According to scientific data, primitive people appeared about 4 million years ago. Over the course of many millennia, they have evolved, that is, they have improved not only in terms of development, but also externally. Historical anthropology divides primitive people into several types, which successively replaced each other. What are the anatomical features of each type of primitive people, and in what period of time did they exist? Read about all this below.

Primitive people - who are they?

The most ancient people lived in Africa more than 2 million years ago. This is confirmed by numerous archaeological finds. However, it is known for certain that for the first time humanoid creatures, confidently moving on their hind limbs (namely, this feature is the most important in determining primitive man), appeared much earlier - 4 million years ago. Such a characteristic of ancient people as upright walking was first identified in creatures to which scientists gave the name "Australopithecines".

As a result of centuries of evolution, they were replaced by a more advanced Homo habls, also known as "handy man." He was replaced by humanoid creatures, whose representatives were called Homo erectus, which in Latin means "upright man." And only after almost one and a half million years did a more perfect type of primitive man appear, which most of all resembled the modern intelligent population of the Earth - Homo sapiens or “reasonable man”. As can be seen from all of the above, primitive people slowly, but at the same time very effectively developed, mastering new opportunities. Let us consider in more detail what all these human ancestors were, what their activities were and how they looked.

Australopithecus: external features and lifestyle

Historical anthropology refers Australopithecus to the very first monkeys moving on their hind limbs. The origin of this kind of primitive people began in East Africa more than 4 million years ago. For almost 2 million years, these creatures spread across the continent. ancient man, whose height averaged 135 cm, had a weight of no more than 55 kg. Unlike monkeys, australopithecines had more pronounced sexual dimorphism, but the structure of fangs in males and females was almost the same. The cranium of this species was relatively small and had a volume of no more than 600 cm3. The main activity of Australopithecus was practically no different from that of modern monkeys, and was reduced to the extraction of food and protection from natural enemies.

A skilled man: features of anatomy and lifestyle

(translated from Latin "skillful man") as a separate independent species of anthropoids appeared 2 million years ago on African continent. This ancient man, whose height often reached 160 cm, had a brain more developed than that of Australopithecus - about 700 cm 3. The teeth and fingers of the upper limbs of Homo habilis were almost identical to those of humans, but the large brow ridges and jaws made it look like apes. In addition to gathering, a skilled person was engaged in hunting using stone blocks, and for cutting animal carcasses he knew how to use processed tracing paper. This suggests that Homo habilis is the first humanoid creature with work skills.

Homo erectus: appearance

The anatomical characteristic of ancient people, known as Homo erectus, is a pronounced increase in the volume of the skull, which allowed scientists to assert that their brain is comparable in size to the brain modern man. and the jaws of a skilled man remained massive, but were not so pronounced as in their predecessors. The physique was almost the same as that of a modern person. Judging by the archaeological finds, Homo erectus led and knew how to make fire. Representatives of this species lived in rather large groups in caves. The main occupation of a skilled man was gathering (mainly from women and children), hunting and fishing, and making clothes. Homo erectus was one of the first to recognize the need to stockpile food.

appearance and lifestyle

Neanderthals appeared much later than their predecessors - about 250 thousand years ago. What was this ancient man? His height reached 170 cm, and the volume of the skull - 1200 cm 3. In addition to Africa and Asia, these human ancestors settled in Europe. The maximum number of Neanderthals in one group reached 100 people. Unlike their predecessors, they had rudimentary forms of speech, which allowed their fellow tribesmen to exchange information and interact more smoothly with each other. The main occupation of this was hunting. Success in the extraction of food provided them with a variety of tools: spears, pointed long fragments of stones that were used as knives, and traps dug in the ground with stakes. The resulting materials (skins, skins) Neanderthals used to make clothes and shoes.

