1. Political, economic and operational situation in the country. Organization of activities of the ECU VChK - OGPU for the protection of the economic security of the state The First World War and civil war caused enormous material damage to the domestic economy. At the turn of 1920–1921.

Persian Empire (Achaemenid Empire, 550 - 330 BC) Cyrus II is considered the founder of the Persian Empire. He began his conquests in 550 BC. e. from the subjugation of Media, after which Armenia, Parthia, Cappadocia and the Lydian kingdom were conquered. Did not become an obstacle to the expansion of the empire of Cyrus and Babylon, whose powerful walls fell in 539 BC. e. Conquering neighboring territories, the Persians tried not to destroy the conquered cities, but, if possible, to preserve them. Cyrus restored the captured Jerusalem, as well as many Phoenician cities, by facilitating the return of the Jews from the Babylonian captivity. The Persian Empire under Cyrus stretched its possessions from Central Asia to the Aegean Sea. Only Egypt remained unconquered. The country of the pharaohs submitted to the heir of Cyrus Cambyses II. However, the empire reached its heyday under Darius I, who switched from conquests to domestic politics. In particular, the king divided the empire into 20 satrapies, which completely coincided with the territories of the occupied states. In 330 B.C. e. the weakening Persian Empire fell under the onslaught of the troops of Alexander the Great.

Persian Empire - from the Achaemenids to Alexander the Great

Ancient Persia is a fearless, formidable, inexorable empire, unparalleled in conquest and wealth, headed by outstanding, ambitious and powerful rulers. Since its inception in the 6th c. BC. before the conquest by Alexander the Great in the 4th century. BC. for two and a half centuries, Persia occupied a dominant position in the ancient world. Greek domination lasted for about a hundred years, and after its fall, the Persian state was revived under two local dynasties: the Arsacids (Parthian kingdom) and the Sassanids (New Persian kingdom). For more than seven centuries, they kept Rome in fear, and then Byzantium, until in the 7th century. AD the Sassanid state was not conquered by Islamic conquerors.

Persian Empire was created Achaemenid dynasty(Map 1 "The Achaemenid Empire at its height"), which traces its origins to Achaemen, the leader of the union of Persian tribes. Persians are the settled descendants of the Indo-European Aryan nomadic people, who c. XV century BC arrived in Eastern Iran from Central Asia and from there occupied Persis around the 10th century BC, displacing the Assyrians, Elamites and Chaldeans from there.

Persian religion. In ancient times, the Persians worshiped different gods. Their priests were called magicians. At the end of the first half of the 1st millennium BC. e. magician and prophet Zoroaster (Zarathustra) transformed the ancient Persian religion. His teaching was called Zoroastrianism. The sacred book of Zoroastrianism is the Avesta.

Zoroaster taught that the creator of the world is the god of goodness and light, Ahura Mazda. His enemy is the spirit of evil and darkness Angra Mainyu. They are constantly fighting among themselves, but the final victory will be for light and goodness. Man must support the god of light in this struggle. Ahura Mazda was depicted as a winged solar disk. He was considered the patron saint of Persian kings.

The Persians did not build temples or erect statues to the gods. They built altars on high places or on hills and made sacrifices on them.

Descendant of Achaemen Cyrus the Great(c. 590-530 BC), who ruled (558-530 BC) in Pars and Anshan (Northern Elam - a historical region and an ancient state (III millennium - mid-VI century BC) BC), located east of the lower reaches of the Tigris River and northeast of the Persian Gulf, in the southwestern part of the Iranian Highlands (the territory of the modern Iranian provinces of Khuzestan and Luristan)), founded the huge Persian Empire. Cyrus founded the city of Pasargada (located 87 km northeast of Persepolis, 130 km from Shiraz), which became the first capital of the Persian state. When Cyrus, after the death of his father in July 558, became the king of the Persian tribes, there were four major powers in the Middle East: Media, Lydia, Babylonia and Egypt (map 2 “Lydia, Media and the Neo-Babylonian kingdom at the time of their capture by Persia”), which were destined to later become part of the empire. The later empire of Alexander the Great included almost no territories that would not have previously belonged to the Persians.

