of the reforms of Peter the Great in the history of Russia? A table, a summary on a given topic, can serve as an effective means of summing up. Regarding social transformations, it should be noted that the measures of the ruler corresponded to the demands of his time, when the principle of parochialism became obsolete, and the country needed new personnel who would have the necessary qualities to fulfill the new tasks that the country faced in connection with the Northern War and Russia's entry into the international arena.

The role of the transformational activity of the emperor

The topic “Basic reforms of Peter 1”, a table, a summary of which is an important component in the study of the history of Russia in the first quarter of the 18th century, should be divided into several lessons so that students have the opportunity to properly consolidate the material. At the final lesson, it is necessary to summarize the material covered and to indicate what role the transformations of the first emperor played in the future fate of Russia.

The measures taken by the ruler brought our country to the European arena and brought it into the ranks of the leading European states. The topic “The main reforms of Peter 1”, a table, a summary clearly shows how the country reached the world level of development, having received access to the sea and becoming one of the main members of the European concert of powers.

Reforms of Peter 1.

Zhanna Gromova

Public Administration Reform
1699-1721

Judicial reform
1697, 1719, 1722

Military reforms
from 1699

Church reform
1700-1701 ; 1721

Financial reforms

The introduction of many new (including indirect) taxes, the monopolization of the sale of tar, alcohol, salt and other goods. Damage (reduction in weight) of the coin. Kopek became

Tatyana Shcherbakova

Regional reform
In 1708-1715, a regional reform was carried out in order to strengthen the vertical of power in the field and better provide the army with supplies and recruits. In 1708, the country was divided into 8 provinces headed by governors endowed with full judicial and administrative power: Moscow, Ingermandland (later St. Petersburg), Kiev, Smolensk, Azov, Kazan, Arkhangelsk and Siberia. The Moscow province gave more than a third of the proceeds to the treasury, followed by the Kazan province.

In 1719-1720, the second regional reform was carried out, which eliminated the shares. The provinces began to be divided into 50 provinces headed by governors, and the provinces into districts headed by zemstvo commissars appointed by the Chamber Collegium. Only military and judicial matters remained under the jurisdiction of the governor.
Judicial reform
Under Peter, the judicial system underwent radical changes. The functions of the Supreme Court were given to the Senate and the College of Justice. Below them were: provinces - hofgerichts or court courts of appeal in large cities, and provincial collegiate lower courts. The provincial courts conducted civil and criminal cases of all categories of peasants except for the monastic ones, as well as townspeople not included in the settlement. Since 1721, the magistrate conducted the court cases of the townspeople included in the settlement. In other cases, the so-called one-man court acted (cases were decided solely by a zemstvo or city judge). However, in 1722 the lower courts were replaced by provincial courts headed by the voivode
Church reform
One of the transformations of Peter I was the reform of church administration he carried out, aimed at eliminating church jurisdiction autonomous from the state and subordinating the Russian church hierarchy to the Emperor. In 1700, after the death of Patriarch Adrian, Peter I, instead of convening a council to elect a new patriarch, temporarily appointed Metropolitan Stefan Yavorsky of Ryazan as head of the clergy, who received the new title of Custodian of the Patriarchal Throne or "Exarch".

To manage the property of the patriarchal and episcopal houses, as well as monasteries, including the peasants belonging to them (approximately 795 thousand), the Monastic order was restored, headed by I. A. Musin-Pushkin, who again became in charge of the trial of the monastic peasants and control income from church and monastic land holdings. In 1701, a series of decrees was issued to reform the management of church and monastery possessions and the organization of monastic life; the most important were the decrees of January 24 and 31, 1701.

