He was born on December 23, 1777. From early childhood, he began to live with his grandmother, who wanted to raise a good sovereign out of him. After the death of Catherine, Paul ascended the throne. The future emperor had many positive character traits. Alexander was dissatisfied with his father's rule and entered into a conspiracy against Paul. On March 11, 1801, the king was killed, Alexander began to rule. Upon accession to the throne, Alexander the 1st promised to follow the political course of Catherine the 2nd.

1st stage of transformation

The beginning of the reign of Alexander the 1st was marked by reforms, he wanted to change the political system of Russia, create a constitution that guaranteed rights and freedom to everyone. But Alexander had many opponents. On April 5, 1801, the Permanent Council was created, whose members could challenge the king's decrees. Alexander wanted to free the peasants, but many opposed this. Nevertheless, on February 20, 1803, a decree on free cultivators was issued. So in Russia for the first time there was a category of free peasants.

Alexander carried out an education reform, the essence of which was to create a state system, the head of which was the Ministry of Public Education. In addition, an administrative reform was carried out (the reform of the highest authorities) - 8 ministries were established: foreign affairs, internal affairs, finance, military ground forces, naval forces, justice, commerce and public education. The new governing bodies had sole power. Each separate department was controlled by a minister, each minister was subordinate to the senate.

2nd stage of reforms

Alexander introduced M.M. Speransky, who was entrusted with the development of a new state reform. According to Speransky's project, it is necessary to create a constitutional monarchy in Russia, in which the sovereign's power would be limited by a bicameral body of a parliamentary type. The implementation of this plan began in 1809. By the summer of 1811, the transformation of the ministries was completed. But in connection with the foreign policy of Russia (tensioned relations with France), Speransky's reforms were perceived as anti-state, and in March 1812 he was dismissed.

There was a threat from France. June 12, 1812 began. After the expulsion of Napoleon's troops, the authority of Alexander the 1st increased.

Post-war reforms

In 1817-1818. people close to the emperor were engaged in the phased elimination of serfdom. By the end of 1820, a draft State statutory charter of the Russian Empire was prepared, approved by Alexander, but it was not possible to introduce it.

A feature of the domestic policy of Alexander the 1st was the introduction of a police regime, the creation of military settlements, which later became known as "Arakcheevshchina". Such measures caused dissatisfaction among the broad masses of the population. In 1817, the Ministry of Spiritual Affairs and Public Education was created, headed by A.N. Golitsyn. In 1822, Emperor Alexander the 1st banned secret societies in Russia, including Freemasonry.

Emperor Alexander I

The beginning of the reign of Alexander I was marked by a broad amnesty and the repeal of a number of laws introduced by his father, Paul I.

The secret office was abolished, all political affairs were transferred to the jurisdiction of the courts, torture was banned, privileges were returned to the nobility, and censorship was weakened.

In the first liberal transformations of Alexander I, a large role was played by the Unofficial Committee (an unofficial advisory body), created in 1801, which included friends of the youth of Alexander I: P.A. Stroganov, V.P. Kochubey, A. Czartorysky, N.N. Novosiltsev. During 1801-1804. they gathered at the emperor and together with him thought over the course of transformations and reforms. The secret committee considered the issues of the Senate and ministerial reform, the activities of the “Indispensable Council” (the former Council of State, which in 1810 again became known as the State Council), the peasant question, the coronation projects of 1801 and a number of foreign policy events. All members of the Unspoken Committee were adherents of the liberation of the peasants and supporters of the constitutional order.

Composition of the Private Committee

Prince Adam Czartoryski, a Polish magnate with a European education, his homeland was annexed to Russia after the partition of Poland. He wanted to help Poland gain freedom and openly expressed his views.

Viktor Kochubey, a former ambassador in Constantinople, a longtime friend of Alexander, with whom he corresponded and to whom he revealed his most secret thoughts, sought to introduce fair laws and establish order in the country.

Pavel Stroganov. From the family of the largest rich people in Russia, who owned a huge collection of paintings. At the height of the French Revolution, he was in Paris and walked around in a red cap as a sign of solidarity with the revolutionaries. Catherine II urgently returned him to Russia, where he lived in the village for several years. Later, Stroganov reappeared at court, marrying the smartest and most educated woman in St. Petersburg, Princess Sofya Golitsyna, and began to lead the life of an enlightened nobleman.