The beginning of the creation of the state was in 553 BC. Persian uprising against Media. Cyrus captured the Median capital of Ecbatana and declared himself king of both Persia and Media, while taking the official title of the Median kings. Having conquered in 550 BC. Media, Cyrus over the next two years (550-548) captured the countries that were previously part of the former Median state: Parthia and, probably, Armenia. Hyrcania submitted to the Persians voluntarily. In the same years, the Persians captured the entire territory of Elam.

Cyrus began to expand his possessions. First, he made a campaign (546 BC) against the rich and powerful Lydia, a state in Asia Minor. Croesus, king of Lydia, anticipated the Persian attack by occupying Cappadocia and enlisting the support of the Babylonians and Egyptians. The battle of Pteria did not bring victory to either side, and then Cyrus decided to take the initiative in his own hands and, as a result of several rapid transitions, caught Croesus by surprise at his winter residence in Sardis. Besieged in his capital, the Lydian king turned to the Babylonians for help. Only the Spartans responded to his calls, but the Spartan fleet did not have time to go to sea, when the news came of the fall of Sardis (546 BC). Croesus and his family were taken prisoner, but, according to Greek sources, he was treated generously. The Babylonian chronicler, hostile to Cyrus, claims that the Lydian king was executed.

After the news of the fall of Sardis Greek cities Asia Minor hastened to send ambassadors to the Persian king. Cyrus demanded the complete and unconditional surrender of all Ionian cities, with the exception of the seaport of Miletus, to which he granted special privileges. Soon the generals of Cyrus conquered Caria, Lycia, and then the rest of Asia Minor.

Between 545 and 539 Cyrus subjugated Drangiana, Aria, Arachosia, Sattagidia, Bactria, Gandhara, Gedrosia, the territory of the Haumavarg Scythians and penetrated into Central Asia, having conquered Margiana, Sogdiana and Khorezm there. Unfortunately, we know almost nothing about these campaigns of Cyrus, but, apparently, the conquest of these lands was not easy. So, for example, according to available information in Gandhara, Cyrus lost a significant part of his army. Thus, Persian dominance in the east reached the northwestern borders of India, the southern spurs of the Hindu Kush and the Syrdarya river basin.

Only one rival remained - Babylonia, a great power that divided the Middle East with the Medes and still controlled the Tigris and Euphrates valleys, Syria, Palestine and Arabia, as well as trade routes to Egypt and the West. Nabonidus, the king of Babylonia, did not enjoy the love of his subjects, so in 539 BC. the inhabitants of the capital opened the gates and greeted Cyrus, who entered the city. Cyrus demonstrated wisdom and generosity. The inhabitants of the Babylonian cities were promised peace and inviolability. He recognized Marduk (the Babylonian god) and was crowned king of Babylonia. Cyrus formally retained Babylonian kingdom and did not change anything in the social structure of the country. Babylon became one of the royal residences, the Babylonians continued to occupy a predominant position in the state apparatus, and the priesthood got the opportunity to revive the ancient cults, which Cyrus patronized in every possible way. Cyrus restored temples and acted as a defender of the rights of the people. The Jews, who were once taken captive by the Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar, were allowed to return from exile to Jerusalem, and promulgated in 538 BC. the decree allowed them to rebuild the Temple in Jerusalem. After the capture of Babylonia, all the western countries up to the borders of Egypt - (Syria, Palestine and Phoenicia) - submitted to the Persians voluntarily.

Mine last trip Cyrus the Great undertook against the Massagets - nomads who lived in the steppes between the Caspian and Aral seas, on the northeastern borders of his state. Here, the luck that had accompanied the Persian king for so long changed him: during the battle on the eastern bank of the Amu Darya, Cyrus suffered a complete defeat and died himself. According to Herodotus, the triumphant enemies cut off his head and threw it into a bag of blood. However, since it is known for certain that Cyrus was buried in Pasargadae, this episode is considered unreliable. The image of Cyrus left a deep mark in ancient Eastern and ancient literature. Cyrus was considered the ideal ruler not only by the Persians, but also by the Greeks. Herodotus (known as the author of the first historical treatise of Western civilization, Herodotus' History, describing the Greco-Persian wars and the customs of many modern peoples) indicates that the Persians called Cyrus "father". The popularity of the personality of Cyrus in ancient times was so great that phenomenal abilities were attributed to him (for example, that he knew his soldiers by name). Cyrus reigned for 28 years and died at the age of 70.

