Jelme
Mukhali
Khubilai
Khasar
Boorchu
Sorgan Shira

The Black Khitan occupied a dominant position in the region of Central Asia in the 12th century, inflicting a crushing defeat on the Seljuks of Sultan Sanjar to the Karakhanids in the battle of Katvan. However, their empire was soon weakened by constant uprisings and internecine wars, which made possible the rapid conquest of the Khitan empire in 1211 by the Naimans led by Khan Kuchluk, with the active support of Khorezmshah Muhammad, who had previously paid tribute to the Kara-Kitais, with whom Kuchluk concluded an alliance against his overlord.

Kuchluk, by that time hiding from the Mongols of Genghis Khan, received asylum at the court of the gurkhan Chzhulhu and permission to gather the remnants of the army defeated at the Irtysh, which, however, did not prevent him from usurping the throne, as soon as he got a fairly strong army under his hand.

After a short but decisive military campaign, the allies were left with a big win, and the gurkhan was forced to give up power in favor of an uninvited guest. In 1213, the gurkhan Chzhulhu died, and the Naiman khan became the sovereign ruler of Semirechye. Having become an irreconcilable opponent of Khorezm, Kuchluk began to persecute Muslims in his possessions, which aroused the hatred of the settled population of Zhetysu. Karluk Khan Arslan Khan, and then the ruler of Almalyk Buzar moved away from the Naimans and declared themselves subjects of Genghis Khan.

The Naiman prince undertook several campaigns against Buzar, then in search of help he submitted to Genghis Khan. During the hunt, Buzar was captured by Kuchluk, who then unsuccessfully besieged Almalyk. In response, the vassals of Genghis Khan turned to him for help. In 1216, Genghis Khan sent a 20,000-strong detachment led by Jebe to punish the fugitive Naiman Khan. In connection with the approach of the Mongol detachment, Kuchluk lifted the siege of the city, killed Buzar and returned to Kashgar.

The Mongols conquered Semirechye and Eastern Turkestan, which were owned by Kuchluk. In the very first battle, Jebe defeated the Naimans. The Mongols allowed Muslims to public worship, which was previously prohibited by the Naimans, which contributed to the transition of the entire settled population to the side of the Mongols. After the cruel arbitrariness of Kuchluk, the people of Kashgar, Yarkend and Khotan considered the arrival of the Mongols "one of the graces of Allah." The inhabitants of Balasagun opened the gates to the Mongols, for which the city received the name Gobalyk - "meek city". Kuchluk, unable to organize resistance, fled to the Pamir Mountains, Badakhshan, where he was caught and killed. The road to Khorezm was opened before Genghis Khan.

War with Khorezm

The enraged Genghis Khan demanded the extradition of Kaiyr Khan, but the Khorezmshah, fearing the wrath of the Kangly nobility, refused. Instead of fulfilling the demand, Muhammad beheaded one of the ambassadors of the Mongol Khan, and let the rest go, after cutting off their beards.

In the spring of 1219, without completing the conquest of China, Genghis Khan sent troops to the west.

Preparing the parties for war

At the top of the Khwarezmian nobility, opinions were divided on the question of how to counter the upcoming Mongol invasion. Emergency Assembled Supreme state council failed to develop a reasonable plan of military action. The option of a military campaign to meet the Mongolian army on the northeastern borders of the state was proposed, but, apparently, was not implemented. Imam Shihab ad-Din Khivaki, an associate of the Khorezmshah and the head of the Shafiites of Khorezm, proposed to collect civil uprising and with all the fighting forces to meet the enemy on the banks of the Syr Darya. Other plans for military operations were also proposed, but the Sultan chose the tactics of passive defense.

Khorezmshah and the dignitaries and generals who supported him, underestimating the Mongols' siege art, relied on the fortress of the cities of Maverannahr. The Shah decided to concentrate the main forces on the Amu Darya, reinforcing them with militias from neighboring provinces. Mohammed and his commanders, sitting in the fortresses, expected to attack the Mongols after they had scattered around the country in search of prey.

Powerful garrisons were located in large cities of the northeastern part of the state, a wall was built around Samarkand and a ditch was dug, although Mohammed doubted the effectiveness of defensive structures. It was planned to concentrate most of the troops southwest of the Amu Darya, where the main center of resistance was to be located.

Before the outbreak of hostilities, the Mongols conducted a deep large-scale reconnaissance of the enemy forces. When all the reports of informants were brought together at the headquarters of the Mongol Khan, it was decided to rely on the surprise and mobility of the Mongol troops.

In the summer of 1219, Genghis Khan prepared, according to various sources, from 150 to 200 thousand people for a campaign against Khorezm. The Khorezm Sultan Mohammed could easily collect and put up against the conquerors from the east twice big army. However, these were poorly trained, poorly disciplined detachments, moreover, Muhammad was afraid of his own emirs, who at any moment could revolt against him.

The beginning of the war

The historian Ibn al-Athir characterizes the Mongol invasion in Central Asia as follows: “What I am about to embark on contains a narration of the most terrible event, and the greatest misfortune that times have ever undergone, and which engulfed all created [by God], and especially Muslims...Perhaps people will never see such a disaster until the end of the existence of the universe...This people came from the outskirts of as-Sin. They rushed to the cities of Turkestan, such as Kashgar and Balasagun ... from there - to the cities of Maverannahr, such as Bukhara, Samarkand and others ... Then they crossed over to Khorasan, captured and devastated it, destroying [cities], killing and robbing. From there they marched to Rey, Hamadan, and the country of Jibal with its cities as far as the borders of Iraq. Then they rushed to the cities of Azerbaijan and Arran, destroyed them and killed most of their inhabitants. Only a few of them were saved, left homeless. And all this in less than a year! This has never been known before."