Cro-Magnons: the final stage of the evolution of primitive man

Cro-Magnons or (Homo Sapiens) is the last oldest person known to science, whose height already reached 170-190 cm. lower jaw no longer moved forward. Cro-Magnons made tools not only from stone, but also from wood and bone. In addition to hunting, these human ancestors were engaged in agriculture and initial forms animal husbandry (tamed wild animals).

The level of thinking among Cro-Magnons was much higher than their predecessors. This allowed them to create cohesive social groups. The herd principle of existence was replaced by a tribal system and the creation of the rudiments of socio-economic laws.

Task 19. Workshop. Option number 1

1. Ancient people had a very superficial understanding of the laws of the universe (1) and (2) when something inexplicable happened in nature (3) they were inclined to believe (4) that this was the result of the influence of supernatural forces on the world.
2. Forest rangers are called upon to prevent fires in the forest (1) but (2) if a large amount of dead wood accumulates in the forest (3) then the rangers themselves deliberately set up small artificial fires (4) to reduce the likelihood of spontaneous combustion in the future.
3. Our expedition began excavations (1) and (2) as soon as decorations and kitchen utensils were found at a depth of several meters (3) we realized (4) that we had correctly identified the location of the ancient city.
4. This autumn there are a lot of mushrooms (1) and (2) if you look closely at the felling (3) you will see several stumps at once (4) which are completely covered with mushrooms.
5. The boy knew (1) that a stern doorman was serving in this entrance (2) and (3) that (4) if you start pestering passers-by right at the door (5), you can taste strong cuffs.
6. The war was at an end (1) and (2) although almost a year remained until the end (3) but we firmly knew (4) that victory would be ours.
7. Many mistakenly think (1) that (2) if a person knows how to swim at least a little (3) then he has nothing to be afraid of (4) and he does not care about any depths.
8. And although the tone and nature of the magazine attacks were permeated with sincere indignation (1) it always seemed to me (2) that the authors of these articles did not say (3) what they wanted to say (4) and that their rage was caused precisely by this.
9. The pungent smell of nettles is mixed with the stuffy smell of lungwort (1) and (2) when you stroke the growing herbs with your hands (3) to feel their delicate velvety (4) then your hands will smell of the cooling smell of mint.
10. Dasha noticed (1) that (2) when Roshchin appeared in the dining room after the bell (3) Katya did not immediately turn her head to him (4) but hesitated for a minute.

Task 19. Workshop. Option number 2

1. From Kuznetsky Most, I drove into the confectionery on Tverskaya (1) and (2) although I wanted to pretend (3) that I was mainly interested in newspapers in the confectionery (4), I could not resist a few sweet pies.
2. They started talking about the health of the countess and about common acquaintances (1) and (2) when those ten minutes required by decency (3) after which the guest can get up (4) passed, Nikolai got up and began to say goodbye.
3. It was hot (1) and (2) if a breeze suddenly came up (3) and brought coolness with it (4), the trees nodded their branches gratefully.
4. Andrey picked up the backpack (1) and (2) when the locomotive of the train (3) appeared and motley crowd passengers set in motion (4) headed for the platform.
5. Rita was very upset because of her father's departure (1) but (2) when he promised to bring her a real big parrot (3) as they saw recently at the zoo (4) from swimming, the girl quickly consoled herself and stopped crying.
6. Ilya Andreevich understood (1) that (2) if you do not pick apples before the onset of cold weather (3) then the entire crop will die (4) but circumstances did not allow him to leave work and go to the village even for a few days.
7. Larisa never liked the sea (1) and (2) although the doctors prescribed her a warm climate and salt water (3) she again went to the mountains (4) when the vacation began.
8. The library opened at eight in the morning (1) and (2) although there were never any visitors at such early hours (3) Nina Ivanovna never allowed herself to be late (4) and even came a little earlier.
9. A belated lightning flashed directly overhead (1) and (2) while it was shining (3) I saw (4) some kind of white dot flickering on the shore.
10. The French ambassador, who found himself in the home theater of the Sheremetevs, wrote (1) that (2) when he saw the ballet (3) he was shocked by the talent (4) of the serfs.