Nikolai Novosiltsev- a relative of Stroganov - a specialist in jurisprudence, political economy and world history.

Secretly, friends drew up notes with projects for reforms that included the introduction of civil liberties, equality of all before the law and the creation of a society based on the principles of justice and brotherhood.

Alexander, the youngest of them, approved of the views of his like-minded people.

Paul I was alarmed by his son's friendship with liberal-minded young people, and he broke up the circle: he sent Czartorysky as an envoy to Sardinia, Kochubey went into exile in Dresden, Novosiltsev himself went to England, Stroganov was removed from the court - the circle broke up. But as soon as Alexander I ascended the throne, the circle revived, but already in the form of an Unspoken Committee.

The Indispensable Council and the Senate were supposed to personify the continuity of Catherine's and the new reigns, and the Unspoken Committee was a response to the challenges of the time - above all, to changes in Europe under the influence of the ideas of the French Revolution.

Formally, the Private Committee was not part of the system of state administration, but in regular conversations with its members, the "young friends" of the emperor, plans for reforms were discussed. However, neither the emperor nor his staff had a clear idea of ​​the sequence of necessary reforms.

The circle lasted until about 1804. The emperor was more and more involved in the details of government, and now he did not really need advisers. Then the members of the former Unspoken Committee took high positions in the newly formed ministries.

Activities of the Private Committee

The first laws they created were the following:

A law that provided merchants, burghers and state peasants to acquire uninhabited lands (1801).

Decree "on free cultivators", giving landowners the right to release peasants with land for ransom (1803).

The Senate was declared the supreme body of the empire, concentrating the highest administrative, judicial and controlling power (1802).

At the head of the Synod was a civil official with the rank of chief prosecutor. From 1803 to 1824 the post of Chief Prosecutor was performed by Prince A.N. Golitsyn, who from 1816 was also the Minister of Public Education.

The ministerial reform was launched on September 8, 1802 by the Manifesto "On the Establishment of Ministries". 8 ministries were approved, replacing the Petrine collegiums (liquidated by Catherine II and restored by Paul I):

• foreign affairs
• military ground forces
• naval forces
• internal affairs
• finance
• justice
• commerce
• public education.

The ministries were built on the principle of unity of command.

Education

In 1803, new principles for the education system were laid out:

• classlessness;
• free education at the lower levels;
• continuity of curricula.

The education system consisted of levels:

• university
• gymnasium in the provincial town
• county school
• one-class parochial school.

Expansion of the Russian Empire

From the very beginning of the reign of Alexander I, Russia significantly expanded its territory: in 1801 Eastern Georgia joined it; in 1803-1804 – Mengrelia, Guria, Imereti; However, the actions of the Russian troops in Transcaucasia affected the interests of Persia, which caused the Russian-Persian war, which lasted from 1804 to 1813 and ended with the signing of the Gulistan Peace in 1813 and the annexation of Baku, Derbent, Karabakh and other Transcaucasian khanates to Russia. Under the treaty, Russia was granted the exclusive right to have its own navy in the Caspian Sea. The annexation of a part of Transcaucasia to Russia, on the one hand, saved the peoples of Transcaucasia from the invasions of Persian and Turkish invaders and helped to raise the economy of Transcaucasia to a higher level; on the other hand, between the Caucasian peoples and the Russian authorities and Russian settlers, there were often quarrels on religious and ethnic grounds, which gave rise to instability in the region.

Persia did not accept the loss of Transcaucasia. Pushed by Great Britain, she soon unleashed a new war against Russia, which ended in the defeat of Persia and the signing of the Turkmenchay peace treaty in 1828.

Borders before and after the conclusion of the treaty

The Russian Empire also included Finland, Bessarabia, most of Poland (which formed the Kingdom of Poland).

Peasant question

In 1818, Alexander I instructed Admiral Mordvinov, Count Arakcheev and Count Guryev to develop projects for the abolition of serfdom.

