Mechnikov Ilya Ilyich Outstanding Russian biologist and pathologist, one of the founders of evolutionary embryology, immunology, author of major sociological and philosophical works - 1916
Mechnikov Ilya Ilyich Together with Paul Erlich, Mechnikov was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1908 "for his work on immunity." As K. Merner from the Karolinska Institute noted in his welcoming speech, “after the discoveries of Edward Jenner, Louis Pasteur and Robert Koch, the main question of immunology remained unclear: how the body manages to defeat pathogenic microbes that, having attacked it, were able to gain a foothold and begin to develop. Trying to find an answer to this question, Mechnikov laid the foundation for modern research on ... immunology and had a profound impact on the entire course of its development.
Mechnikov Ilya Ilyich Ilya Ilyich was one of the first to establish that the protection of the body from pathogenic microbes and their harmful effects is a complex biological reaction, which is primarily determined by the phagocytic process. In 1892, Mechnikov published his lectures "On the Comparative Pathology of Inflammations", and in 1901 - the classic monograph "Immunity in Infectious Diseases", which became table book for microbiologists, physicians and biologists. In these papers, with his characteristic prostate and talent, he outlined research on inflammation, the body's defenses, and the role of phagocytosis.
Mechnikov Ilya Ilyich Mechnikov was a teacher of many generations of biologists and physicians, raised a wonderful galaxy of domestic and foreign microbiologists, infectious disease immunologists, and pathologists. In the Pasteur Laboratory Under his leadership, over a thousand Russian scientists and doctors were trained at the Pasteur Institute. Among the closest students are outstanding scientists Ya.Yu. Bardakh, N.F. Gamaleya, A.M. Bezredka, L.A. Tarasevich, I.G. Savchenko, D.K.
Vinogradsky Sergey Nikolaevich After graduation natural faculty Petersburg University in 1881 devoted himself to microbiology and in 1885 left for further studies in Strasbourg. In the years, working in the laboratory of de Bari, he first showed the possibility of obtaining energy by oxidizing hydrogen sulfide and using it to assimilate carbon dioxide, thus discovering chemosynthesis (he called the microorganisms that carry out this process anorexoxidants). Prior to this, photosynthetic plants were considered the only autotrophic organisms, so these works provided Vinogradsky with worldwide recognition.
Vinogradsky Sergei Nikolaevich In 1894 he became a corresponding member of the Imperial St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences, and in 1895 he isolated the first nitrogen-fixing bacterium. Despite numerous offers to stay in Zurich or move to Paris, in 1899 Vinogradsky returned to St. Petersburg, where he worked at the Institute of Experimental Medicine. Bacteria that oxidize hydrogen sulfide: A - Beggiatoa gigantea; B - Thiothrix sockets; B - Achromatium oxaliferum with inclusions of calcium carbonate and sulfur
Vinogradsky Sergei Nikolaevich In 1902, Sergei Nikolaevich received his doctorate and from that time to 1905 he was director of the Institute of Experimental Medicine in St. Petersburg. Here he is studying dangerous infections, in particular the plague. After the revolution of 1917, he left first for Switzerland, and then for Belgrade, where he wrote the book Ironbacteria as Anorgoxidants. In 1922, at the suggestion of Emile Roux, director of the Pasteur Institute, he created at the institute a department of agricultural biology (another translation of agrobacteriology) in Brie-Colette-Robert near Paris, which he led until his death. In 1923 he became an honorary member of the Russian Academy of Sciences. It was the only case in its history of the election of an emigrant.
Gamaleya Nikolai Fedorovich One of the founders of microbiology, who directed his talent and energy to develop methods for the elimination of dangerous infections.
Nikolai Fedorovich Gamaleya Nikolai Fedorovich received his education at Odessa University, which was then going through one of the best and most fruitful periods of its existence. Lectures were given to students by prominent scientists, including I.I. Mechnikov and A.O. Kovalevsky. Gamaleya devoted most of his studies at the University to the study of physiology at the department organized by I.M. Sechenov and led by his student and follower P.A. Spiro. Having become interested in Darwin's evolutionary theory, he decided to devote himself to its development in his student years. Studying the history of organic life, he came to the conclusion that "the science of the evolution of living matter or the composition of organisms must be created."
Gamaleya Nikolai Fedorovich In the spring of 1886, the Odessa Society of Doctors sent Nikolai Fedorovich as one of the best bacteriologists to Paris to Louis Pasteur. The main purpose of the trip was to get acquainted with the Pasteur method of vaccination against rabies in order to apply this method in Russia. Returning to Odessa, Gamaleya organized the first anti-rabies station in Russia. In 1892, Gamaleya moved to St. Petersburg, where he organized a diagnostic laboratory at the hospital clinic of the Military Medical Academy. Here a number of experimental studies according to the variability of microbes under the influence of lithium and caffeine salts, a phenomenon called heteromorphism was observed.