In 1219, Genghis Khan personally went on a campaign with all his sons and with the main military forces. The conqueror's army was divided into several parts. One was commanded by his sons Chagatai and Ogedei, left by their father to besiege Otrar; the second was headed by the eldest son - Jochi. His main goal was the conquest of Sygnak and Dzhend. The third army was sent to Khujand. The main forces, led by Genghis Khan and his son Tolui, were to capture Samarkand.

The siege of Otrar by the forces of several tumens began in September 1219 and lasted about five months. Kaiyr Khan, knowing that the Mongols would not spare him, desperately defended himself. The betrayal of one of the commanders hastened the fall of Otrar. Leaving the city gates at night, he surrendered to the Mongols. Through the same gate, the besiegers broke into the city. Part of the troops and residents locked themselves in the fortress and continued to defend themselves. Only a month later the Mongols were able to take the citadel. All its defenders were killed, the fortress was destroyed, Kaiyr Khan was executed, and the city was razed to the ground after being plundered. The captives (khashar) from Otrar were then used in the assault on Khujand and Samarkand.

The detachments of Jochi, who made campaigns along the Syr Darya, in the spring of 1220 approached Sygnak. The siege lasted seven days, after which the Mongols broke into the city and destroyed all its fortifications. In a short time, Uzgen, Barchynlykent and Dzhend submitted to the Mongols. A 10,000-strong detachment took Yangikent and headed for the lower reaches of the Syr Darya, mobilized 10,000 Turkmens there. They revolted, were partly defeated, and partly retreated south towards Merv. The main forces of Jochi were located in the Jend area.

The tactics of the Mongols in relation to the population of cities

If the city was able to be taken by storm after stubborn resistance, the Mongol commanders carried out a "general massacre" (Arabic-Persian, Katl-i Amm), and the remaining inhabitants, after driving them out into the field, were divided among the soldiers, who turned them into slavery. So it was in Otrar, Sygnak, Ashnas, Termez, Nisa, Balkh, Nishapur, Sabzavar, Tus, Gurganj, Herat (during the second capture after the uprising) and in other places. Sometimes, along with the cities, their rural districts were also cut out. After the massacre, the captured scribes were forced to count the number of those killed. According to Juvaini, after the massacre in Merv, the count of the dead continued for 13 days.

The siege of Khujand and the heroism of Temur Malik

In 1220, the third army of 5 thousand people. took Benakent and surrounded Khojent, also located on the Syr Darya. During the siege, the number of Mongol troops increased to 20 thousand people, the number of prisoners used during the siege - up to 50 thousand people. Temur-Malik, who led the defense of the island fortress, sailed down the Syr Darya. The Mongols organized the persecution, and when Timur-Melik reached the area where the Jochi troops were located, he was forced to land on the left bank of the river and was able to evade persecution in battle, then kill the Mongol governor in Yangikent. As the historian Rashid ad-Din describes, “Timur Melik was left with a small number of people. He still showed resilience and did not give up. When these were also killed, he had no weapons left, except for three arrows, one of which was broken and without a tip. He was pursued by three Mongols; he blinded one of them with an unheaded arrow, which he shot, and to the others he said: “There are two arrows left according to the number of you. I'm sorry for the arrows. You'd better go back and save your life." The Mongols turned back, and he reached Khorezm and again prepared for battle.

The siege and destruction of the inhabitants of Bukhara

The fourth army, led by the ruler of the Mongols himself and his son Tolui, approached Bukhara (garrison, according to various sources, 3 thousand or 20 thousand people), which, after a short siege, fell into the hands of the Mongols in March 1220. The inhabitants were subjected to severe violence, and the city was plundered, destroyed and burned by the Mongols, the captives were sent to the siege of Samarkand. The historian Ibn al-Athir describes the events as follows: "After Chinggis Khan freed himself from the capture of the fortress [Bukhara], he ordered to rewrite all the main persons and elders of the city .... Then he ordered [the inhabitants of Bukhara] to leave the city. They left , deprived of their property. None of them had anything left but the clothes that he was wearing. The infidels entered the city and began to rob and kill anyone [of those who did not leave] who they found. [Genghis Khan] surrounded [men] Muslims and ordered his people to divide them among themselves, which they did. It was a terrible day, a day of continuous sobs of men, women and children. ] “was torn to shreds.” Bukhara became “destroyed to the ground” .

Attack on Samarkand and killings of its inhabitants

Leaving Bukhara in ruins, Genghis Khan went through the valley of Sogdiana to Samarkand (garrison, according to various sources, 40 thousand or 110 thousand people; 20 war elephants). On the third day, part of the clergy opened the gates for him and surrendered the city without a fight. 30 thousand Kangl warriors, who were the support of Khorezmshah Muhammad and his mother Turkan Khatun, were executed by the Mongols. As the historian Ibn al-Athir wrote: “On the fourth day they announced in the city that the entire population should come out to them, and if anyone slows down with this, they will kill him. All the men, women and children came out to them, and they did the same to them as they did to the inhabitants of Bukhara - they committed robberies, murders, deportation into captivity and all kinds of atrocities. Entering the city, they plundered it and burned the cathedral mosque, and left the rest as it was. They raped girls and subjected people to all kinds of torture, demanding money. Those who were not fit to be driven into captivity, they killed.

Campaign to Balkh and extermination of its inhabitants

Capture of Merv

In 1220, the largest city of Khorasan, Merv, was captured. The historian Ibn al-Athir gives the following information: “Then [the son of Genghis Khan] sat on a golden seat and ordered to bring those soldiers whom he had captured. They were brought and executed, and people looked at them and wept. As for the common people, the infidels divided among themselves men, women and children and their property. Because of the [terrible] cries, sobs and groans, [this day was like the coming day of the terrible judgment, about which it is said:] “And this is the day that they will see!”. They grabbed the rich, beat them and tortured them in every possible way, soliciting money. It is possible that one of them died from a severe beating, [although] he had nothing left with which he could pay off.