Training tasks (A 25)

Which digits should be replaced by commas in the sentences below.

1. We know (1) that St. Petersburg is sometimes called Northern Palmyra, but (2) if you ask (3) what kind of Palmyra is (4) with which Petersburg is compared (5) then (6) not everyone will be able to answer this question.

2. The brother said with a laugh (1) that he (2) if he was lucky in something (3), then now he would not be lucky in something else (4) so ​​(5) that it became worse (6) than before ( 7) how lucky.

3. A real poet cannot be judged by one poem (1) because (2) because (3) no matter how perfect (4) its meaning is fully revealed only in the context of that (5) book (7) with internal unity (6) ) which contains all the lyrics of the poet.

4. The area (1) where we lived (2) was far from the river (3) and (4) to get to the beach (5) we had to drag ourselves through the whole city (6) in a crowded tram.

5. I now understand (1) why (2) those (3) who knew how to tell well (4) never tried (5) to write down their stories.

6. While everyone was waiting (1) for the light to come on (2) or preparing a kerosene lamp (3), I lay down on the floor of my aunt's kitchen (4) and began to read by the light (5) pouring from the screen of a kerosene stove.

7. Sometimes the ball flew into the podium (1) and (2) when someone knocked it out of there (3) for some reason everyone started laughing.

8. Kornev suddenly turned around (1) as if some kind of force pushed him (2) and (3) until Natasha left (4) tore off his hat (5) and several times low (6) and quickly bowed.

9. On the territory of Russia there are 11 time zones (1) and (2) when in the eastern regions of the country it is already 10 am on the first of January (3) then in the western regions it is still 12 am on the thirty-first of December (4) so ​​(5) that the New Year Petersburg meet a few hours later than Sakhalin.

10. When (1) something (2) comes to me that is called inspiration (3) and I see with extraordinary clarity the design of a new apparatus (4) and with extraordinary speed I make the necessary calculations (5) don’t I understand (6) that in I was possessed by a certain force (7) that did not belong to me.

Paleolithic - the first historical period of the Stone Age - the era of the existence of fossil man and also most of the animals that are partially extinct today.

The first stage of this period, the early or Lower Paleolithic (about 2.5 million - 300 thousand years ago), includes the appearance of the genus Homo, its development and the beginning of its use of tools.

Middle Paleolithic (300,000 to 30 thousand years ago)- the time of the emergence of Homo sapiens. During this period, most of Europe is settled by people. At the end of the Middle Paleolithic, people of the modern type flourish and races form.

Late, Upper Paleolithic (35 - 12 thousand years ago)people spread all over the earth. Northern and South America were colonized by people through the Bering isthmus that existed in antiquity, which was later inundated by rising sea levels. H and the planet began to be dominated by communities of hunters-gatherers.

The very process of the origin and evolution of man has always caused, and still causes a lot of controversy. Ka as a rule, most people today present the theory of evolution as simplistic and subject to little change.

In fact, modern evolutionary anthropology is the most complex and changing part of the science of man. It differs in many ways from the traditional anthropogenesis, which our teachers introduced us to, it would seem, quite recently - in the 60s - 70s of the last century.

1. Australopithecus and Homo habilis - the oldest people or extinct species of monkeys?

For a long time, Australopithecus, an australopithecine, a humanoid primate that lived in Africa about 4 million years ago, has been considered the oldest human ancestor.

His remains were first discovered in 1924 in Ethiopia. Its brain does not differ in large volumes (380-430 cc, which is slightly larger than that of a chimpanzee). Most likely, this creature could not yet speak. Probably the Australopithecus' skin was dark, and its body was covered with hair.

The structure of the skull of this primate somewhat resembled a human one, in particular, a hole for spinal cord located at the bottom of the skull, as in humans, which may indicate upright posture, this gave reason to assume Australopithecus was an early human ancestor.