Gamaleya Nikolai Fedorovich In 1893 Nikolai Fedorovich defended his dissertation "The etiology of cholera from the point of view of experimental pathology." By this time, scientists had published over 60 works, including the monographs "Bacterial Poisons" and "Cholera and the fight against it", which is one of the best works on this topic in the world literature. During the years of the Great Patriotic War patriarch domestic medicine continued his experiments in a special laboratory in Borovoe. In 1949, on the eve of his 90th birthday, the outstanding scientist completed the preparation for publication of the work "Fundamentals of Medical Microbiology", demonstrating an amazing example of creative longevity.
Gabrichevsky Georgy Norbertovich Russian doctor, microbiologist, founder scientific school bacteriologists, one of the organizers of the production of bacteriological preparations in Russia
Gabrichevsky Georgy Norbertovich Gabrichevsky worked in the laboratories of I.I. Mechnikov, R. Koch, E. Ru and P. Erlich. In 1892 he began to teach at Moscow University the first systematic course in bacteriology in Russia for students and doctors. Laboratory staff I.I. Mechnikov, he also organized a bacteriological laboratory, which later grew into the Bacteriological Institute (1895), which was later named after him. The main works of Gabrichevsky are devoted to the study of scarlet fever, diphtheria, relapsing fever, malaria, plague and general issues of bacteriology.
Gabrichevsky Georgy Norbertovich Since 1899, Georgy Gabrichevsky, one of the most prominent figures of the Pirogov Society of Doctors (since 1904 - chairman), created and headed the malaria commission at the society, organized three scientific expeditions for the study and control of malaria, wrote and published popular pamphlets on the subject for the public. The further development of the ideas of G.N. Gabrichevsky was devoted to his students and followers - N.M. Blumenthal, M.B. Vermel, many of whom later became the founders of independent scientific institutions in Russia.
Ivanovsky Dmitry Iosifovich Microbiologist, plant physiologist, specialist in phytopathology and plant physiology, who was at the forefront of virology
Ivanovsky Dmitry Iosifovich With his research, Dmitry Iosifovich laid the foundations of a series scientific directions virology: study of the nature of viruses, cytopathology of viral infections, filterable forms of microorganisms, chronic and latent virus carriers. The world famous American scientist Nobel laureate Wendell Stanley gave appreciated Ivanovsky’s research: “Ivanovsky’s right to fame grows over the years. I think that his attitude towards viruses should be seen in the same light as we look at Pasteur and Koch's attitude towards bacteria.
Zabolotny Daniil Kirillovich One of the founders of Russian epidemiology, who made a huge contribution to the microbiology of infectious diseases, the author of the first Russian textbook "Fundamentals of Epidemiology"
Zabolotny Daniil Kirillovich An important direction Daniil Andreevich's work was the study of cholera epidemics and the organization of the fight against it. He established the ways of introducing cholera, the role of bacilli in the spread of the disease, studied the biology of the pathogen in nature and developed effective methods diagnostics. In 1897, Zabolotny took part in an expedition to study the plague in India and Arabia. He proved the identity of the etiology of bubonic and pneumonic plague, as well as the therapeutic effect of anti-plague serum. In 1898 he made an expedition by caravan route through the Gobi desert and China to eastern Mongolia to study the endemic focus of the plague. In subsequent years, he traveled many times to fight the plague in Mesopotamia, Persia and various regions of Russia.
Zabolotny Daniil Kirillovich Zabolotny found out the ways of spreading the plague, methods of infection, proved the role of wild rodents in the spread of plague among people, developed methods of vaccination. Daniil Andreevich wrote more than 200 scientific papers on diseases such as plague, cholera and syphilis, which formed the basis of sanitary and hygienic, preventive and therapeutic measures to combat human contagious diseases.
Omelyansky Vasily Leonidovich Russian microbiologist, author of the first domestic textbook "Fundamentals of Microbiology" and the first practical guide to microbiology
Omelyansky Vasily Leonidovich The main works of Omelyansky are devoted to the study of the role of microbes in the circulation of substances (carbon and nitrogen). The first study (gg.) refers to the anaerobic decomposition of cellulose. Using elective nutrient media containing filtered paper as the only source of carbon, Vasily Leonidovich was the first to isolate a culture of cellulose-fermenting bacteria and studied their morphology and physiology. Developing the problem of nitrification, he established the inhibitory effect of various organic substances on nitrifying bacteria.