In 1721, Peter approved the Spiritual Regulations, the drafting of which was entrusted to the Pskov bishop, Feofan Prokopovich, an approximate tsar, Little Russian. As a result, a radical reform of the church took place, which eliminated the autonomy of the clergy and completely subordinated it to the state. In Russia, the patriarchate was abolished and the Spiritual College was established, soon renamed the Holy Synod, which was recognized by the Eastern patriarchs as equal in honor to the patriarch. All members of the Synod were appointed by the Emperor and took an oath of allegiance to him upon taking office. Wartime stimulated the removal of valuables from the monastic vaults. Peter did not go for the complete secularization of church and monastery possessions, which was carried out much later, at the beginning of his reign
Reforms of the army and navy
Army reform: in particular, the introduction of regiments of a new order, reformed according to a foreign model, was begun long before Peter I, even under Alexei I. However, the combat effectiveness of this army was low. Reforming the army and creating a fleet became necessary conditions for victory in the Northern War of 1700-1721 years.

Maxim Lyubov

Public Administration Reform
Of all the transformations of Peter I, the central place is occupied by the reform of public administration, the reorganization of all its links.
The main goal of this period was to provide a solution major problem- victory in the Northern War. Already in the first years of the war, it became clear that the old state mechanism of government, the main elements of which were orders and counties, did not provide for the growing needs of the autocracy. This was manifested in the lack of money, provisions, and various supplies for the army and navy. Peter hoped to radically solve this problem with the help of a regional reform - the creation of new administrative entities- provinces, uniting several counties. In 1708, 8 provinces were formed: Moscow, Ingermanland (St. Petersburg), Kyiv, Smolensk, Arkhangelsk, Kazan, Azov, Siberian.
The main goal of this reform was to provide the army with everything necessary: a direct connection was established between the provinces and the regiments of the armies, which were distributed among the provinces. Communication was carried out through a specially created institution of krieg commissars (the so-called military commissars).
An extensive hierarchical network of bureaucratic institutions with a large staff of officials was created on the ground. The former system “order - county” was doubled: “order (or office) - province - province - county”.
In 1711 the Senate was created. The autocracy, which had grown considerably in the second half of the 17th century, no longer needed institutions of representation and self-government.
AT early XVIII in. in fact, the meetings of the Boyar Duma are stopped, the control of the central and local state apparatus is transferred to the so-called “Consilia of Ministers” - a temporary council of heads of the most important government departments.
Particularly important was the reform of the Senate, which occupied a key position in the state system of Peter. The Senate concentrated judicial, administrative and legislative functions, was in charge of colleges and provinces, appointed and approved officials. The unofficial head of the Senate, consisting of the first dignitaries, was the prosecutor general, endowed with special powers and subordinate only to the monarch. The creation of the post of Prosecutor General laid the foundation for a whole institution of the Prosecutor's Office, the model for which was the French administrative experience.
In 1718 - 1721. the system of command administration of the country was transformed. 10 colleges were established, each of which was in charge of a strictly defined industry. For example, the Collegium of Foreign Affairs - with foreign relations, the Military - with ground armed forces, the Admiralty - with the fleet, the Collegium of Chambers - with the collection of revenues, the Collegium of State Offices - with state expenditures, the Collegium of Commerce - with trade.
Church reform
The Synod, or the Spiritual College, established in 1721, became a kind of college. By declaring himself the de facto head of the church, Peter destroyed its autonomy. Moreover, he made extensive use of the institutions of the church to carry out his policies.
Supervision of the activities of the Synod was entrusted to a special state official - the chief prosecutor.
Social politics
Social policy was pro-noble and feudal in nature. The decree of 1714 on uniform inheritance established the same order of inheritance of immovable estates, without distinction between estates and estates. The merging of two forms of feudal landownership - patrimonial and local - completed the process of consolidating the class of feudal lords into a single class - the estate of nobles and strengthened its dominant position (often in the Polish manner the nobility was called gentry).
In order to force the nobles to think of service as the main source of well-being, they introduced primacy - it was forbidden to sell and mortgage land