Project Mordvinov:

• peasants receive personal freedom, but without land, which is completely left to the landowners;
• the size of the ransom depends on the age of the peasant: 9-10 years old - 100 rubles; 30-40 years - 2 thousand; 40-50 years old - ...

Arakcheev project:

• to carry out the liberation of the peasants under the leadership of the government - to gradually redeem the peasants with land (two acres per capita) by agreement with the landowners at the prices of the given area.

Project Guryev:

• the slow redemption of peasant land from the landlords in a sufficient amount; the program was designed for 60 years, that is, until 1880.

As a result, the fundamentally peasant question was not resolved under Alexander I.

Arakcheev military settlements

At the end of 1815, Alexander I began to discuss the project of military settlements, the development of the plan of which was entrusted to Arakcheev.

The goals of the project were to enable the new military-agricultural class to maintain and recruit a standing army on its own without burdening the country's budget; the size of the army was to be maintained at the wartime level, and the main population of the country was exempted from the duty of maintaining the army. These military settlements were also to serve as a cover for the western frontier.

In August 1816, preparations began for the transfer of troops and residents to the category of military settlers. In 1817, settlements were introduced in the Novgorod, Kherson and Sloboda-Ukrainian provinces. The growth in the number of districts of military settlements, gradually surrounding the border of the empire from the Baltic to the Black Sea, continued until the end of the reign of Alexander I. The military settlements were abolished in 1857.

J.Dow "Portrait of A.A. Arakcheev"

The oppressor of all Russia,
Governors tormentor
And he is a teacher of the Council,
And he is a friend and brother to the king.
Full of malice, full of revenge
Without mind, without feelings, without honor,
Who is he? A devotee without flattery
….. penny soldier.

We know this epigram of A.S. Pushkin on Arakcheev from school textbooks. And the word "Arakcheevism" for us is associated with the concept of gross arbitrariness and despotism. Meanwhile, historians of the 20th century began to evaluate his personality somewhat differently. It turns out that Alexander I himself initiated the creation of military settlements, and Arakcheev was against this, but, as an honest soldier, he did his duty. All his life he fiercely hated bribery: those caught red-handed were immediately expelled from their posts. Red tape, extortion for the purpose of obtaining a bribe were pursued by him mercilessly. Arakcheev strictly followed the execution of the assigned work. For this, the clerical community, in which the passion for bribes was ineradicable, hated Arakcheev. Most likely, it was this that created such a negative impression about him.

Pushkin subsequently changed his attitude towards Arakcheev and wrote about the message of his death: “I am the only one who regrets this in all of Russia - I did not manage to see him and talk a lot.”

opposition movement

It was especially strong against military settlements: in 1819 an uprising broke out in Chuguev near Kharkov, in 1820 on the Don: 2556 villages were engulfed in revolt.

On October 16, 1820, the uprising of the Semyonovsky regiment began, under its influence fermentation began in other parts of the St. Petersburg garrison.

In 1821, a secret police was introduced into the army.

In 1822, a decree was issued banning secret organizations and Masonic lodges.

Wars in which Russia took part during the reign of AlexanderI

Against the Napoleonic Empire outside Russia (1805-1807).

Russian-Swedish war (1808-1809). The reason is the refusal of King Gustav IV Adolf of Sweden to join the anti-English coalition. Result of the war:

• Finland and the Aland Islands passed to Russia;
• Sweden pledged to terminate the alliance with England and make peace with France and Denmark, join the continental blockade.

In 1806-1812. Russia waged war against Turkey. And as a result of the skillful diplomatic actions of M. I. Kutuzov, the Ottoman government was inclined to sign a peace treaty.

Lithograph "Alexander I accepts the surrender of Paris"

1804-1813 — Russian-Persian war.

1813-1814 - Foreign campaigns of the Russian army. In 1815, Alexander I was one of the leaders of the Congress of Vienna, which established a new European order.

The reign of Alexander 1 (1801-1825)

By 1801, dissatisfaction with Paul 1 began to go wild. Moreover, it was not ordinary citizens who were dissatisfied with him, but his sons, in particular Alexander, some generals and the elite. The reason for non-solicitation is the rejection of the policy of Catherine 2 and the deprivation of the nobility of the leading role and some privileges. The English ambassador supported them in this, since Paul 1 severed all diplomatic relations with the British after their betrayal. On the night of March 11-12, 1801, the conspirators, led by General Palen, broke into Paul's chambers and killed him.