Omelyansky Vasily Leonidovich At different periods of his life, Omelyansky writes articles “On obtaining citric acid from sugar”, “Kefir”, “Kumiss”, publishes “Bacteriological study of the silt of lakes Beloe and Kolomna”, “On the physiology of Photobacterim italicum”, etc. His last work was the study "The role of microbes in the weathering of rocks." All studies Vasily Leonidovich carried out on the basis of an exact experiment, using simple synthetic media, applying a chemical analysis of the medium and taking into account all the changes that occur in it under the influence of microorganisms. Compliance with these conditions gave Omelyansky's research exceptional accuracy, his conclusions did not meet with objections and became firmly established in science.
Omelyansky Vasily Leonidovich Omelyansky's scientific merits were recognized by St. Petersburg University, which awarded him the degree of Doctor of Botany without defending a dissertation (1917). Even earlier, he was elected a corresponding member of the Turin Medical Academy. In 1916, Vasily Leonidovich was elected a corresponding member of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences, and in 1923, a full member. In addition, Omelyansky was elected a corresponding member of the Lombard Academy of Sciences, the American Society of Bacteriologists and an honorary member of a number of scientific societies.
Zdrodovsky Pavel Feliksovich Well-known microbiologist, immunologist, epidemiologist, academician of the USSR Academy of Medical Sciences
Zdrodovsky Pavel Feliksovich Working in the years. Director of the Institute of Microbiology and Hygiene, created on his initiative in Baku, Pavel Feliksovich developed an action plan to combat malaria. He participated in the work of expeditions, supervised the work of all malaria stations in Azerbaijan. The results of this work were published in the monograph "Malaria in Mugani" (1926). Together with B.V. Voskresensky, he developed serological diagnostics and serological differentiation of leishmaniasis. Since 1930, Zdrodovsky has been working at the Institute of Experimental Medicine (Leningrad), where he is in charge of the epidemiology sector and the department of vaccine and serum production. Here he develops an areactive typhoid-paratyphoid vaccine, methods for the prevention of tetanus and diphtheria.
Zdrodovsky Pavel Feliksovich In 1933, Zdrodovsky published the book “The Teaching about Brucellosis”, and summarized the results of many years of research in the monograph “Brucellosis in relation to human pathology”. Pavel Feliksovich wrote a number of original works on the physiological aspects of immunogenesis: “The problem of reactivity in the theory of infection and immunity” (1950), “Problems of infection, immunity and allergies” (1969), “Physiological foundations of immunogenesis and its regulation” ( 1972) co-authored. The theory of acquired immunity against infectious diseases developed by Zdrodovsky has now received experimental confirmation.
Zilber Lev Alexandrovich One of the founders of Soviet medical science, a researcher with a bright and bold talent, a wide range, a scientist of great courage and citizenship
Zilber Lev Aleksandrovich And the name of Lev Aleksandrovich is associated with research into the nature of immunity and variability of bacteria, the creation of the first scientific virological center in our country, the discovery of the virus and the vector of tick-borne encephalitis and the study of the viral nature of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, the creation and experimental development of the virogenetic theory of the origin of tumors and a special direction in science - cancer immunology.
Zilber Lev Aleksandrovich Lev Aleksandrovich created a scientific discipline - at the intersection of immunology and oncology, published many works on the viral origin of cancer, was elected a member of the USSR Academy of Medical Sciences, a member of the Royal Society of Great Britain, the US Academy of Sciences, a member of the Association of Oncologists of Belgium, France, was awarded the State Prize THE USSR. The only thing he did not have time, but what he dreamed about all these years, was to create a vaccine against cancer.
Ermolyeva Zinaida Vissarionovna An innovative doctor, a prominent scientist, a talented organizer of health care and a wonderful teacher. Creator of the first domestic antibiotic
Ermolyeva Zinaida Vissarionovna The name of Zinaida Ermolyeva is inextricably linked with the creation of the first domestic penicillin, the development of the science of antibiotics, wide application in our country. A large number of the wounded in the first period of the Great Patriotic War required intensive development and immediate introduction into medical practice of highly effective drugs to combat wound infection. It was at this time (1942) that Yermolyeva and her collaborators at the All-Russian Research Institute of Epidemiology and Microbiology developed the first domestic penicillin, crustosin. Already in 1943, the laboratory began to prepare penicillin for clinical trials. Working almost around the clock, in the extremely difficult conditions of the war years, Zinaida Vissarionovna and her students received, tested for activity, sterility and harmlessness, and sent the precious drug to clinics.
Ermolyeva Zinaida Vissarionovna Peru Zinaida Vissarionovna has more than 500 scientific papers, including 6 monographs. Worthy of special mention are such works as “On lysozyme” (1933, together with other authors), “On the bacteriophage and its use” (1939), “Cholera” (1942), “Penicillin” (1946). .), "Ways for the development of rational antibiotic therapy" (1957), "Antibiotics, interferon, bacterial polysaccharides" (1971). Ermolyeva devoted more than 30 years of her life to the study of antibiotics. In this area, she has the priority of the discoverer, her work on this problem had great value for clinical medicine.