Escape of Khorezmshah Ala ad-Din Muhammad

Having lost the war without a fight and having no support, Muhammad fled to one of the deserted islands of the Caspian Sea, where he died in the village of Astara in February 1221, transferring power to his son Jalal-ad-Din. Three tumens led by Jebe, Subedei-bagatur and Tohuchar-noyon pursued Muhammad. Passing through the possessions of Khan-Melik, Tohuchar, in violation of the preliminary agreement, began to rob and capture the inhabitants, as a result of which he was recalled by Genghis Khan and demoted.

The assault on Urgench and the courage of Naj ad-din Kubra

Genghis Khan did not go further than Samarkand, but sent Tolui with a 70,000-strong army to conquer Khorasan, and at the beginning of 1221, a 50,000-strong army of Jochi, Chagatai and Ogedei approached the capital of Khorezm, the city of Urgench. After a seven-month siege, the Mongols took it, defeated it, and took the inhabitants into captivity. As the historian Rashid-ad-din wrote, “the Mongols fought fiercely and took quarter after quarter and palace after palace, demolished and burned them, until within seven days they took the whole city in this way. [Then] they drove everyone into the steppe at once people, separated from them about a hundred thousand artisans and sent [them] to the eastern countries. Young women and children were driven away in full, and the rest of the people were divided among the soldiers to be killed. They say that for every Mongol there were twenty-four people, the number of warriors [of the Mongols] was more than fifty thousand. In short, they killed everyone and the army [of the Mongols] was engaged in flood and plunder. At once they destroyed the remains of houses and quarters.

Genghis Khan heard about the sheikh of the sheikhs, the pole of poles Najm-ad-din Kubra, and he sent him to say: “I will betray Khorezm to be beaten and plundered. That saint of his time needs to leave the environment of the Khorezmians and join us!”. The sheikh, in response, said: “For seventy years now, I have been content and endure the bitterness and sweetness of fate in Khorezm with these people. Now that the time [has come] for the descent of troubles, if I run away and leave him, it will be far from the path of nobility and generosity! . Najm ad-din Kubra died during the storming of the city.

As Juvaini wrote: "The inhabitants of the city fortified themselves in the streets and quarters; on every street they started fighting, and near each passage they set up barriers. The [Mongolian] army burned their houses and quarters with vessels of oil and sewed people together with arrows and cannonballs" . When the city was captured, the surviving inhabitants were driven into the field. Artisans were separated and taken into slavery (according to Juvaini, more than 100 thousand), as well as young women and children, and other residents were divided among the soldiers, and, according to Juvaini, each warrior had 24 people, and they were all killed with "axes, picks, sabers, maces." After that, the Mongols opened the dams, the water of the Amu Darya gushed and flooded the entire city, so that the people hiding in various shelters died, and "not one of the inhabitants survived."

Conquest of Eastern Iran

Meanwhile, Tolui, together with his army, entered the province of Khorasan and took Nessa by storm, after which he appeared in front of the fortress walls of Merv. Near Merv, prisoners from almost all the cities previously captured by the Mongols were used. Taking advantage of the betrayal of the inhabitants of the city, the Mongols captured Merv and, in their usual manner, plundered and burned the city in April 1221.

From Merv Tolui went to Nishapur. For four days, its inhabitants fought desperately on the walls and streets of the city, but the forces were unequal. The city was taken, and, with the exception of four hundred artisans who were left alive and sent to Mongolia, the rest of the men, women and children were brutally killed. Herat opened its gates to the Mongols, but this did not save him from ruin. At this stage of his advance through the cities of Asia, Tolui received an order from his father to join his army in Badakhshan.

Jalal ad-Din's struggle with the Mongols

On the territory of Afghanistan, the fight against Genghis Khan was led by the son of Ala ad-din Muhammad II of Khorezmshah (1200-1220), Jalal ad-din, who was the ruler of the Ghazni inheritance. He gathered a considerable army. In Garchistan (a region in the upper reaches of the Murgab), Khan-Malik (from the Turkmens) joined him, as well as one of the major Turkmen leaders, Seif ad-din, who had a 40,000-strong army. Upon arrival in Ghazni, Timur-Malik and Amin al-mulk, Gur emirs and, finally, a detachment of Afghan soldiers led by Muzaffar-Malik joined him with their detachments. Marching out in the summer of 1221 to meet Genghis Khan, Jalal ad-din camped near the village of Parvan. He made a successful attack on a large detachment of Mongol troops besieging the fortress of Valiyan, and utterly defeated it.

Alarmed by the defeat of his troops, information about which could inspire and raise against the Mongols the population of the regions conquered by him and his sons, Genghis Khan sent a large detachment of troops (30-40 thousand) against Jalal ad-din, led by one of his experienced commanders, Shigi- Khutuhu-noyon (Shigi-Kutuk). Jalal-ad-Din, having gathered a 70,000th army, inflicted a defeat on a 30,000th detachment of Mongols led by Shigi-Kutuk at Pervan.

Genghis Khan, who at that time was tied up by the siege of Talkan, soon took possession of the strong city and could himself oppose Jalal ad-Din with the main forces; its rear was provided by the detachment of Tolui in Khorasan. The leader of the Mongols, at the head of a 30,000th army, overtook Jalal-ad-Din in December 1221 on the banks of the Indus River. The Khorezmian army numbered 50,000 people. The Mongols carried out a detour through the difficult rocky terrain and struck the Khorezmians in the flank. Genghis Khan also brought into battle the elite guards unit of the “bagaturs”. The army of Jalal-ad-Din was defeated, and he himself with 4 thousand soldiers escaped by swimming.

In pursuit of the young sultan, who this time fled to Delhi, Genghis Khan sent a 20,000-strong army. After devastating the provinces of Lahore, Peshawar and Melikpur, the Mongols returned to Ghazni. For another 10 years, Jalal-ad-Din fought the Mongols until he died in Anatolia in 1231.

For three years (1219-1221), the kingdom of Muhammad Khorezmshah, which stretched from the Indus to the Caspian Sea, fell under the blows of the Mongols, its eastern part was conquered.