Near Murgab (near ancient capital Cyrus Pasargad still preserved the stone tomb of Cyrus in the form of a house, with a relief depicting the king and the inscription: "I, King Cyrus, Achaemenid." At least until the time of Alexander the Great, the body of the king was preserved in it and an eternal fire burned. During the anarchy that occurred during Alexander's campaign in India, the tomb was plundered, but the Macedonian conqueror returned and executed the robbers. However, they did not find almost any value in it, and Alexander was surprised at the modesty with which such a great conqueror was buried. When the area was occupied by the Arabs, a belief spread among them that the tomb belongs to the mother of the prophet Suleiman (King Solomon). The legend associated other constructions of Pasargad with the name of Solomon, which, perhaps, saved them from the destruction that befell other Achaemenid antiquities.

Cyrus did not name his successor, and after his death, a struggle broke out for the throne, on which for a short time was first the son of Cyrus Cambyses II, then the magician Guamata, who committed coup d'état against Cambyses. But the winner was Darius I (550-486 BC), a member of the younger line of the Achaemenids, who was proclaimed king after the assassination of Guamata (522 BC). Upon accession to the throne, he was 28 years old. In order to finally secure their rights to royal power Darius married the daughter of Cyrus II Atossa.

Darius became a worthy successor to Cyrus. He got the rebellious Persia, which he was able to subjugate. During 20 battles, in which about 150 thousand rebels died, the power of the Persian king was restored throughout the entire territory of the state. Darius' victories over the rebels are explained not only by his gift as a commander, but, to a large extent, by the lack of unity between peoples. Darius was supported by regiments of the royal guard, an army of satraps who remained loyal to him, and garrison troops, which, as a rule, consisted of foreigners in every region. Darius used these troops very skillfully, accurately determining which rebellion was most dangerous at the moment. Not being able to conduct punitive operations simultaneously in all directions, Darius suppressed one uprising, and then the same army, with the help of which he suppressed the first uprising, was thrown against other rebels.

Under Darius, the Persian Empire further expanded its borders and reached its highest power. Between 519 and 512 BC. e. - the islands of the Aegean Sea, Thrace, Macedonia and the northwestern part of India were captured. Although Darius strengthened and expanded the conquests of his ancestors, he left a mark on Persian history just like an administrator.

Darius spent a series of reforms. He divided the state into 20 administrative-tax districts, which were called satrapies. Basically, the borders of the satrapies coincided with the old state and ethnographic borders of the countries that were part of the empire. At the head of the districts were the satraps as before, only now they were appointed not from local officials, but from among the Persians, in whose hands all the leading positions of the country were concentrated. Under Cyrus II (the Great) and Cambyses II, civil and military functions were combined in the hands of the satraps. Now the satraps have become exclusively civil governors.

Darius set new nationwide tax system. All satrapies were obliged to pay strictly fixed monetary taxes for each region, established taking into account the amount of cultivated land and the degree of its fertility. For the first time, temples in conquered areas were also taxed.

The country has introduced official language , which became Aramaic, which facilitated communication between the multinational population of the country.

Darius introduced in the Achaemenid state monetary unit, which forms the basis of a single monetary system for the entire empire, namely a gold darik weighing 8.4 g. The minting of a gold coin was the prerogative of only the Persian king. Due to the fact that the darik contained only 3% impurities, for several centuries it occupied the position of the main gold coin in the trading world.

In order for the orders of the king to reach the provinces faster and more reliably, Darius established state mail.

It was also necessary to solve the issue of communication between parts of the vast empire: wide, stone paved roads. The main one led from Susa to Ephesus. A road 6 m wide and 2500 km long. called the "royal way". This outstanding engineering structure was built to last for centuries. To prevent groundwater from eroding the road, it was laid along an embankment, which either absorbed or diverted water. All the way there were 111 outposts every 30 km. They could rest and change horses. The road was guarded. It contributed, first of all, to the development of international trade, which reached unprecedented proportions at that time. Roman roads had no drainage, and this road lies on a bed of rubble and is ideal for horseback riding and horse-drawn transport.

Darius I built a new capital, Parsa, known to the Greeks as Persepolis ("City of the Persians"), which became the fourth residence along with Pasargada, Ektbatan and Susa.

Persepolis was built on an artificial platform that was erected by Darius the Great between 520 and 515 BC. and Artaxerxes I (reigned 465-424 BC).