Gause Georgy Frantsevich One of the founders of theoretical and experimental ecology, a prominent specialist in the field of antibiotic research
Gause Georgy Frantsevich Scientific biography George Frantsevich is simply amazing. He made outstanding contributions to the most different areas biology and medicine. And in the literature there is even an opinion that there were two Gauses. One explored environmental issues, evolutionary theory and cytology, and the other belongs to the founders of the modern doctrine of antibiotics. In fact, it was the same researcher, and his seemingly isolated works are closely related.
Georgy Frantsevich Gauze Gause's experiments on competition among various types of protozoa gained worldwide fame. First, the growth of each species in a pure culture was studied, the reproduction coefficients, intraspecific competition, and the maximum population size in a certain volume of habitat were calculated. Then, mixed cultures of two species were created, in which the level of interspecific competition was determined and the causes of the ongoing processes were clarified.
Georgy Frantsevich Gause During the Great Patriotic War, crystals of an unknown antibacterial substance purified from lipids were obtained for the first time in Gause's laboratory. This substance turned out to be the famous gramicidin C, which was quickly introduced into the practice of Soviet healthcare and was widely used at the front to treat wound infections. The Chief Surgeon of the Red Army N.N. Burdenko himself led a team of medical scientists to test an antibiotic in a front-line situation.
You can read about microbiologists and their great discoveries, which created the foundations for the fight against infectious diseases and saved millions of human lives, in the books: Blinkin, S. A. Heroic everyday life of doctors / S. A. Blinkin. - M .: Medicine, - 191 p. Blinkin, S.A. People of great courage / S.A. Blinkin. - M .: Medicine, - 212 p. de Crail, P. Hunters for microbes / P. de Crail. - M .: Young Guard, - 486 p.
Contribution of N. F. Gamaleya to microbiology and epidemiology / ed. S. N. Muromtsev. – M.: [B. and.], - 163 p. Golinevich, E. M. P. F. Zdrodovsky / E. M. Golinevich. - M .: Medicine, - 140 p. Gutina, V. N. Nikolai Alexandrovich Krasilnikov / V. N. Gutina. - M .: Nauka, - 216 p. Tikhonova, M. A. V. D. Timakov / M. A. Tikhonova. - M .: Medicine, - 192 p.
The history of the development of science "Microbiology"
"History of the development of microbiology"
Microbiology (from the Greek mikros - small, bios - life, logos - teaching) - the science of small life, the object of study of which are microorganisms. Their peculiarity is simplicity and very small size.
Microbiology can be divided into general and particular. General microbiology studies the structure, physiology, biochemistry, genetics, ecology and evolution of microbes. Private microbiology according to the objects of study is divided into medical, veterinary, agricultural, marine, space, technical.
The main task of medical microbiology is the study of pathogenic microbes for humans, mechanisms of infection, methods of laboratory diagnostics, specific therapy and prevention of human infectious diseases.
The historical path of development of the ancient science of microbiology can be divided into 5 stages, depending on the level and methods of understanding the world of microbes: heuristic, morphological, physiological, immunological, molecular genetic.
The heuristic stage is associated with unexpected discoveries and conjectures about the existence of invisible living beings on Earth, disease-causing. Microbes existed on our planet long before the appearance of animals and humans, which was already suspected by ancient thinkers and scientists. Back in the III - IV centuries. BC. Hippocrates, the founder of ancient medicine, believed that human diseases were caused by some kind of invisible particles, which he called miasms released in marshy and other areas. Ibn Sina (Avicenna) (980-1037) wrote in the Canon of Medicine) that the cause of plague, smallpox and other diseases are the smallest living beings invisible to the naked eye, transmitted through air and water. The founder of the morphological period, the Dutch naturalist Anthony van Leeuwenhoek (1632--1723), designed a microscope with a magnification of 30 times. Examining under it drops of water, plaque, various infusions, he found everywhere the smallest "animals" - amimalcula. Leeuwenhoek published his first observations in the Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. In 1695, his book “The Secrets of Nature Discovered by Anthony Leeuwenhoek” was published, where microorganisms were described in terms of their shape, mobility, color - The discovery of microbes and the proof of their pathogenicity for humans is associated with the names of such famous scientists and doctors as Dr. S. Samoilov (1744-1805), R. Kokh (1843-1910), I. I. Mechnikov (1845-1916), N.F. Gamaleya (1859-1949) and many others. During this time, more than 2,000 species of bacteria and fungi, the causative agents of human diseases, have been discovered and described.
At the end of the 19th century, it was proved that not only bacteria, but also protozoa can be the cause of human and animal diseases: amoeba, leishmania, malaria plasmodia, etc. These discoveries served as the basis for the creation of the science of protozoology - the doctrine of diseases caused by protozoa. The founders of protozoology were Russian researchers F.A. Lesh (1840-1903), who identified the causative agent of amebiasis, P.F.