When studying this topic, the following questions of the plan should be highlighted:

1. Creation of the Mongolian state by Genghis Khan. Code of Laws "Yaso".

2. The invasion of the Mongols in Central Asia. Fight against the conquerors. Jalaletdin Manguberdy, Temur Malik, Nazhmiddin Kubro.

3. Socio-political situation in the Chagatai ulus in the XIII-XIV centuries.

AT early XII 1st century under the ruler Muhammad, the territory of the state of Khorezmshahs included Movarounnahr, directly Khorezm, the space modern Afghanistan- most of Iran. Formally, it was a centralized state, but the "local" feudal lords, conditionally recognizing the power of the Khorezmshah, independently managed their possessions.

During the reign of Khorezmshah Muhammad, a number of reasons significantly weakened the central government. These are constant wars to conquer new territories, which required more and more expenses. As a result of this, the kharaj (land tax), instead of once, was often collected from the peasants three times. This situation caused strong discontent among the population. This is also the endless palace intrigues waged by the power-hungry mother of Khorezmshah Turkan - khatun. Being the daughter of one of the Kipchak governors, she, in an effort to concentrate power in her hands, set the Kipchak governors against the Khorezmshah. The basis of the army, Muhammad was the Kipchak tribes. Therefore, the discord brought about did not contribute to the strengthening central government. Mutual distrust constantly grew between the Khorezmshah and the population of the country, which also led to the weakening of the externally powerful state. In this situation, the Mongol invasion of Central Asia began.

Until the beginning of the XIII century. In Mongolia, heterogeneous tribes were settled and tribal relations dominated. The main occupation of the nomads was cattle breeding and hunting. Barter trade with neighboring tribes was also developed. At the beginning of the XIII century. Temujin united these heterogeneous clans (Naimans, Tatars, etc.) and created a powerful military-feudal nomadic empire. In 1206, at the kurultai, he proclaimed himself the ruler - Genghis Khan ("ruler of the ocean"). The legal basis of the association was the general code of laws of the Mongols "Yaso". In accordance with it, each elected khan was obliged to comply with the laws of Yaso, otherwise he could be overthrown. According to Yaso, religious tolerance was affirmed, including during the war. Mercy was guaranteed for women (but, as historical sources testify, this rule was constantly violated). Genghis Khan, relying on Yaso, paid special attention to strict observance of discipline. For any deviation from the customs and the shown fault, the most severe punishment was due - death. As a measure to stimulate conquest during military campaigns, the warrior was required to ruthlessly exterminate opposing enemies, and their property went to the winner. These norms of public law were the law for any Mongol. But at the same time, a privileged layer stood out - the Tarkhans (most often this is the military aristocracy), for which a number of exceptions were made. They were exempt from taxes. In the presence of a tarkhan letter, they could enter the khan's tent without a report. In the war, they could appropriate very large booty. And, finally, up to 9 times they were forgiven and their misdeeds went unpunished.

Genghis Khan paid the main attention to the formation of troops (more than 200 thousand people). According to the historian Juvaini, the Mongol army was divided into tens, hundreds, thousands and tens of thousands. It was mobile and very mobile. All Mongol tribes were obliged to go on a campaign on the first order.

Mongolian detachments conquered the "forest peoples" who lived along the banks of the Yenisei. The Uighurs and the population of the northern part of Semirechie submitted to the authorities of Genghis Khan. In 1215 Genghis Khan made a trip to China and occupied Zhongdu (Beijing). He took out huge booty from there - material values, scientists, artisans (turning them into slaves). He borrowed siege weapons from the Chinese, military equipment, as well as military strategy and tactics and, to some extent, social relations, which contributed to the development and deepening of feudal relations among the Mongols themselves.

In 1218-1219. Mongols troops occupied the possessions of the Kara-Kitais (Seven Rivers and East Turkestan) and came close to the borders of the Khorezmshahs, which significantly complicated relations between the two states. Genghis Khan and Muhammad began to exchange messages through merchants who traveled in caravans across the borders of both possessions. A major role in this was played by the Khorezm merchant Mahmud Yalovach. Historians suggest that along with the goods, he also sold information. However, in 1218, the embassy caravan of Genghis Khan, who was going with rich gifts to Muhammad Khorezmshah, not without the knowledge of the latter, was plundered in the border fortress of Otrar (on the banks of the Syr Darya). This served as a signal for the invasion of the Mongol troops into Central Asia, which was carefully prepared by Genghis Khan in advance.

The Khorezm state, due to the above reasons, was not ready for defense. Despite his seeming power, the Khorezmshah depended on the military-feudal nobility and did not enjoy much support from the population. Not trusting the Kipchak governors, instead of concentrating troops at the place of attack of the invaders, he broke his army into small detachments and stretched them along the line of defense. Therefore, with the help of their well-organized troops, it was not difficult for the Mongols, starting from 1219 (the capture of Otrar), to quickly capture the cities on the Syr Darya and move towards Bukhara already at the beginning of 1220. Here Genghis Khan met fierce resistance from the defenders of Bukhara, who courageously fought back for three days. But the forces were unequal. In 1220, first Bukhara fell, then Samarkand. During the conquest of these cities, the Mongols committed atrocities. So, more than half of the inhabitants of Samarkand died. 30 thousand artisans were given to the sons and relatives of Genghis Khan, the rest were used as human shields during the further offensive. Previously prosperous cities and villages were burned, destroyed and deserted. Muhammad Khorezmshah then left Khorezm and hid on one of the islands in the southern part of the Caspian Sea, where he died in December 1220.

fought heroically against Mongol invasion residents of Khujand. The defense was led by the brave commander Temur Malik. Ten thousand Mongolian troops were gathered around Khujand. But, despite the heroism of the Khodzhents, this city was also taken by the Mongols. Temur Malik pursued by him with a small number of surviving soldiers retreated to Urgench (Gurganj). There, after the flight of his father, the defense was headed by the son of Muhammad - Khorezmshah Jalaliddin Manguberdy. The defense of Gurganj lasted seven months. The garrison and the inhabitants rose to fight the invaders. The spirit of resistance among the defenders was supported by 70-year-old well-known Sufi Nazhmiddin Kubro. Subsequently, the Mongols, after they killed all the defenders of the capital and completely destroyed the city, brutally dealt with it. This happened in 1221.