Emperor's First Steps

The reign of Alexander 1 actually began on March 12, 1801 on the basis of a coup carried out by the elite. In the early years, the emperor was an adherent of liberal reforms, as well as the ideas of the Republic. Therefore, from the first years of his reign, he had to face difficulties. He had like-minded people who supported the views of liberal reforms, but the main part of the nobility spoke from a position of conservatism, so 2 camps formed in Russia. In the future, the conservatives won, and Alexander himself, by the end of his reign, changed his liberal views to conservative ones.

In order to implement his vision, Alexander created a "secret committee", which included his associates. It was an informal body, but it was he who was involved in the initial drafts of reforms.

Internal government of the country

Alexander's domestic policy differed little from that of his predecessors. He also believed that serfs should not have any rights. The dissatisfaction of the peasants was very strong, so Emperor Alexander 1 was forced to sign a decree banning the sale of serfs (this decree was easily managed by the landlords) and in the same year the decree “On Sculptural Plowmen” was signed. According to this decree, the landowner was allowed to provide the peasants with freedom and land if they could redeem themselves. This decree was more formal, since the peasants were poor and could not redeem themselves from the landowner. During the reign of Alexander 1, 0.5% of peasants throughout the country received freedom.

The emperor changed the system of government of the country. He dissolved the colleges that had been appointed by Peter the Great and organized ministries in their place. Each ministry was headed by a minister who reported directly to the emperor. During the reign of Alexander, the judicial system of Russia was also changed. The Senate was declared the highest judicial authority. In 1810, Emperor Alexander 1 announced the creation of the State Council, which became the country's supreme governing body. The system of government proposed by Emperor Alexander 1, with minor changes, lasted until the very moment of the fall of the Russian Empire in 1917.

Population of Russia

During the reign of Alexander the First in Russia there were 3 large estates of inhabitants:

• Privileged. Nobles, clergy, merchants, honorary citizens.
• Semi-privileged. Odnodvortsy and Cossacks.
• Taxable. Petty bourgeois and peasants.

At the same time, the population of Russia increased and by the beginning of the reign of Alexander (early 19th century), it amounted to 40 million people. For comparison, at the start of the 18th century, the population of Russia was 15.5 million people.

Relations with other countries

Alexander's foreign policy was not distinguished by prudence. The emperor believed in the need for an alliance against Napoleon, and as a result, in 1805, a campaign was made against France, in alliance with England and Austria, and in 1806-1807. in alliance with England and Prussia. The British did not fight. These campaigns did not bring success, and in 1807 the Treaty of Tilsit was signed. Napoleon did not demand any concessions from Russia, he was looking for an alliance with Alexander, but Emperor Alexander 1, devoted to the British, did not want to move closer. As a result, this peace has become only a truce. And in June 1812, the Patriotic War began between Russia and France. Thanks to the genius of Kutuzov and the fact that the entire Russian people rose up against the invaders, already in 1812 the French were defeated and expelled from Russia. Fulfilling the allied duty, Emperor Alexander 1 gave the order to pursue Napoleon's troops. The foreign campaign of the Russian army continued until 1814. This campaign did not bring much success for Russia.

Emperor Alexander 1 lost his vigilance after the war. He absolutely did not control foreign organizations, which began to supply Russian revolutionaries with money in large volumes. As a result, a boom of revolutionary movements began in the country aimed at overthrowing the emperor. All this resulted in the Decembrist uprising on December 14, 1825. The uprising was subsequently suppressed, but a dangerous precedent was set in the country, and most of the participants in the uprising fled from justice.

results

The reign of Alexander 1 was not glorious for Russia. The emperor bowed before England and did almost everything he was asked to do in London. He got involved in the anti-French coalition, pursuing the interests of the British, Napoleon at that time did not think about a campaign against Russia. The result of such a policy was terrible: the devastating war of 1812 and the powerful uprising of 1825.

Emperor Alexander 1 died in 1825, ceding the throne to his brother, Nicholas 1.