Australopithecus skull

However, short legs long arms Australopithecus, they say that, despite the adaptation to terrestrial habitation, he spent a lot of time in the trees. Probably, there he began to move, standing on two hind limbs, holding onto higher branches with his front ones.

His cognitive and intellectual abilities remain unknown to us. It is assumed that Australopithecus could use stones and sticks for protection and foraging, as many species of higher great apes do today.

Gorillas crack nuts with a stone =)

There is no evidence of the use of fire among Australopithecus.

Australopithecuc disappearsabout 1.5 million years ago, i.e. they probably met with Homo habilis (Handy Man), whose appearance dates back to about 2.5 million years ago, unless, of course, habilis was just a more developed subspecies of the same Australopithecus.

Homo habilis. The most common reconstruction

The skull of Homo habilis was very similar to that of its predecessor, but contained a larger brain (approx. 640 cc) and had more pronounced hemispheres. Habilis and Australopithecus differed very little in the structure and proportions of the body. The growth of habilis was about 130 cm, weight 30-50 kg, while the arms were also much longer than the legs. The structure of his hand, has features suitable for climbing trees, however, with more developed fingers.

Skull of Homo habilis. Fragmentary reconstruction

Homo habilis is considered to be the first primate traditionally assigned to the genus Homo (People), as it is believed that he first began to work stone, creating the so-called Olduvai tools. They are pebbles with a chipped edge on one side and were probably used to cut open animal carcasses or crack nuts. Evidence of the use of fire by habilis was not found, so he most likely ate raw food.

Tools of the Olduvai culture

IN last years There are a number of researchers who believe that Australopithecus and Habilis should not be considered as possible human ancestors at all. Anatomists S. Zuckerman and C. Oksnar worked with the remains of Australopithecus and, based on the structure of its skeleton, came to the conclusion that most likely it was not upright and moved on the ground mainly on four limbs. Therefore, the above researchers attributed it to one of the fossil species of monkeys that existed in ancient times next to the genus Homo.

The discoverers of Homo habilis confidently consider him a man. Their opponents, paleoanthropologists B. Wood and L. Brace do not single out habilis as a separate species, and consider it a late variety of Australopithecus, that is, they attribute it to a more advanced, but still subspecies of the monkey. In addition, the results of a study of the vestibular apparatus conducted in 1994 by the same anthropologists may indicate that Homo habilis also moved mainly on four legs, and not at all on two, as previously thought.

2. Homo erectus is a real person

With a greater degree of probability, Homo erectus (Human erectus), which appeared about 1.5 million years ago, can be attributed to the genus Homo.

The most complete skull of Homo erectus

Estimated options for reconstruction - from ape-like to completely human.

1.

3.

The volume of his brain reached an average of 900-1000 cubic meters. cm, with a height of 150 -160 cm. He moved on two legs, made tools from pebbles, and possibly wood (Acheulean culture).

Acheulean hand ax

Representatives of this genus expanded their habitat through the development of Asia, which is confirmed by finds on the Zhoukoudian Plateau in China. Homo erectus undoubtedly knew how to think and create, creating tools that were quite convenient and practical for their time. About 600 thousand BC. e. he mastered the fire and perhaps even 800 thousand years ago he knew how to use a raft.

Such a complex interaction with objects and among themselves suggests the existence of the ability to speak and the semblance of language in the earliest species of man. What this language was now is difficult to say, but perhaps it began with onomatopoeic forms, as children do when they learn to speak. In subsequent periods, especially in the languages ​​of some ancient peoples, these imitations of the sounds of nature, the cries of animals began to mean specific concepts, for example, in the language of the ancient Egyptians, the cat was denoted by the word "mau".

The social and family organization of the erectus remains little understood for us. It is assumed that they lived in small groups connected by kinship. Social and family ties were probably unstable, and were formed for the purpose of hunting, protection from enemies, and reproduction.