The beginning of the physiological period refers to the 60s of the nineteenth century. and is associated with the activities of the outstanding French scientist Loup Pasteur (1822-1895), who laid the foundation for the study of microorganisms from the point of view of their physiology. He established the biological nature of alcoholic, butyric and lactic acid fermentations. He studied the diseases of wine and beer and developed ways to protect them from spoilage.
Of general biological significance are Pasteur's works on the spontaneous generation of life. Using simple and convincing examples, he showed that in sterile broths closed with cotton plugs to avoid contact with air, spontaneous generation of microorganisms from inanimate nature under conditions of developed life is impossible. In 1860, Pasteur, as a biologist, was awarded the prize of the Paris Academy of Sciences. microorganism disinfection hygienic
Dealing with the issues of fermentation and decay, Pasteur simultaneously solved practical problems. They proposed a method of pasteurization. Great importance for the development of microbiology in this period had the research of the German scientist Robert Koch (1813--1910). He proposed a method for obtaining pure cultures on nutrient media, and began to use aniline dyes in the practice of studying microorganisms.
Koch discovered the causative agents of cholera and tuberculosis. The causative agent of tuberculosis was named Koch's wand. From it, Koch received the drug tuberculin, which he wanted to use to treat patients with tuberculosis. However, in practice, he did not justify himself, but turned out to be a good diagnostic tool and helped in the creation of valuable anti-tuberculosis drugs. Koch and his students also discovered the causative agents of diphtheria, tetanus, typhoid, and gonorrhea.
The development of microbiology is also closely connected with the work of Russian and Soviet scientists. The founder of general microbiology in Russia should be called Lev Semenovich Tsenkovsky (1822-1887), who published his work on lower algae and ciliates, in which he established the proximity of bacteria and blue-green algae. He also created the anthrax vaccine, which has been successfully used in veterinary practice to this day.
Ilya Ilyich Mechnikov (1845--1916) dealt with issues of medical microbiology. He studied the relationship between the bacterium and the "owner" and found that the inflammatory process is the body's reaction to the invading microbes; developed the phagocytic theory of immunity. Mechnikov formulated a general theory of inflammation as a protective reaction of the body and created a new direction in immunology - the doctrine of antigenic specificity. Currently, it is becoming increasingly important in connection with the development of the problem of transplantation of organs and tissues, the study of cancer immunology.
The development of microbiology is closely connected with the name of the largest scientist, friend and colleague of I.I. He discovered the causative agent of a cholera-like disease in birds, developed a vaccine against human cholera and an original method for obtaining a smallpox vaccine. Gamaleya was the first to describe the lysis of bacteria under the influence of a bacteriophage.
D. K. Zabologny (1866-1920) is considered the founder of epidemiology. He studied the plague in India, China, Scotland; cholera - in the Caucasus, Ukraine, in St. Petersburg. As a result, he obtained scientific evidence of the role of wild rodents as guardians of the plague agent in nature. He established the ways of introducing cholera, the role of bacilli in the spread of the disease, studied the biology of the pathogen in nature, and developed effective methods for diagnosing cholera.
S. N. Vinogradsky (1856-1953) made a great contribution to the study of the physiology of sulfur bacteria, nitrifying and iron bacteria; discovered chemosynthesis in bacteria greatest discovery XIX century. Vinogradsky studied nitrogen-fixing bacteria and discovered a new type of nutrition for microorganisms - autotrophism. Scientist published over ZOO scientific works dedicated to the ecology and physiology of venerable microorganisms. He is rightfully considered the father of the venerable microbiology.
A great contribution to the field of technical microbiology was made by V. N. Shaposhnikov, Ya. Ya. food products. Significant progress in the field of microbiology of milk and dairy products was achieved by the school of S. A. Korolev (1876--1932) and others.
The ecological trend in microbiology was successfully developed by B. L. Isachenko (1871-1948). His work in the field of aquatic microbiology gained general fame. He was the first to study the distribution of microorganisms in the Arctic Ocean and pointed out their role in ecological processes and in the circulation of substances in water bodies.
The leading role in the study of the variability of microorganisms belongs to the works of G. A. Nadson (1867-1940). He was the first to isolated in pure culture and studied the green bacterium, as well as the relationship between microorganisms (antagonism, symbiosis). Of scientific interest are the works of the scientist on the participation of microorganisms in the cycles of iron, sulfur and calcium. He was the first to point out the prospects for the development of geological microbiology. Nadson admitted the possibility of maintaining the viability of microorganisms in space, emphasizing the importance of short-wave rays in changing their heredity, and thus laid the foundation for space microbiology.