Jalaliddin, together with his mentor and friend Temur Malik, again gathered an army and dealt a crushing blow to the enemy near Nisa, and then in the Balkh area. At the same time, he personally showed repeatedly unprecedented courage and heroism. After a three-day battle off the coast of Sind, Genghis Khan ordered not to hit the Sultan with an arrow, but to take him alive. Pushed back to the high bank of the river, Jalaliddin suddenly turned around and rushed with his horse into the river from a thirty-meter height. The enemies rushed after him, but Genghis Khan ordered: "He left invincible, do not touch him ...".

After these events, Jalaliddin lived for several more years and died in a battle with the Kurds in August 1231. The people still keep the memory of their hero in their hearts. It is also immortalized at the state level. Speaking at the solemn ceremony dedicated to the 800th anniversary of Jalaletddin Manguberdy, I.A. Karimov called him the defender of his Motherland, a courageous commander, a national hero who left an indelible mark on history (I. Karimov. Soch., vol. 8, p. 71) .

In 1221, Movarounnahr and Khorasan came under the rule of the Mongols. The state of Khorezmshahs ceased to exist.

The Mongol conquest brought incommensurable suffering to the peoples of Central Asia. Cities and villages were burned and destroyed. Irrigation systems destroyed. Hundreds of thousands of people were taken prisoner. Huge taxes and tributes were imposed on the remaining population.

Genghis Khan died in 1227. Even during his lifetime, he divided his vast conquered possessions into uluses and gave them to his sons to manage. Central Asia went to the second son of Genghis Khan Chagatai and from that time on became known as the Chagatai ulus (territorially it is from the country of the Uighurs to Samarkand and from the southern part of Altai to the banks of the Amu Darya). Although officially it was the possession of Chagatai, but in practice it was subordinate to the great Khan Uktai (Ogedei), and Chagatai received from his ulus part of the income collected from Movarounnahr.

The Mongols did not govern themselves in the Chagatai ulus, but handed it over to the Khorezm merchant Mahmud Yalovach. Under him, real power in the cities (in Bukhara, in particular) passed into the hands of the rich clergy (sadry) and petty melik rulers. They were given land with peasants and were given benefits in taxation. Huge land and other taxes and duties were assigned to the peasants, which were constantly growing, in connection with the farming system. For the most part, the invaders took the artisans to Mongolia, and those who remained in the region were in the position of slaves. As a result, for 10-15 years there was complete poverty of the population. This caused in 1238 a powerful uprising of the people in Bukhara. It was headed by the craftsman Mahmud from the village of Tarabi. The rebels were supported by the famous theologian Shamsuddin Makhbubi. Ultimately, despite the heroism of the one who rebelled against Mongolian yoke people, the uprising was brutally suppressed, tens of thousands of rebels were killed.

The Mongols sent Mahmud Yalovach as governor to China, and his son Masud-bek became the head of the Chagatai ulus. The payback system was preserved.

In the 40s. 13th century as a result of intra-dynastic struggle among the Genghisides, a Golden Horde, the grandsons of Genghis Khan, khans Batu and Munke, the Central Asian possession as

independent ulus was liquidated.

In the 60s. 13th century Algu Khan, another grandson of Genghis Khan, restored the Chagatai ulus again. In the 60s. 13th century Chagatai khans Genghisides Mubarek Shah and Borak Khan converted to Islam. By the beginning of the XIV century. the consequences of the Mongol ruin were not overcome. The economy was at a very low level, its restoration was hindered by heavy tax oppression and harsh exploitation of the people, which was a huge disaster for the peoples of Central Asia.

In ten days of laying the floors in the bathhouse, painting miniatures, picking mushrooms and other inactivity, social capital fell to zero. It's time to rehabilitate and make the second part of the article about the Mongol Empire, since for the first time only the formation of the empire was described. And yes, it has an interesting history. The first part can be found here http://tetja-diana.livejournal.com/42997.html and we will continue.

Central Asia and the Middle East. Dominion for the Ages

So, let's first find out what the geopolitical situation in the region was at that time. In Central Asia, then, in fact, there were only two states - the Great Khorezm and the Arab Caliphate, both quite powerful. The Caliphate had already begun to lose ground in Spain and Africa, but Khorezm stood firm. The active army of Khorezm numbered five hundred thousand (!) Soldiers. In fact, Khorezm could grind the army of Genghis Khan and not even notice. But, alas, the wrong person sat on the throne.

Central Asia at that time was a passage yard for the Turkic tribes traveling back and forth and along the way slaughtering each other and everyone they hit. Since ancient times, the Iranian-speaking population has been sitting in the cities, slowly dissolving in the Turkic waves.

At the court of Khorezm Shah himself, the tribal conflict was even more intense. Khorezm, which united all this hodgepodge, was an international state, but the two Turkic peoples were the most influential - the Kipchaks and the Turkmens. It just so happened that the positions of the Kipchaks turned out to be stronger, and the son of Khorezm Shah was thrown out to the outskirts of Khorezm, since he was the son of a Turkmen woman. Nevertheless, he retained his positions at court, and, using the trust of his father, he could intervene in the war.

Like any people of that time, the Kipchaks, despite their sedentary lifestyle, sometimes experienced a burning desire to raid their neighbors. The mood was transmitted from the bottom to the top, to the very environment of Khorezm Shah. And at one fine moment, the shah ordered: to be a campaign. And off we go...