The population density in that era was not high, such a number could be due to high infant mortality, hard work and a wandering lifestyle. Such a community existed mainly due to hunting, the meat of dead animals and the gathering of wild plants, from time to time practicing cannibalism, the cause of which could be a lack of protein food. Later, cannibalism became part of the religious tradition of some primitive peoples.

Whether there were ideas about the supernatural among the erectus themselves and what their worldview was, remains not completely clear. But judging by some findings, they could already have a belief in life after death, as well as worship of natural phenomena and animals.

In general, in the genus Homo erectus, many varieties are distinguished, which differ in the degree of development and time and geography of habitats. Among them are usually distinguished:

- Java man, aka Pithecanthropus,(ca. 1.6 million - 600 thousand years BC) - the earliest type of erectus, which was once considered an intermediate link between Australopithecus and Neanderthals. First discovered on the island of Java in 1890 by archaeologist Eugene Dubois. The Javanese resembled a human in skeletal structure, having a brain volume of approximately 900 cubic meters. see, but at the same time had a very primitive structure of the skull, with developed superciliary arches, a sloping forehead and a powerful jaw.

On the inner surface of the cranial lid, Dubois noticed an imprint - a section of the cerebral cortex, with which the ability to speak is usually associated.

In 1936, the remains of a Javanese man were found with tools - hand axes and cutting flakes.

Apparently, the Javanese is an isolated population that, under the conditions of Indonesia, survived until the appearance of modern people there and died out about 27 thousand years ago.

Java man. Reconstruction options

- human,synanthropus- a subspecies of Homo erectus, who lived about 600-400 thousand years ago, in. It was discovered in, where the name comes from.

The volume of his brain reached 950-1150 cubic meters. cm; the left lobe of the brain, where the motor centers of the right side of the body are located, was slightly larger compared to the right lobe, therefore, he was right-handed. The growth of Sinanthropus was about 1.55-1.6 cm.

In the dwellings of Sinanthropus (mainly natural grottoes and caves), many remains of animals and plants are found, from which it can be assumed that they were hunters and gatherers. Scientists believe that synanthropes could also hunt representatives of their own species.

At the sites of the Peking Man, thick layers of ash are found, which may indicate that he mined and / or maintained fire. For the manufacture of tools, Sinanthropus used river pebbles rolled up by water, roughly knocking them along one edge.

In c, this type of erectus is considered as the main participant in the formation. However, most anthropologists are inclined to believe that Sinanthropus was a dead end branch of human development.

Classical reconstruction of Sinanthropus

- Heidelberg Man - a European variety of Homo erectus that existed about 800-350 thousand years ago. The name comes from the city of Heidelberg in western Germany, near which, in 1907, its remains were first found. Most likely, the Heidelberger came to Europe from Africa about 800-500 thousand years ago.

heidelberg man

The structure of the Heidelberger's skeleton shows that he was upright and his height was 160 - 170 cm, with a brain volume of 1100-1400 cc. see The size of the brain and the structure of the larynx leaves no doubt that he could speak.

This type of erectus made tools from flint - axes and flakes (Abbeville culture), and possibly wood (Schöningen spears). It is not known exactly whether the Heidelberg man used fire, no traces of bonfires are found in his sites, but there are traces of burning on the points of wooden spears from Schöningen.

Schöningen spears

The Heldelbergers could live in tribes, as it is believed that they hunted large animals, and this required great team cohesion. Among their remains, jaws are found, possibly belonging to elderly representatives, completely devoid of teeth. Apparently, they were cared for and helped to survive by other members of the tribe.

When examining the remains of a hut in the south of France, which could have belonged to the Heidelbergers, traces of ocher, from which paint was usually made, were found, which may indicate the existence of a semblance of painting, or at least ritual body painting.