Microbiology called the science of microscopic living beings, the size of which does not exceed 1 mm. Such organisms can only be seen with the help of magnifying instruments. The objects of microbiology are representatives of different groups of the living world: bacteria, archaea, protozoa, microscopic algae, lower fungi. All of them are characterized by small sizes and are united by the general term "microorganisms".
Microorganisms are the largest group of living things on Earth, and its members are ubiquitous.
The place of microbiology in the system of biological sciences is determined by the specifics of its objects, which, on the one hand, are mostly one cell, and on the other, are a complete organism. As the science of a particular class of objects and their diversity, microbiology is analogous to disciplines such as botany and zoology. At the same time, it belongs to the physiological and biochemical branch biological disciplines, as it studies the functional capabilities of microorganisms, their interaction with the environment and other organisms. And finally, microbiology is a science that studies the general fundamental laws of the existence of all living things, phenomena at the junction of unicellular and multicellularity, developing ideas about the evolution of living organisms.
The importance of microorganisms in natural processes and human activities
The role of microbiology is determined by the importance of microorganisms in natural processes and in human activities. It is they who ensure the flow of the global cycle of elements on our planet. Its stages, such as molecular nitrogen fixation, denitrification or mineralization of complex organic substances, would be impossible without the participation of microorganisms. A whole range of food production, various chemicals, medicines, etc., is based on the activity of microorganisms. Microorganisms are used to clean the environment from various natural and anthropogenic pollution. At the same time, many microorganisms are causative agents of diseases in humans, animals, plants, and also cause spoilage of food and various industrial materials. Representatives of other scientific disciplines often use microorganisms as tools and model systems in experiments.
History of microbiology
The history of microbiology dates back to about 1661, when the Dutch cloth merchant Anthony van Leeuwenhoek (1632-1723) first described the microscopic creatures he observed through his own microscope. In his microscopes, Leeuwenhoek used a single short-focus lens mounted in a metal frame. In front of the lens was a thick needle, to the tip of which the object under study was attached. The needle could be moved relative to the lens using two focusing screws. The lens should be applied to the eye and through it to view the object at the tip of the needle. Being an inquisitive and observant person by nature, Leeuwenhoek studied various substrates of natural and artificial origin, examined under a microscope great amount objects and made very accurate drawings. He studied the microstructure of plant and animal cells, spermatozoa and erythrocytes, the structure of the vessels of plants and animals, and the features of the development of small insects. The magnification achieved (50-300 times) allowed Leeuwenhoek to see microscopic creatures, which he called "animals", describe their main groups, and also conclude that they are ubiquitous. Your notes about the representatives of the world of microbes (protozoa, mold fungi and yeast, various forms of bacteria - rod-shaped, spherical, convoluted), about the nature of their movement and stable combinations Leeuwenhoek accompanied the cells with careful sketches and sent them in the form of letters to the English Royal Society, which had the goal of supporting the exchange of information among the scientific community. After Leeuwenhoek's death, the study of microorganisms was long held back by the imperfection of magnifying instruments. Only by the middle of the 19th century were models of light microscopes created that allowed other researchers to describe in detail the main groups of microorganisms. This period in the history of microbiology can be conditionally called descriptive.
The physiological stage in the development of microbiology began around the middle of the 19th century and is associated with the work of the French chemist-crystallographer Louis Pasteur (1822-1895) and the German rural physician Robert Koch (1843-1910). These scientists laid the foundation for experimental microbiology and significantly enriched the methodological arsenal of this science.
In the study of the reasons for the souring of wine, L. Pasteur found that the fermentation of grape juice and the formation of alcohol are carried out by yeast, and the spoilage of wine (the appearance of foreign odors, tastes and mucilage of the drink) is caused by other microbes. To protect wine from spoilage, Pasteur proposed a method of heat treatment (heating to 70 ° C) immediately after fermentation in order to destroy extraneous bacteria. This technique, which is still used today to preserve milk, wine and beer, is called "pasteurization".
Investigating other types of fermentation, Pasteur showed that each fermentation has a main end product and is caused by microorganisms of a certain type. These studies led to the discovery of a previously unknown way of life - anaerobic (oxygen-free) metabolism, in which oxygen is not only not needed, but often harmful to microorganisms. At the same time, for a significant number aerobic microorganisms oxygen is a necessary condition for their existence. Studying the possibility of switching from one type of metabolism to another using yeast as an example, L. Pasteur showed that anaerobic metabolism is energetically less favorable. Microorganisms capable of such a switch, he called facultative anaerobes.