Soon the Khorezmian army of forty thousand attacked the Mongol army of twenty thousand. The battle began, Khorezm Shah lazily sipped tea, looking at how the Kipchak units surrounded the enemy ... and ten minutes later he was already running from the battlefield with all the speed available to him. The Mongols overturned the Kipchaks, struck at the center, and only in time the reserves brought up stopped their advance.

Meanwhile, on the other flank, commanded by the son of the Shah, Jalal-ad-Din, the Turkmen units repelled the attacks of the Mongols, drove them into the salt marsh and made a cauldron. The massacre on both flanks continued until late into the night. And in the morning, when Khorezm Shah was eager to continue the battle, he did not find anyone: the Mongols successfully retreated under cover of darkness. After this battle, the Khorezmians credited themselves with victory.

The army of Khorezm thinned out a little more than half. The army of the Mongols - a little less than completely. And it was only a test of strength.

Genghis Khan offered Khorezm Shah peace-friendship-alliance. But the proud Shah of the Khan's ambassador (one of the closest advisers) killed, which actually unleashed a war.

• As for the Mongol ambassadors in general, here one wants to sob into the pillow with tears of tenderness over the genius of Genghis Khan. The fact is that the murder of an ambassador in all ages was something terrible, and even in the Middle Ages it was completely, and declaring war for such a thing was quite justified by international standards. But this beautiful rule did not take into account one “little thing” - ambassadors prone to suicide. More precisely, to death for a common cause. In general, the ambassadors of Genghis Khan behaved extremely defiantly. Inclined to defend their honor and not tolerating insults, medieval aristocrats could not help but react to these provocations, and as a result, the Mongol ambassadors were killed regularly, and each time Genghis Khan or one of his successors in his yurt rubbed his hands happily, because they became completely untied .

• Otrar

The Shah did not yet believe in the seriousness of Genghis Khan's statement, but just in case he sent troops to the border cities. And it helped him. On the way of the army of Genghis Khan, which, by the way, was very numerous, stood Otrar - a medium-sized city of commercial importance. The Otrar garrison consisted of thirty thousand fighters led by Kair Khan, one of the most adequate offspring of the Kipchak family. Otrar became a sore subject for Genghis Khan for almost half a year. The Mongols took this city only with the help of a human shield from prisoners. All that remained was the citadel, which held a couple of hundred people. The miracle did not happen - the citadel was taken after another two months. The gate was opened by a traitor.

• Khujand

Ironically, exactly those units that suffered the most during the assault on Otrar were thrown to Khojent, and they did not want to storm the walls of the new city under the arrows of the soldiers of Khorezm. Therefore, at first they themselves almost found themselves in the position of besieged. Seeing this, Genghis Khan sent more decent troops there, including the Chinese with their fighting machines. When the walls were broken, and the vanguard of the Mongols had already crossed the Syr Darya, Timur-Melik withdrew his troops from the city and began to reasonably retreat, changing cover.Most of the Mongolsrushed after him... Only two of them returned... True, only Timur-Melik himself remained from the Khujand garrison. Subsequently, he managed to return to Khorezm Shah to report on the fall of Khujand. Khojent was a rather serious fortress, located in the bend of the Syr Darya. But the garrison in it was three times smaller than in Otrar. However, this was more than compensated by the commandant - the best commander of Khorezm Shah Timur-Melik. Alas, this worthy man supported Jalal-ed-Din at the military council and fell into disgrace. But it was not for the shah to execute such a useful person, so he came up with an honorable exile for the commander.

• Bukhara

Already heard about the power of the Mongols, the inhabitants of this city decided not to tempt fate and resisted for a very short time. A week later, the city was surrendered to the Mongol troops - by the way, led personally by Genghis Khan. Alas, he did not appreciate such a gesture of goodwill, and the fate of the Bukharians was not much different from the usualthe fate of the Central Asian city taken by the Mongols. One fine morning, the entire population was driven out of the city and the selection began: specialists went to the horde, strong-looking - into slavery (each Mongol warrior carried away 3-5 people on average), good for nothing - were cut out on the spot or sent cannon fodder , in this case, the siege of Samarkand.

• Samarkand

Khorezm Shah dragged his residence from the old capital - Gurganj to this fortress. Having brought there a huge garrison and even war elephants, he began to wait for the Mongols to approach, confident in victory with superior forces.

But the Muslim clergy opened the gates of the city to the Mongols a couple of days later. Of course, the population did not escape the genocide, although the clergy themselves did not particularly suffer. The Mongols generally spared the clergy, and this pursued many goals: not to anger foreign gods just in case, to acquire at a small price not weak allies in the conquered lands, the fifth column, as in the described case, etc.

• Iran

According to the cunning plan of Khorezm Shah, while the troops of Khorezm in the cities had to hold back the Mongols, he had to collect a new, huge army in Iran. It didn't work out. Having collected only twenty thousand soldiers, he was overtaken by an army of the Mongols in approximately the same number. Characteristically, the battle ended with the destruction of both sides. Khorezm Shah finally realized that his son was right, called Jalal-ed-Din to him, declared him the new Khorezm Shah, and he himself went to an island in the Caspian Sea, where he died.

a glimmer of hope

Jalal-ed-Din

Jalal-ed-Din was the only one who understood very well what was happening with his native Khorezm and what to do in this situation. The territory of Khorezm was shrinking with each captured city, and the vanguard of the Mongols had already approached Gurganj, which again became the capital of Khorezm.

With what was left of the Khorezm Shah's army, Jalal-ed-Din attacked the Mongol vanguard, which also led a caravan with siege engines. The escort was scattered, the caravan was robbed and almost completely destroyed. The captured food and siege engines were very useful to Gurganj later, during the defense.