Some of the stone tools that belonged to this man are clearly symmetrical and made of stone of a beautiful shade, but they do not seem to be very functional, so theories are put forward that they could be made simply for beauty. All this may indicate the development of aesthetic perception in the Heidelberg man.

Hack "excalibur" from red quartzite

In one of the grottoes where the Heidelrezian lived, a pit was found with the remains of about thirty people lined with bear skulls, and a red quartzite ax was found in it. Perhaps the Heldelberg man was the first to begin burying his dead. The bones of a bear, placed in an ancient mass grave, suggest the existence of a cult of this beast, and the discovery of a tool makes one believe in life after death.

It is Homo heidelbergensis that may be the common ancestor of the representatives of the genus Homo sapiens - Neanderthals and Cro-Magnons. It is believed that the Neanderthals separated from him 300 thousand years ago in Europe, and the Cro-Magnon man is a modern man about 200 or 100 thousand years ago in Africa.

That's just where Homo erectus itself comes from (according to Wood and Brace and not considering habilis as his direct ancestor) is not clear. Perhaps his predecessor was some kind of Homo, still unknown to science?

3. Homo sapiens- Homo sapiens neanderthalensis and Homo sapiens sapiens.

The descendants of Homo erectus are the genus Homo sapiens (Homo sapiens) the only human species living today. It is distinguished by a significant degree of development and intangible, the ability to meaningfully articulate and developed.

Today, one of the species, and sometimes even extinct races of Homo sapiens, includes the Neanderthal Man - Homo sapiens neanderthalensis.

Reconstruction of the head of the Neanderthal Shanidar-I

The lifetime of Neanderthals (about 300-30/20 thousand years ago) is called the Middle Paleolithic, this period is characterized by widespread human settlement, as a result of which almost the entire territory of Europe free from the glacier was populated.

Neanderthals are distinguished by small stature (150-160 cm) with powerful muscles, a large jaw, a slightly pronounced chin, a forehead sloping back, but at the same time a protruding back of the head and developed superciliary arches. The volume of his brain was 1400-1750 cubic meters. see, which even slightly exceeds the average size of the brain of a modern person. But at the same time, it is believed that its most developed lobes were those responsible for vision and motor activity. Perhaps the nature of the Neanderthals were quite aggressive and quick-tempered. brain structure and voice apparatus, suggests that they had speech, but it might not have been very clear.

Skull Shanidar-I

The Neanderthals improved the production of stone tools, they served for processing wood and skins, planing, cutting. In addition to stone tools, bone and wooden tools were also made: spear shafts, clubs, stakes, etc. (Musterian culture).

Mousterian spear

Hunting for these people was the main branch of the economy, delivering not only food, but also materials for clothing, housing construction, and heating.

It is believed that the tribes at that time rarely or never fought among themselves. But rather, it was not an indicator of civilization - simply because of their small numbers it was not profitable for them to be at enmity with each other, and they had no claims to their neighbors regarding territorial and food resources.

The Neanderthals increased the settled way of life (in any case, in comparison with the erectus), which was supposed to contribute to the unity of human groups. People cared for sick and crippled fellow tribesmen, for example, a person who lost a limb could live for a long time, this indicates, on the one hand, that people already had some knowledge of first aid, and on the other hand, about affection between team members.

Neanderthals buried their dead tribesmen. Most of these burials are located within the boundaries of settlements, mainly in caves. The traditional funeral rite - position on the side, with legs slightly bent at the knees - that is, in the fetal position, probably symbolized that the deceased, as it were, was returning to Mother Earth.

At the same time, totemism was born - the belief in the origin of people from some animal or plant, and fetishism - the belief in the supernatural properties of objects, talismans, as well as belief in magic - special ritual actions that were supposed to bring the desired result, for example, good luck in the hunt.

Perhaps the Neanderthals already have the first works of art. They were still very primitive - repeating signs on stones, simple ornaments. Although it might not have been works of art in the generally accepted sense, and some signs for marking the territory, designating tribal communities, etc.