Oleg Sazonov

Military board
The military board was established by Peter I instead of a number of military institutions in order to centralize military control. The formation of the Military Collegium began with the appointment in 1717 of the first president, Field Marshal A. D. Menshikov and vice-president A. A. Veide.
On June 3, 1719, the state of the College was announced. The collegium consisted of a presence, headed by the president (vice-president) and the Chancellery, subdivided into povy-tya, in charge of cavalry and infantry, garrisons, fortifications and artillery, as well as keeping logs of incoming and outgoing documents. The Collegium consisted of a notary, an auditor general and a fiscal general. The legality of decisions was supervised by the prosecutor, who was subordinate to the prosecutor general. The organization of the service of the land army was under the jurisdiction of the Military Collegium.
The Krieg Commissariat and Provisions General, who were engaged in the clothing and food supply of the army, were formally subordinate to the Military Collegium, but had considerable independence.
In relation to the artillery and engineering departments, headed by the Artillery Chancellery and the Feldzeugmeister General, the Collegium exercised only general leadership.
In the 1720s - 1730s. The military collegium was subjected to reorganization aimed at subordinating to it all branches of military administration.
In 1721, the management of the Don, Yaik and Grebensky Cossacks was transferred from the jurisdiction of the Collegium of Foreign Affairs to the newly created Cossack povyte.
In 1736, the Commissariat, which had existed since 1711 as an independent institution for supplying the army, became part of the Military Collegium. The state of 1736 consolidated the new composition of the Collegium: the presence, the Office, which was in charge of recruiting, organizing, inspecting and serving the troops, as well as cases of fugitives, hiring underage and some other issues, and a number of offices (later renamed expeditions) for branches of management. At the head of the offices were directors who took part in the meetings of the Board. The offices resolved cases on their own, submitting only complex and controversial issues for consideration by the Collegium. During this period, there were the General-Krigs-Commissariat, Ober-Zalmeister, Amunich-naya (Uniform), Provisional, Accounting, Fortification offices and the Artillery Office. The organ of the Collegium in Moscow was the Military Office.
With the accession of Elizabeth there was a return to the decentralization of military administration. In 1742, independent departments were restored - commissariat, provisions, management of artillery and fortification. The counting expedition was abolished. After that, the significance of the Military Collegium as a governing body fell.
The strengthening of the significance of the Military Collegium began in 1763, when its president became Catherine II's personal reporter on military affairs; new states of the College were introduced.
In 1781, the Counting Expedition was restored in the Military Collegium, which exercised control over the expenses of the military department.
In 1791 the Collegium received a new organization. Commissariat, provisions, artillery and engineering departments became part of the Military Collegium as independent expeditions (since 1796 - departments).
In 1798, new states of the College were approved. According to them, it consisted of the Office, divided into expeditions (Army, Garrison, Order, Foreign, Recruitment, School Institution and Repair), independent expeditions (Military, Counting, Inspector, Artillery, Commissariat, Provision, Military Orphanage Institutions) and the General Auditorium.
With the formation of the Ministry of Land Forces in 1802, the Military College became part of it and was finally abolished in 1812. The functions of its expeditions were transferred to the newly formed departments of the Ministry.

Yuri Kek

Public Administration Reform
1699-1721
Creation of the Near Office (or Council of Ministers) in 1699. It was transformed in 1711 into the Governing Senate. Establishment of 12 collegiums with a specific scope of activity and authority.
The system of state administration has become more perfect. The activities of most state bodies became regulated, the collegiums had a clearly defined area of activity. Supervisory bodies were created.

Regional (provincial) reform
1708-1715 and 1719-1720.
At the first stage of the reform, Peter 1 divided Russia into 8 provinces: Moscow, Kiev, Kazan, Ingermandland (later St. Petersburg), Arkhangelsk, Smolensk, Azov, Siberia. They were ruled by governors who were in charge of the troops located on the territory of the province, and also possessed full administrative and judicial power. At the second stage of the reform, the provinces were divided into 50 provinces ruled by governors, and those were divided into districts led by zemstvo commissars. The governors were stripped of their administrative power and were in charge of judicial and military matters.
There was a centralization of power. Organs local government almost completely lost influence.

Judicial reform
1697, 1719, 1722
Peter 1 formed new judicial bodies: the Senate, the Justic College, the Hofgerichts, and the lower courts. Judicial functions were also performed by all colleagues, except for Foreign. The judges were separated from the administration. The court of kissers (analogous to a jury trial) was canceled, the principle of inviolability of an unconvicted person was lost.
A large number of judicial bodies and persons engaged in judicial activities (the emperor himself, governors, governors, etc.) brought confusion and confusion to the legal proceedings, the introduction of the possibility of "knocking out" testimony under torture created grounds for abuse and bias. At the same time, the adversarial nature of the process was established and the need for the verdict to be based on specific articles of the law corresponding to the case under consideration.