In the royal palace there was a huge throne room, where the king received ambassadors. On the walls, rising along the wide stairs, the guard of the "immortals" is depicted. This was the name of the elite royal army, numbering 10 thousand soldiers. When one of them died, another immediately took his place. "Immortals" are armed with long spears, massive bows, heavy shields. They served as the "eternal" protection of the king. Persepolis was built by all of Asia. This is evidenced by an ancient inscription.

On the walls of Persepolis, the "procession of the peoples" that were part of the Persian state is immortalized. Representatives of each of them carry rich gifts - gold, precious items, lead horses, camels, cattle. Before the city was built, a water supply and sewerage system was developed - the first in the ancient world. The construction work was primarily done by slaves. But Darius, like Cyrus, paid for their work. The city was protected by a triple system of fortifications, including a line of walls and towers that ran along the crest of the mountain.

Darius needed to control a remote territory - northern Africa, he decides to pave the way there as well. Engineers developed a project for a canal connecting the Red and Mediterranean Seas with a length of 200 km. The dug channel was cleaned of sand and lined with stone. The way was open to the courts. Construction lasted 7 years, mainly by Egyptian diggers and masons. Part of the canal was land. Through the hills, the ships were dragged by drag. When the relief went down, they were again launched into the water. To the beginning 5th century BC. Persia became the greatest empire in history. It surpassed the Roman one during its dawn.

In 494 BC an uprising broke out on the Turkish coast, which was supported by Athens. And Darius decided to teach them a lesson - to go to war with them. But Athens is beyond the sea. And he builds a pontoon bridge over the Bosphorus on the basis of many boats, which are held by anchors of a certain weight. They have already made a solid flooring. Over this bridge, 70,000 soldiers entered Greece. Darius captured Macedonia and approached Marathon. The Greek army was 10 times smaller than the Persian one, it needed reinforcements. The legendary messenger ran the distance from the marathon to Sparta in two days (hence the origin of the phrase marathon run). The two armies were facing each other. In an open battle, the Persians would simply crush the Greeks. But the Greeks were divided: part of the army went to the Persians, and the main army, divided into two detachments, attacked from the flanks. After suffering heavy losses, the Persians retreated. For the Greeks it was a great victory, for the Persians - an unfortunate misunderstanding. Darius decided to return to his capital, but never got there. In 486 BC. Darius dies on a campaign against Egypt at the age of 64. Decorated with numerous works of sculpture, the tomb of Darius is located in the rocks of Nakshe-Rustam near Persepolis. He prevented chaos by naming a successor in advance - his son Xerxes, the last great monarch of the Achaeminid dynasty.

To stand on a par with Cyrus and Darius was not easy. But Xerxes possessed a remarkable quality: he knew how to wait. First, he crushed the uprising in Babylon, then in Egypt, and only then went to Greece. They say he wanted to finish the job started by his father. But the Greeks no longer felt fear of the Persians after the battle of Marathon. Xerox enlisted the support of Carthage and decided to attack the Greeks from the sea. The world was on the verge of a second Persian war, the outcome of which would lay the foundation for the modern world.

Xerxes is energetically preparing for a new campaign against Greece. He used all the engineering experience accumulated before. For several years, work was underway to build a canal across the isthmus in Halkidiki. Numerous workers from Asia and the adjacent coast were driven to the construction. Food warehouses were created along the coast of Thrace, two pontoon bridges 7 stages long (about 1360 m) each were thrown across the Hellespont. The reliability of the bridge allowed Xerxes to move troops back and forth as needed. For a while, Europe joined with Asia. In the summer of 480, the Persian army, numbering about 75 thousand people according to the studies of modern historians, began to cross the Hellespont. The idea was simple: to use the numerical advantage on land and at sea. The Greeks knew that they could not defeat the Persians on land and decided to lure them into a trap. They withdrew the main force, leaving only 6,000 Spartans to meet the Persians. In August 480, the Persians approached the Thermopylae Gorge. The Persian army was stuck in the gorge for several days. At the cost of huge losses, the Persians broke through the gorge and went to Athens. But when Xerxes entered Athens the city was empty. He realized that he had been tricked. For centuries, mercy to the vanquished has been the hallmark of Persian kings but not this time. He burned Athens to the ground. The next day, Xerxes regretted it, but it was too late. What is done is done. After 2 centuries, his anger brought disaster to Persia itself. But this was not the end of the war. The Greeks were preparing a new trap: they lured the Persian fleet into a narrow bay at Salamis. Numerous Persian ships interfered with each other and could not maneuver. The heavy Greek triremes rammed the Persian light galleys one after the other. This battle decided the outcome of the war. The defeated Xerox retreated. Henceforth, the Persian Empire was no longer invincible. In the battle at Salamis, the only woman took part - Artemisia - the only woman captain of the Persian fleet (Carian queen). She rammed one of her ships, doomed to destruction, and managed to get away in the confusion. Athens enters its golden age and the Persian empire becomes vulnerable. The last crushing blow will be dealt to her by the king, who has admired the kings of Persia since childhood.