Mousterian ornament, may have been made by a Neanderthal

Is the "mask" from La Roche-Cotard a Neanderthal sculpture or just a fancy stone?

Recent DNA studies have shown that Neanderthal man was not a direct ancestor of modern man and represented a separate branch of evolution, having lived up to about 28 thousand years BC. Information about meetings with him or the discovery of his remains, dating from later periods (from the first centuries AD to the early Middle Ages), is disputed by most researchers.

The reason for the extinction of the Neanderthals could be a low birth rate and high mortality, possible closely related ties, climate change and, as a result, the extinction of the animals they hunted, as well as competition with modern-day people who came to Europe - the Cro-Magnons.

Reconstruction of Cro-Magnon Man

Cro-Magnons were carriers of a number of cultures of the Middle and Upper Paleolithic era.

The brain volume of an average Cro-Magnon man was 1400-1900 cm³. Height is about 180 cm and above. He had a broad and low face, a straight forehead, a protruding chin, and a narrow protruding nose. The superciliary fold is slightly developed or completely absent.

The number of achievements of the Cro-Magnon was so great that it was several times greater than the achievements of the erectus and the Neanderthal combined. They consisted in the development of communication skills, tool manufacturing technology and active adaptation to external conditions.

Tools of the Gravettian culture. 28,000 - 21,000 years BC e.

The need to preserve and increase their hunting grounds forced the Cro-Magnon man to move further and further, to the still uninhabited areas of the planet.Australia was inhabited about 40 - 30 thousand years ago. In the interval between 20-15 thousand years ago, groups of hunters crossed the Bering Isthmus, getting from Siberia to America.

Cro-Magnon culture includes another phenomenon, which, in full, manifested itself only in modern man. It's about fine arts.

Artistic creativity of that time was subordinated to practical purposes. Primitive He was convinced that objects have not only visible properties, but also hidden ones, that they contain some kind of mystical power that can have a decisive impact on life. Objects were perceived not only by their real properties - they were "good" and "evil", disposed towards a person or carrying death. The artists knew very well the animals on which the very existence of people depended, and very accurately conveyed their appearance, postures and movements. Most likely, these images had a magical purpose: to facilitate the hunt for this animal.

The further development of man was associated with the uneven social and technological progress in different regions and among different peoples, who created not one or two, but many cultures, the number of which, starting from the Upper Paleolithic, increased at an ever-increasing rate.

Problems of human evolution in modern anthropology

How paleoanthropologists work today http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CIxXzLChRWY

PS. Samples of genetic material can be extracted not only from the alleged descendants, but also from most of the fossil remains.

Place all punctuation marks: indicate the number(s) that should be replaced by a comma(s) in the sentence.

Ancient people had a very superficial understanding of the laws of the universe (1) and (2) when something inexplicable happened in nature (3) they were inclined to believe (4) that this was the result of the influence of supernatural forces on the world.

Explanation (see also Rule below).

Here is the correct spelling.

Ancient people had a very superficial understanding of the laws of the universe, and when something inexplicable happened in nature, were inclined to think that this is the result of the impact on the world of supernatural forces.

IN this proposal there is a so-called junction of unions (AND WHEN), so before putting commas you need:

1) see what connects the union And: parts of a complex sentence, and then put a comma; or homogeneous members, and then you don’t need to put a comma. In our case, they are homogeneous members, therefore, we do not put a comma.

2) make sure that the second part of the union TO is not in place of the number 3. Since there is no TO, we put a comma.

[ 1 Ancient people had a very superficial understanding of the laws of the universe and, (2 when something inexplicable happened in nature), were inclined to think], (3 that this is the result of the influence of supernatural forces on the world.)

Commas should be in places 2, 3 and 4.