Military reforms
from 1699
The introduction of recruitment, the creation of the navy, the establishment of the Military Collegium, which was in charge of all military affairs. Introduction with the help of the "Table of Ranks" of military ranks, uniform for all of Russia. Creation of military-industrial enterprises, as well as military educational institutions. Introduction of army discipline and military regulations.
With his reforms, Peter 1 created a formidable regular army, numbering up to 212 thousand people by 1725, and a strong navy. Subdivisions were created in the army: regiments, brigades and divisions, in the navy - squadrons. Many military victories were won. These reforms (although ambiguously assessed by different historians) created a springboard for the further success of Russian weapons.

Church reform
1700-1701 ; 1721
After the death of Patriarch Adrian in 1700, the institution of the patriarchate was actually liquidated. In 1701, the management of church and monastery lands was reformed. Peter 1 restored the Monastic order, which controlled church revenues and the trial of the monastery peasants. In 1721, the Spiritual Regulations were adopted, which actually deprived the church of independence. To replace the patriarchate, the Holy Synod was created, whose members were subordinate to Peter 1, by whom they were appointed. Church property was often taken away and spent on the needs of the emperor.
The church reforms of Peter 1 led to the almost complete subordination of the clergy to secular power. In addition to the elimination of the patriarchate, many bishops and ordinary clergy were persecuted. The church could no longer pursue an independent spiritual policy and partly lost its authority in society.

Financial reforms
Almost the entire reign of Peter 1
The introduction of many new (including indirect) taxes,

Mikhail basmanov

Completing the destruction of the empire of Great Tartaria, he set about military reform in a Western manner. Established a mechanism for obtaining material income from the Christian church. Introduced serfdom, while in Europe they got rid of it. He allowed many foreigners (including the military) into the Russian Empire with privileges. Previously, they were few allowed into the empire. And their theft and corruption. The beginning of a large-scale rewriting of the history of the empire of Great Tartaria.

Olya Kireeva

As you know, Peter I opened a window to Europe, forced the boyars to shave their beards and enlightened the dark Russian people. This emperor was immensely respected in the Soviet period, but in recent history its role in the life of the country is assessed very ambiguously. A relatively objective assessment of what Peter I did for Russia can be seen from his completed reforms.
Under Peter I Russian kingdom became Russian Empire as a result of victory in the Northern War and gaining access to the Baltic Sea. Since that time (1721), the country has been actively involved in foreign policy games.
The Byzantine chronology was replaced by the era "from the birth of Christ", New Year began to be celebrated on January 1.
The conservative Boyar Duma was replaced by the Governing Senate, to which collegiums (ministries) were subordinate, all document flow was standardized, office work was brought to a single scheme.
The fiscal department was called upon to control the activities of the bureaucratic apparatus.
The territory of the country was divided into 8 provinces, in each of which a local vertical of power was created, and then each province into 50 provinces.
The regular army of the country was replenished first with foreign officers, and then with Russian nobles - graduates of navigation, engineering and artillery schools. A powerful military fleet was created, the Naval Academy was opened.
The church hierarchy was transferred to the complete subordination of the Senate, instead of the patriarch, the Holy Synod, which swore allegiance to the emperor, was in charge of managing the church vertical.
The land and peasants assigned to the estate became the full property of the nobles and landlords, free peasants became the property of the state.
Primary education became compulsory for all children of the boyars.
All representatives of the nobility were obliged to carry out public service.
A “Table of Ranks” appeared, allowing you to build a career regardless of class origin: an official who reached the 8th grade could receive personal nobility.
Instead of household taxes, poll taxes began to be levied; for the first time, a poll census of the population was carried out.
The main currency was the penny.
Petersburg was built (founded in 1703).
233 industrial enterprises were built.