Persia lost the halo of invincibility in the battle of Salamis but she still had days of greatness and glory ahead. After 15 years, Xerxes dies, the throne is inherited by his son Artaxerxes. He decided to revive the golden days of Persia. He returned to the project of his grandfather Darius, 4 decades after the founding of Persepolis had not yet been completed. He personally supervised the construction of the last outstanding engineering project of the Persian Empire - today it is called the Hall of a Hundred Columns. The 60x60 meter hall represented an almost perfect square in plan. The columns do not have the slightest deviation from the vertical. But the builders had at their disposal primitive tools - stone hammers and bronze chisels. Each column consists of 7-8 reels placed one on top of the other. Scaffolding was erected at the columns, and the drums were lifted with a wooden crane, like a well crane. Everyone was delighted with the forest of columns, stretching into the distance as far as the eye can see. Throughout the empire, hitherto unseen engineering structures were built. In 353 BC the wife of one of the rulers of the province of Caria began to build a tomb for her dying husband in her capital, Halicarnassus (Bodrum, Turkey). Her creation was not only a miracle of modern engineering, but also one of the seven wonders of the world. ancient world: tomb of King Mausolus (mausoleum). This monumental 24-step stone pyramid 49 meters high was erected by the most talented architect and theorist of architecture Pytheas. The mausoleum consisted of two tiers. The first housed a mortuary chamber, the second - a mortuary temple. Between its thirty-six columns were sculptures, and above everything towered a pyramid with a quadriga - a sculpture depicting a group of horses harnessed to a chariot driven by King Mausolus. Eighteen centuries later, an earthquake destroyed the Mausoleum to the ground. In 1489, the Christian knights - Johnites began to use its fragments for a castle, which they built nearby. A few years later, the knights discovered the tomb of Mausolus and Artemisia. But they left the burial unguarded for the night, and it was plundered by marauders, who were attracted by gold and jewelry.

Another 300 years passed before archaeologists began excavations here. They uncovered parts of the base of the Mausoleum, as well as statues and reliefs that had not been smashed or stolen. Among them were huge statues, depicting, as archaeologists believe, the king and queen. In 1857 these finds were transferred to the British Museum in London. AT last years carried out new excavations, and now only a handful of stones remain at this place in Bodrum. After 2500 years, a memorial to President Ulysses Grant was built on its model in the USA (New York). By the 4th century B.C. Persians remained the best engineers in the world. But the foundation under the ideal columns and palaces trembled. The enemies of the empire were at the door.

Athens supports the revolt in Egypt. The Greeks enter Memphis, Artaxerxes starts a war and throws the Greeks out of Memphis and restores the power of the Persians in Egypt. This was the last major victory for the Persian Empire. In May 424, after nearly 41 years of reign, Artaxerxes died. Anarchy in the country has been going on for 8 decades. Persia is torn apart by civil strife. Meanwhile, the young king of Macedonia is studying Herodotus and the chronicles of the reign of the Persian hero Cyrus the Great. Even then, he had a dream to conquer the whole world.