Pasteur finally refuted the possibility of spontaneous generation of living beings from inanimate matter under normal conditions. By that time, the question of the spontaneous generation of animals and plants from non-living material had already been resolved in the negative, and the controversy regarding microorganisms continued. The experiments of the Italian scientist Lazzaro Spallanzani and the French researcher François Appert on prolonged heating of nutrient substrates in sealed vessels to prevent the development of microbes were criticized by supporters of the theory of spontaneous generation: they believed that it was the capping of the vessels that prevented some kind of "life force" from penetrating inside. Pasteur conducted an elegant experiment that put an end to this discussion. The heated nutrient broth was placed in an open glass vessel, the neck of which was elongated with a tube and curved in an S-shape. Air could freely penetrate inside the flask, and the cells of microorganisms settled in the lower bend of the neck and did not get into the broth. In this case, the broth remained sterile indefinitely. If the flask was tilted so that the liquid filled the lower bend, and then the broth was returned back to the vessel, then microorganisms quickly began to develop inside.
Works on the study of the "diseases" of wine allowed the scientist to suggest that microorganisms can also be the causative agents of infectious diseases in animals and humans. Pasteur singled out the causative agents of a number of diseases and studied their properties. Experiments with pathogenic microorganisms showed that under certain conditions they became less aggressive and did not kill the infected organism. Pasteur concluded that it was possible to vaccinate weakened pathogens to healthy and infected people and animals in order to stimulate the body's defenses in the fight against infection. The scientist called the material for vaccinations a vaccine, and the process itself - vaccination. Pasteur developed methods of vaccination against a number of dangerous diseases in animals and humans, including rabies.
Robert Koch, starting with the proof of the bacterial etiology of anthrax, then isolated the causative agents of many diseases in pure culture. In his experiments, he used small experimental animals, and also observed under a microscope the development of bacterial cells in tissue pieces of infected mice. Koch developed methods for growing bacteria outside the body, various methods for staining preparations for microscopy, and proposed a scheme for obtaining pure cultures of microorganisms on solid media in the form of individual colonies. These simple techniques are still used by microbiologists around the world. Koch finally formulated and experimentally confirmed the postulates proving the microbial origin of the disease:
- the microorganism must be present in the material of the patient;
- isolated in pure culture, it should cause the same disease in an experimentally infected animal;
- from this animal, the pathogen must again be isolated into a pure culture, and these two pure cultures must be the same.
These rules were later called "Koch's triad". When studying the causative agent of anthrax, the scientist observed the formation of special dense bodies (spores) by cells. Koch concluded that the resistance of these bacteria in the environment is associated with the ability to sporulate. It is the spores that can infect livestock for a long time in those places where sick animals were previously located or cattle burial grounds were arranged.
In 1909, the Russian physiologist Ilya Ilyich Mechnikov (1845-1916) and the German biochemist Paul Ehrlich (1854-1915) received Nobel Prize in physiology and medicine.
II Mechnikov developed the phagocytic theory of immunity, which considered the process of absorption of foreign agents by animal leukocytes as a protective reaction of the macroorganism. In this case, an infectious disease was presented as a confrontation between pathogenic microorganisms and phagocytes of the host organism, and recovery meant a “victory” for phagocytes. Later, working in bacteriological laboratories, first in Odessa and then in Paris, I.I. Mechnikov continued to study phagocytosis, and also took part in the study of pathogens of syphilis, cholera and other infectious diseases and the development of a number of vaccines. In his declining years, I.I. Mechnikov became interested in the problems of human aging and substantiated the usefulness of using large amounts of fermented milk products containing “live” starter cultures in food. He advocated the use of a suspension of lactic acid microorganisms, arguing that such bacteria and the lactic acid products formed by them are capable of suppressing putrefactive microorganisms that produce harmful toxins in the human intestine.
P. Ehrlich, being engaged in experimental medicine and biochemistry of medicinal compounds, formulated the humoral theory of immunity, according to which the macroorganism produces special chemical substances- antibodies and antitoxins that neutralize microbial cells and the aggressive substances they secrete. P. Erlich developed methods for the treatment of a number of infectious diseases and participated in the creation of a drug to combat syphilis (salvarsana). The scientist was the first to describe the phenomenon of the acquisition of resistance to drugs by pathogenic microorganisms.
Russian epidemiologist Nikolai Fedorovich Gamaleya (1859-1948) studied the ways of transmission and spread of such serious infections as rabies, cholera, smallpox, tuberculosis, anthrax and some animal diseases. He improved the method of prophylactic vaccinations developed by L. Pasteur and proposed a vaccine against human cholera. The scientist developed and implemented a complex of sanitary-hygienic and anti-epidemic measures to combat plague, cholera, smallpox, typhus and relapsing fever and other infections. N.F. Gamaleya discovered substances that dissolve bacterial cells (bacteriolysins), described the phenomenon of bacteriophage (the interaction of viruses and bacterial cells) and made a significant contribution to the study of microbial toxins.