Answer: 234

Rule: Task 20. Punctuation marks in a sentence with different types connections

TASK 20 USE. PUNCUNCATION IN A SENTENCE WITH DIFFERENT CONNECTIONS

In task 20, students should be able to punctuate complex sentence, consisting of 3-5 simple.

This the hardest task checks the ability of the graduate to put into practice the following knowledge:

1) at the level of a simple sentence:

Understanding that there is no proposal without a basis;

Knowledge of the features of the basis of one-part sentences (impersonal, etc.)

The understanding that in simple sentence there can be homogeneous predicates and subjects, punctuation marks between which are placed according to the rules of homogeneous members.

2) at the level of a complex sentence:

The ability to determine the main and subordinate clauses in the composition of the NGN on the issue;

The ability to see unions (allied words) in a subordinate clause;

The ability to see index words in the main

The ability to see homogeneous subordinate clauses, in which punctuation marks are placed in the same way as in homogeneous members.

3) at the level of a compound sentence:

The ability to see parts of the SSP and separate them with a comma. There is no common secondary term in this assignment.

4) at the level of the entire proposal as a whole:

The ability to see those places in a sentence in which two unions met: there may be two subordinating or coordinating and subordinating.

Let's collect all the basic punctuation rules that are important when completing a task and number them for convenience.

BP 6 If in a complex sentence there are coordinating and subordinating conjunctions (AND AND ALTHOUGH, AND AND HOW, AND AND IF, BUT AND WHEN, AND AND TO, etc.), then you need to find out if there are correlative words THEN, SO or one more coordinating union (A, BUT, HOWEVER, etc.). A comma is placed only when these words are absent after the subordinate clause. For example: [Curtain rose], and, (as soon as the audience saw their favorite), [the theater trembled with applause and enthusiastic shouts] Compare: [Curtain rose], and (as soon as the audience saw their favorite), So the theater trembled with applause and enthusiastic cries]. and (although her words were familiar to Saburov), [they suddenly made her heart ache]. [The woman kept talking and talking about her misfortunes], and (although her words were familiar to Saburov), but[Suddenly my heart sank.]

As you can see, rules 5 and 6 are very similar: we choose either to write TO (BUT ...), or to put a comma.

Consider sentences from the RESHUEGE database and the algorithm for working on a sentence.

[argue](1) what? ( what Brazilian carnivals delight and fascinate)(2) And(3) (when(4) when? then did you see for yourself (5) what? ( how much eyewitnesses were right).

1. Highlight the basics.

1- Approve (one-part, predicate)

2- carnivals delight and fascinate

3 - we saw

4- make sure yourself

5- eyewitnesses are right

2. We highlight unions and correlative words. We draw attention to the fact that AND and WHEN stand nearby and that there is THAT.

3. We mark subordinate clauses: we take all sentences in which there are subordinate conjunctions in parentheses.

(what Brazilian carnivals delight and fascinate)

(when we first saw its unique bright beauty)

(how much eyewitnesses were right).

4. We establish which main clauses belong to. To do this, we put questions from the main to the alleged subordinate clauses.

[Affirm] what? ( what Brazilian carnivals delight and fascinate). 1 component found. Comma 1 is placed according to the rule 4 [ = ], (which is = and =).

There are two subordinate clauses and one without subordinating union. We check whether it is possible to put questions from him.

[then themselves convinced] when? ( when we first saw its unique bright beauty)

[were convinced] of what? ( how much eyewitnesses were right). The second component is found. Commas 4 and 5 are placed according to rule 4.

(when - =), [then- =], (as far as - =) Two different subordinate clauses to one main, the subordinate tense very often comes BEFORE the main.

1 and 2 components are connected by a coordinating union AND into one compound sentence. This is comma 2.

Scheme: |[ = ], (what- = and =)|, and |(when - =), [then- = ], (how much - =)|

It remains to find out if a comma is needed 3. Between AND and WHEN, according to rule 6, a comma is not needed, since after the subordinate clause there is TO.