While Timur-Melik, who went along with the new Khorezm-Shah, was gathering a new army, attracting everyone who could at least hold a spear, Jalal-ed-Din with his flying detachment rushed around the country, robbing the caravans of the Mongols (I must say, the backbone of this The detachment just consisted of professional robbers who hunted in the desert before the war, so they knew a lot about this business) and exterminating their detachments. Local residents, seeing this, began to partisan themselves against the Mongols, and thus almost half of the conquered territories of Khorezm were recaptured. In the meantime, Timur-Melik set out from Gurganj with sixty thousand troops. It all started so well...

• Battle of Parwan

One of the few major failures of the Mongols in Central Asia. Genghis Khan sent about fifty men under the command of his half-brother to defeat Jalal-ed-Din.

Jalal-ed-Din chose a very good place - a rocky gorge in which it was impossible to carry out a cavalry rush - the main weapon of the Mongols. Khorezm units stood with bows and shot at the Mongols. By the third day, the Mongol army was so exhausted that they tried to retreat on exhausted horses. But the soldiers of Jalal-ed-Din, being dismounted, saddled completely fresh horses and launched a counterattack. The result - less than two hundred people out of fifty thousand returned to Genghis Khan.

• Battle of the Indus River

Having suffered such a deafening defeat, the Mongols became worried. Sending another army was already scary, so Genghis Khan used tactics that were still relevant for Alexander the Great - bribing the enemy's allies. As a result, the army of Jalal-ed-Din decreased exactly by half.

The commander was not a fool, and such an army was not going to butt heads with Genghis Khan. He decided to retreat to India, where he expected to request help. He retreated exactly until the river Indus blocked his path. There was no crossing, pontoons were not yet able to build, and boats and ships were sorely lacking. And the Mongols were already advancing on the heels of the Turkmens ... There was no choice. The soldiers of Jalal-ed-Din prepared for battle.

Genghis Khan and Jalal-ed-Din attacked at the same time. The first to spearhead the attack put the "mad" - the elite corps of the Mongols. The second is his flying squad. Suddenly, the "mad" were knocked over, and they fled. Genghis Khan also had to flee. But at the same time, his generals did not doze, and when the "mad" were driven away quite far, they hit the troops of Jalal-ed-Din simultaneously from both flanks.

The army of Jalal-ed-Din fell into the cauldron. But there was no easy victory, it turned out to be a meat grinder with thousands of corpses on both sides. Tellingly, Jalal-ed-Din survived. He rushed to the Indus, swam across it, after which he went to India to collect a new army. So he attacked the Mongols until his death, destroying small detachments and capturing fortresses.

• Gurganj. End

The Mongols, having already arrived with a huge army (about two hundred thousand soldiers, led by the three sons of Genghis Khan, each of whom wanted to take Gurganj before his brothers), began to storm the walls. The garrison and the militias shot them from the walls. Each assault turned into a bloodbath. Having lost fifty thousand for three, the brothers changed tactics and began to fire at Gurganj with Chinese throwing guns. But then it turned out terrible: no stones were found! The bombing ended the very next day. (Later, they came up with the idea of ​​​​cutting shells out of wood, and throwing them, soaking them in water. But that’s later.) In the end, Khan Jochi, the eldest son of Genghis Khan, managed to capture the walls from his direction, but this did not give him anything. The Mongols captured part of the city, but the garrison tensed up, counterattacked and pushed them out of there. After a difficult victory over Jalal-ed-Din, the Mongols approached Gurganj. They hoped that he, like Bukhara and Samarkand, would himself open the gates for them. But other people lived in Gurganj - blacksmiths, coppersmiths, gunsmiths, shepherds. They were smarter than the pampered merchants from Bukhara, and therefore they did not open the gates and ordered to kill everyone who wanted to do it. The garrison in Gurganj (the former capital!) Was also quite strong.

Finally, again, a certain engineer guessed to change the course of the river that flowed near Gurganj. The river washed away the already dilapidated walls. The streets of the city have turned into rivers. The Mongols swam into the city.

The Mongols suffered huge losses as they advanced. And yet, slowly, block by block, they captured Gurganj, losing great amount of people. When there were almost no defenders left in the hands of the whole city, they surrendered.

The Mongols laid under Gurganj, although mostly in it, more than one hundred and forty thousand people, in order to get a flooded and destroyed city. But still, it was a victory. Great Khorezm fell.

Such are the serious things in Central Asia. In subsequent issues, I would like to consider the relationship between the Mongol Empire and Russia (yes, that very Yoke, which, as I often hear, actually did not exist), as well as the gradual fading of the empire. But more about that another time.

In 1207-1209. the Mongols subjugated the tribes living in the Yenisei valley and East Turkestan (Buryats, Yakuts, Uighurs, Tungus), defeated the Tangut kingdom in Northwestern China. In 1211, the main forces of the Mongols, having crossed the Gobi steppe, invaded China, the situation in which at that time was favorable for the conquerors.

China only by the VIII century overcame the consequences of the crisis that engulfed it during the Great Migration of Peoples. According to the census of 754, the taxable population recovered in the country, amounting to 52.88 million people. Science and technology developed. Woodcut printing was invented - printing books from engraved boards. Gained worldwide fame

Chinese porcelain. Large state-owned workshops sprang up, some of them employing up to 500 people. In the 10th century, a compass appeared, which soon became known to Arab merchants, and through them to Europeans. From the 11th century, gunpowder began to be used.

At the same time, with the restoration of a single, centrally controlled empire (it was named after the ruling dynasty, from 618 to 907 - Tang, from 960 to 1279 - Song), traditional Chinese problems also revived. The arbitrariness of provincial governors, officials, exactions from the ruined peasantry, which fell into dependence on usurers, and the growth of large landowners were the cause of frequent peasant uprisings. They were combined with nomadic raids and attacks by Manchurian tribes.

At the beginning of the 12th century, the growing Manchu tribes of the Jurchens began a war against China. It was extremely unsuccessful for the Song Empire, which in 1142 was forced to admit the loss of all its territory north of the Yangtze River and pay tribute to the victors.