Since the relationship between father and grandmother did not work out, the Empress took her grandson from his parents. Catherine II immediately inflamed with great love for her grandson and decided what she would make of the newborn ideal emperor.

Alexander was brought up by the Swiss Laharpe, who was considered by many to be a staunch republican. The prince received a good Western-style education.

Alexander believed in the possibility of creating an ideal, humane society, he sympathized with the French Revolution, felt sorry for the Poles deprived of statehood, and was skeptical of the Russian autocracy. Time, however, dispelled his belief in such ideals ...

Alexander I became Emperor of Russia after the death of Paul I, as a result of a palace coup. The events that took place on the night of March 11-12, 1801, affected the life of Alexander Pavlovich. He was very worried about the death of his father, and guilt haunted him all his life.

Domestic policy of Alexander I

The emperor saw the mistakes made by his father during his reign. The main reason for the conspiracy against Paul I was the abolition of privileges for the nobility that Catherine II introduced. First of all, he restored these rights.

Domestic policy had a strictly liberal connotation. He declared an amnesty for people who were repressed during his father's rule, allowed them to travel abroad freely, reduced censorship and returned to the foreign press.

He carried out a large-scale reform of public administration in Russia. In 1801, the Permanent Council was created - a body that had the right to discuss and cancel the decrees of the emperor. The indispensable council had the status of a legislative body.

Instead of collegiums, ministries were created, headed by responsible persons. This is how the Cabinet of Ministers was formed, which became the most important administrative body of the Russian Empire. During the reign of Alexander I, undertakings played a big role. He was a talented man with great ideas in his head.

Alexander I distributed all sorts of privileges to the nobility, but the emperor understood the seriousness of the peasant issue. Many titanic efforts were made to alleviate the position of the Russian peasantry.

In 1801, a decree was adopted, according to which merchants and philistines could buy free lands and organize economic activities on them using hired labor. This decree destroyed the monopoly of the nobility on land ownership.

In 1803, a decree was issued, which went down in history as the “Decree on free cultivators”. Its essence was that now, the landowner could make a serf free for a ransom. But such a deal is possible only with the consent of both parties.

Free peasants had the right to property. Throughout the reign of Alexander I, there was continuous work aimed at solving the most important internal political issue - the peasant one. Various projects were developed to give freedom to the peasantry, but they remained only on paper.

There was also a reform of education. The Russian Emperor understood that the country needed new highly qualified personnel. Now educational institutions were divided into four successive levels.

The territory of the Empire was divided into educational districts, headed by local universities. The university provided personnel and educational programs to local schools and gymnasiums. In Russia, 5 new universities were opened, many gymnasiums and colleges.

Foreign policy of Alexander I

His foreign policy is primarily "recognizable" by the Napoleonic wars. Russia was at war with France, most of the reign of Alexander Pavlovich. In 1805, a major battle took place between the Russian and French armies. The Russian army was defeated.

Peace was signed in 1806, but Alexander I refused to ratify the treaty. In 1807, the Russian troops were defeated near Friedland, after which the emperor had to conclude the Tilsit Peace.

Napoleon sincerely considered the Russian Empire his only ally in Europe. Alexander I and Bonaparte seriously discussed the possibility of joint military operations against India and Turkey.

France recognized the rights of the Russian Empire to Finland, and Russia, the rights of France to Spain. But due to a number of reasons, Russia and France could not be allies. The interests of the countries clashed in the Balkans.

Also, the existence of the Duchy of Warsaw, which prevented Russia from conducting profitable trade, became a stumbling block between the two powers. In 1810, Napoleon asked for the hand of Alexander Pavlovich's sister, Anna, but was refused.

In 1812 the Patriotic War began. After the expulsion of Napoleon from Russia, foreign campaigns of the Russian army began. During the events of the Napoleonic wars, many worthy people inscribed their names in golden letters in the history of Russia:, Davydov, ...

Alexander I died on November 19, 1825 in Taganrog. The emperor died of typhoid fever. The unexpected departure of the emperor from life gave rise to many rumors. There was a legend among the people that a completely different person was buried instead of Alexander I, and the emperor himself began to wander around the country and, having reached Siberia, settled in this area, leading the life of an old hermit.