In 336, a distant relative of Artaxerxes comes to power and takes the royal name Darius III. He will be called the king who lost his empire. In the next four years, Alexander the Great and Darius III met more than once in fierce battles. The troops of Darius retreated step by step. In 330, Alexander approached Persepolis. Alexander adopted from the Persians a policy of mercy towards the vanquished. He forbade soldiers to plunder the conquered countries. But how to keep them after defeating the great empire maybe they remembered the burned Athens? This time they behaved differently: they began to celebrate the victory with robbery, and ended with arson. Persepolis was burned. Darius III fled, but was soon killed by one of the allies. Alexander gave him a magnificent funeral and married his daughter, and proclaimed himself Achaemenid - king of Persia, and wrote the last chapter in the history of a gigantic empire. Alexander tracked down the murderers of Darius and put them to death with his own hand. He believed that only the king had the right to kill the king. Alexander did not create an empire, but captured the one that already existed long before his birth, and Cyrus the Great created it.

Plan
Introduction
1 Description
2 Length
3 The royal road as a metaphor

Introduction

The Royal Road is a paved road known from the works of Herodotus, built Persian king Darius I in the 5th century BC.

1. Description

The fifth and eighth books of the History of Herodotus describe the length of the road that connected the distant parts of the Achaemenid state. Pointing out which cities it passed through, the historian admiringly describes the structure of the Persian postal service and the speed with which the messengers of Darius moved:

There is nothing in the world faster than these messengers: the Persians have such a clever postal service! They say that throughout the whole journey they have horses and people arranged, so that for each day of the journey there is a special horse and person. Neither snow, nor downpour, nor heat, nor even the night time can prevent each rider from galloping at full speed for the designated segment of the path. The first messenger conveys the news to the second, and the latter to the third. And so the message passes from hand to hand until it reaches the goal, like torches at the Hellenic feast in honor of Hephaestus. The Persians call this equestrian mail "angareion".

2. Length

The length of the Royal Road is reconstructed according to Herodotus, other historical evidence and archaeological data. It started in Sardis (about 90 km east of modern city Izmir in Turkey) and went east to the Assyrian capital of Nineveh (now Mosul in Iraq). Then, as it is believed, it was divided into two parts: one led to the east, through Ecbatana to the Silk Road, the other - to the south and southeast, to Susa and Persepolis.

Since the Royal Road was not laid along the most convenient route that could connect the largest Persian cities, historians believe that sections of roads laid by the Assyrian kings were used during the construction. In the east, it practically merges with the Silk Road.

The quality of the paved road was so high that it continued to be used until at least the Roman era; in the Turkish city of Diyarbakir, a bridge rebuilt by the Romans has been preserved, former part Royal road. Its construction contributed to the flourishing of Persian trade, which reached its peak during the time of Alexander the Great.

3. Royal road as a metaphor

The expression “royal road” or “royal way” became a catch phrase in antiquity, denoting the fastest, easiest and most reasonable way to achieve something. The phrase of Euclid, addressed to the Egyptian king Ptolemy, who wanted to learn the sciences, is famous: “There are no royal roads in geometry!”. Freud spoke of dreams as "the royal road to the unconscious."

In Christian theology, the expression "royal way" has been used as a metaphor for moderation. An excerpt from an article by Hieromonk Seraphim Rose:

“The doctrine of this “royal path” is explained by St. Basil the Great: “He is right in heart, whose thought does not deviate either into excess or into deficiency, but is directed only towards the middle of virtue.” But, perhaps, this teaching was most clearly expounded by the great Orthodox father of the 5th century, St. John Cassian. He faced a task similar to the one facing Orthodoxy today: to expound the pure teaching of the Eastern Fathers to the peoples of the West, who were then spiritually immature and did not yet understand the depth and subtlety of the spiritual teaching of the Orthodox East. In applying this teaching to life, they tended either to be relaxed or too strict. St. Cassian expounds the Orthodox teaching on the “royal path” in his discourse “On Sobriety”: “With all our strength and with all the effort, we must strive to acquire, through humility, the good gift of sobriety, which can keep us intact from excess on both sides. . For, as the fathers say, extremes exist on both sides - on the right there is a danger of being deceived by excessive abstinence, and on the left - to be carried away into carelessness and relaxation. And the temptation from the “right” is even more dangerous than from the “left”. “Excessive abstinence is more harmful than saturation, because through repentance one can pass from the latter to a correct understanding, but not from the former” (that is, because pride in one’s “virtue” stands in the way of repentant humility, which can serve the cause of salvation).

John Cassian, in his teaching on the royal path, speaks of overstressed preservation of oneself from excessive abstinence and relaxation, but then the royal path began to mean moderation among the Orthodox, which can hardly be distinguished from lukewarmness.