The power of the conquerors over Northern China, where the Jurchens created their own state, called Jin, was fragile. It was weakened by peasant uprisings, the discontent of the local nobility. Nevertheless, the attempt of the Song Empire in 1206 to regain the lost lands ended in failure.

The Jurchens, who did not enjoy support in the provinces of China they had conquered, were unable to organize a defense against the Mongols. Having captured the central provinces of the Jin state, Genghis Khan returned to Mongolia in 1216 with abundant booty and many slaves. Among them were Chinese craftsmen who knew how to make siege engines.

In 1218, the Mongols began a campaign in Central Asia, most of which at the beginning of the 13th century was part of the vast state of Khorezm, which also owned the lands of Northern Iran and Afghanistan. Numerous troops of Khorezm, which was a very fragile, multi-tribal public education, were scattered among the garrisons. Shah of Khorezm Muhammad(rules in 1200- 1220) more than the conquerors, he was afraid of his own subjects and military leaders and was not able to organize serious resistance. Largest cities Khorezm - Urgench, Bukhara, Samarkand, Merv, Herat - were taken by the Mongols in turn. The townspeople were mercilessly beaten, many were driven into slavery.

In 1222 part of the Mongol forces invaded the Caucasus. They defeated the Georgian troops, defeated the Alans, Lezgins, Circassians, reached the Crimea and attacked the Polovtsy, who turned to the Russian princes for help. In 1223 in the battle on the river Kapke Russian squads first encountered the Mongols.

The inconsistency of the actions of the Russian princes, the flight of the Polovtsians from the battlefield allowed the Mongols to achieve victory. However, not daring to continue the war with a new enemy, they retreated deep into the steppes of Asia.

Military tactics of Genghis Khan during the conquest of Central Asia and Kazakhstan.

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Mongol invasion of Kazakhstan and Central Asia (1219-1224), its influence on the subsequent history of these regions.

At the end of the XII-beginning of the XIII centuries. on the territory of Mongolia, a large nomadic state was formed under the rule of one of the representatives of the tribal elite - Temuchin. Initially, it was founded in the valleys of the Kerulen and Orkhon rivers, then, as a result of the unification of related tribes and the conquest of neighboring countries, the Mongolian state turned into a powerful empire not only in Central Asia, but throughout the world. In 1203 ᴦ. he defeated the Kereit, then the neighboring Naiman Khanate, in 1207-1211. the peoples of Siberia and East Turkestan were conquered. In 1215ᴦ. Beijing was taken, and by 1217 ᴦ. The Mongols conquered all the lands north of the Yellow River.

In 1206 ᴦ. Temujin was proclaimed the All-Mongol Khagan and received the title of Genghis Khan. The formation of the Mongolian state contributed to the consolidation of previously loosely connected tribes into a single ethnic group and to the cessation of internecine wars.

Conquest of Zhetysu. The state of the Kara-Khidans in Zhetysu and South Kazakhstan was undergoing a time of political crisis. The cities of Maverannahr were gradually freed from the power of the gur-khan. Karlyk and Karakhanid rulers began to pass into the allegiance of Khorezm. In 1207 ᴦ. the Kara-Khitans lost Bukhara, then Taraz. At the same time, relations between the gurkhan and the rulers of Koilyk and Almalyk worsened. Having found himself in a difficult situation, Gurkhan Zhilugu turned to Kuchluk Khan of Naiman for help.

Following China, Genghis Khan was preparing for a campaign in Kazakhstan and Central Asia. He was especially attracted by the flourishing cities of South Kazakhstan and Zhetysu. He decided to carry out his plan through the valley of the Ili River, where rich cities were located and they were ruled by Naiman Khan Kuchluk, whom Genghis Khan considered his enemy. In order to conquer Zhetysu and defeat Kuchluk, Genghis Khan sent an army led by one of the commanders - Zhebenoyon.

In 1218ᴦ. Zhebe detachments, together with the troops of the rulers of Koilyk and Almalyk, opposed Kuchluk. At the same time, the Mongols allowed Muslims to public worship, which was previously prohibited by the Naimans, which contributed to the transition of the entire settled population to the side of the Mongols. Kuchluk, unable to organize resistance, fled. The inhabitants of Balasagun opened the gates to the Mongols, for which the city received the name Gobalyk - "good city". Before Genghis Khan opened the road to the borders of Khorezm and Maverannahr.

War in September 1219ᴦ. began with the siege of Otrar. Dividing his army into several parts, Genghis Khan left one part for the siege of the city, the other, led by his eldest son Zhoshi, sent down the Syr Darya, he himself went to Bukhara.

The siege of Otrar lasted almost five months. Kaiyr Khan, knowing that the Mongols would not spare him, defended himself desperately. The betrayal of one of the commanders named Karadzha hastened the fall of Otrar. Leaving the city gates at night, he surrendered to the Mongols. Through the same gate, the besiegers broke into the city. Part of the troops and residents locked themselves in the fortress and continued to defend themselves. Only a month later the Mongols were able to take the citadel. All its defenders were killed, the fortress was destroyed, Kaiyr Khan was executed, and the walls of Otrar were torn down.

At the beginning of 1221 ᴦ. Mongol detachments approached the capital of Khorezm - the city of Urgench, which was taken after a five-month siege. Khorezmshah fled to Iran, for his pursuit Genghis Khan sent a large convoy under the command of Zhebe and Subedei. Having learned about the death of Muhammad, the Mongols went through the Caucasus to Dasht-i-Kypchak, where they encountered fierce resistance from the Western Kypchak tribes. The Kypchaks and the united army of the Russian principalities met the Mongols on the Kalka River in May 1223 ᴦ. Due to the inconsistency of actions and disagreements between the princes, the allies were defeated. At the same time, the Mongols did not move deep into Russia and turned back to join the main forces.

Military tactics of Genghis Khan during the conquest of Central Asia and Kazakhstan. - concept and types. Classification and features of the category "Military tactics of Genghis Khan during the conquest of Central Asia and Kazakhstan." 2017, 2018.