Summing up, we can say that the reign of Alexander I can be characterized in positive terms. He was one of the first to speak about the importance of limiting autocratic power, introducing a duma and a constitution. Under him, voices calling for the abolition of serfdom began to sound louder, and a lot of work was done in this respect.

During the reign of Alexander I (1801 - 1825), Russia was able to successfully defend itself against an external enemy that conquered all of Europe. became the personification of the unity of the Russian people, in the face of external danger. The successful defense of the borders of the Russian Empire is undoubtedly a great merit of Alexander I.

On March 12, 1801, as a result of a palace coup, Alexander I ascended the throne. As a child, Alexander was taken away from his parents and brought up by his grandmother, Catherine the Great. The Empress appointed the Swiss nobleman F. La Harpe as the tutor of the prince, who had a huge influence on the formation of the liberal views of the future autocrat. Trying to adapt to the confrontation between Catherine II and his father, Alexander Pavlovich was forced to maneuver between two opposing groups, which influenced the formation of such qualities of his character as cunning, insight, caution and duplicity. The fact that Alexander I knew about the impending conspiracy against Emperor Paul I, but due to weakness and thirst for power, could not prevent the murder of his father, contributed to the development of his suspiciousness and distrust of others.

Having become emperor, Alexander I fully showed himself as a cautious, flexible and far-sighted politician, extremely prudent in his reform activities.

The first steps of the new emperor justified the hopes of the Russian nobility and testified to a break with the policy of Emperor Paul and a return to the reforming activities of Catherine the Great. Alexander I returned the disgraced nobles, lifted restrictions on trade with England, lifted the ban on the import of books from abroad. The emperor also confirmed the privileges to the nobles and cities indicated in Catherine's Letters of Complaint.

At the same time, Alexander I, in order to develop liberal reforms of the state system, created the Unspoken Committee (May 1801 - November 1803), which included: P. Stroganov, A. Czartorysky, V. Kochubey and N. Novosiltsev. The secret committee was not an official state institution, but was an advisory body to the sovereign. The main issues discussed at the meetings of the Unspoken Committee were the reforms of the state apparatus in the direction of limiting autocracy, the peasant question and the education system.

The result of the activities of the Unofficial Committee of the camp was the reform of the highest state bodies. On September 8, 1802, the Manifesto was issued, according to which ministries were established instead of colleges: military, naval, foreign affairs, internal affairs, commerce, finance, public education and justice, as well as the State Treasury as a ministry.

In resolving the peasant question, discussed in the Unspoken Committee, Alexander I was extremely cautious. The emperor considered serfdom a source of social tension, but was convinced that society was not ready for radical reforms. On February 20, 1803, a decree was issued on "free cultivators", which provided the landowners with the opportunity to release peasants with land for a ransom. The decree was advisory in nature and was not very popular with the landowners: for the entire period of the reign of Alexander I, less than 0.5% of the serfs passed into the category of "free cultivators".

From the autumn of 1803, the importance of the Private Committee began to decline, and the Committee of Ministers took its place. To continue the transformation, Alexander I needed new people who were personally devoted to him. A new round of reforms was associated with the name of M. Speransky. Alexander G made Speransky his main adviser and assistant. By 1809, Speransky, on behalf of the emperor, prepared a plan for state reforms called "Introduction to the Code of State Laws." According to this plan, it was necessary to implement the principle of separation of powers (legislative functions were concentrated in the hands of the State Duma, judicial - in the hands of the Senate, executive - in the ministries). According to the plan of M. Speransky, the entire population of Russia was divided into three estates: the nobility, the “average state” (merchants, petty bourgeois, state peasants) and the “working people” (serfs, artisans, servants). All estates received civil rights, and the nobles received political rights.

The emperor approved Speransky's plan, but did not dare to carry out large-scale reforms. The transformations affected exclusively the central system of state administration: in 1810, the State Council was established - a legislative advisory body under the emperor.

In 1810-1811. the reform of the ministerial administration system, begun back in 1803, was completed. According to the “General Establishment of Ministries” (1811), eight ministries were formed: foreign affairs, military, maritime, internal affairs, finance, police, justice and public education, as well as the Main Directorate post office, the State Treasury and a number of other departments. Strict monocracy was introduced. The ministers, appointed by the tsar and accountable only to him, formed the Committee of Ministers, whose status as an advisory body under the emperor was determined only in 1812.

At the beginning of 1811, the State Council refused to approve the draft of new reforms. The failure of the whole plan of Speransky became obvious. The nobility clearly felt the threat of the abolition of serfdom. The growing opposition of the conservatives became so threatening that Alexander I was forced to stop the transformation. M. Speransky was dismissed and then exiled.

Thus, the reforms at the beginning of the first period of the reign of Alexander I were of a very limited nature, but they sufficiently strengthened his position as an autocratic monarch, being the result of a compromise between the liberal and conservative nobility.

The second period of the emperor's reign is traditionally called "conservative" in the historical literature, despite the fact that at that time such liberal transformations were carried out as the introduction of the Polish constitution, the granting of autonomy to Bessarabia, and the alleviation of the position of the peasants in the Baltic states.

External events 1812-1815 relegated Russia's internal political problems to the background. After the end of the war, the question of constitutional reforms and serf relations was again in the center of attention of society and the emperor himself. A draft constitution was developed for the Polish lands that were part of Russia. This constitution became a kind of trial step, an experiment that was supposed to precede the introduction of a constitution in Russia.

In November 1815 The Polish constitution was approved. It retained the monarchy, but provided for the creation of a bicameral parliament (Sejm). The government had to be responsible to the Sejm, freedom of the press, equality of all classes before the law, and personal immunity were also guaranteed. And at the opening of the Sejm in 1818, in the speech of Alexander I, in fact, a promise was made to introduce a constitution in Russia as well. In March 1818, the emperor instructed a group of his advisers headed by N. Novosiltsev to develop a constitution for Russia. The constitution was developed, but was never implemented - Alexander I did not dare to go into direct confrontation with the opposition.

In April 1818, Alexander I granted autonomous control to Bessarabia. According to the "Charter of Education of the Bessarabian Region", the highest legislative and executive power was transferred to the Supreme Council, part of which was elected from the nobility. Back in 1804, the “Regulations on the Livonian Peasants” were approved, according to which the sale of serfs without land was prohibited, a fixed duty that freed the peasants from recruitment duty. In May 1816, the emperor signed the "Regulations on the Estonian peasants", according to which they received personal freedom, but all the land remained in the ownership of the landowners. Peasants could rent land, and later buy it. In 1817, the "Regulations" were extended to Courland and Livonia (1819).

However, due to the oppositional moods of the nobility, who did not want to part with their privileges, the reformist intentions of Alexander I were replaced by an openly reactionary course. In 1820, the Council of State rejected a bill proposed by the tsar to prohibit the sale of serfs without land. In addition, the wave of European revolutions of 1820-1821. and uprisings in the army convinced him of the untimeliness of the transformation. In the last years of his reign, Alexander I was little involved in internal affairs, focusing on the problems of the Holy Alliance, which became the stronghold of European monarchs against liberation and national movements. It was at this time that the influence of A. Arakcheev increased, after whom the regime established in the country was called "Arakcheevshchina" (1815-1825). Its clearest manifestation was the creation in 1820 of the military police, the strengthening of censorship, the prohibition in 1822 of the activities of secret societies and Masonic lodges in Russia, and the restoration in 1822 of the right of landowners to exile peasants to Siberia. Indicative was the creation of "military settlements", in which, under the most severe regulation and control, the peasants carried out military service simultaneously with agricultural service.

Thus, the liberal reform projects on the abolition of serfdom and the granting of a constitution to Russia were not implemented due to the unwillingness of the overwhelming mass of the nobility to change. Without support, the reforms could not be carried out. Fearing a new palace coup, Alexander I could not go against the first estate.

In November 1825, the emperor died unexpectedly in Taganrog (according to another version, he secretly went to the monastery). The second son of Paul I, brother of Alexander I - Konstantin in 1822 refused to rule. Compiled in 1823, the Manifesto, in which the third son of Paul, Nikolai, was appointed successor, was kept secret from the heir. As a result, in 1825 a situation of interregnum arose.