The recognition of the huge role of microorganisms in the biologically important cycles of elements on Earth is associated with the names of the Russian scientist Sergei Nikolaevich Vinogradsky (1856-1953) and the Dutch researcher Martinus Beijerinck (1851-1931). These scientists studied groups of microorganisms capable of carrying out chemical transformations of basic elements and participating in biologically important cycles on Earth. S.N. Vinogradsky worked with microorganisms using inorganic compounds of sulfur, nitrogen, iron and discovered a unique way of life, characteristic only of prokaryotes, in which a reduced inorganic compound is used to obtain energy, and carbon dioxide is used for biosynthesis. Neither animals nor plants can exist in this way.
S.N. Vinogradsky and M. Beijerink independently showed the ability of some prokaryotes to use atmospheric nitrogen in their metabolism (to fix molecular nitrogen). They isolated free-living and symbiotic nitrogen-fixing microbes as pure cultures and noted the global role of such microorganisms in the nitrogen cycle. Only prokaryotic microorganisms can convert gaseous nitrogen into bound forms, using it for the synthesis of cell components. After the death of nitrogen fixers, nitrogen compounds become available to other organisms. Thus, nitrogen-fixing microorganisms close the biological cycle of nitrogen on Earth.
At the turn of the 19th-20th centuries, the Russian plant physiologist and microbiologist Dmitry Iosifovich Ivanovsky (1864-1920) discovered the tobacco mosaic virus, thereby revealing a special group of biological objects that do not have a cellular structure. When studying the infectious nature of tobacco mosaic disease, the scientist tried to purify the plant sap from the pathogen by passing it through a bacterial filter. However, after this procedure, the juice was able to infect healthy plants, i.e. the causative agent was much smaller than all known microorganisms. In the future, it turned out that a number of known diseases are caused by similar pathogens. They called them viruses. Viruses can only be seen with an electron microscope. Viruses are a special group of biological objects that do not have a cellular structure, which are currently being studied by the science of virology.
In 1929, the English bacteriologist and immunologist Alexander Fleming (1881-1955) discovered the first antibiotic penicillin. The scientist was interested in the development of infectious diseases and the effect of various chemicals on them (salvarsan, antiseptics). During the First World War in hospitals, the wounded died by the hundreds from blood poisoning. Bandages with antiseptics only slightly alleviated the condition of the patients. Fleming set up an experiment by creating a model of a glass laceration and filling it with a nutrient medium. As a "microbial contamination" he used manure. By washing a glass "wound" with a strong antiseptic solution and then filling it with clean medium, Fleming showed that antiseptics do not kill microorganisms in the "wound" irregularities and do not stop the infectious process. Carrying out many crops on solid media in Petri dishes, the scientist tested the antimicrobial effect of various human secretions (saliva, mucus, lacrimal fluid) and discovered lysozyme, which kills some pathogenic bacteria. The inoculation plates were kept by Fleming for a long time and were viewed many times. In those cups where fungal spores accidentally fell and mold colonies grew, the scientist noticed the absence of bacterial growth around these colonies. Specially designed experiments showed that the substance secreted by a mold fungus from the genus Penicillium harmful to bacteria, but not harmful to experimental animals. Fleming named this substance penicillin. The use of penicillin as a medicine became possible only after it was isolated from the nutrient broth and obtained in a chemically pure form (in 1940), which subsequently led to the development of a whole class of drugs called antibiotics. An active search for new producers of antimicrobial substances and the isolation of new antibiotics began. So, in 1944, the American microbiologist Zelman Waxman (1888-1973) obtained with the help of branching bacteria of the genus Streptomyces widely used antibiotic streptomycin.
By the second half of the 19th century, microbiologists had accumulated vast material, indicating an extraordinary variety of types of microbial metabolism. The work of the Dutch microbiologist and biochemist Albert Jan Kluiver (1888-1956) and his students is devoted to the study of the diversity of life forms and the identification of their common features. Under his leadership, a comparative study of the biochemistry of widely separated systematic and physiological groups of microorganisms was carried out, as well as an analysis of data from physiology and genetics. These works made it possible to draw a conclusion about the uniformity of macromolecules that make up all living things, and about the universality of the biological "energy currency" - ATP molecules. The development of a general scheme of metabolic pathways is largely based on studies of the photosynthesis of higher plants and bacteria, conducted by Cornelius van Niel (1897-1985), a student of A.Ya. Kluyver. K. van Niel studied the metabolism of various photosynthetic prokaryotes and proposed a generalizing total photosynthesis equation: CO 2 + H 2 A + һν → (CH 2 O) n + A, where H 2 A is either water or another oxidizable substance. Such an equation assumed that it was water, and not carbon dioxide, decomposes during photosynthesis with the release of oxygen. By the middle of the 20th century, the conclusions of A.Ya. Kluiver and his students (in particular, K. van Niel) formed the basis of the principle of the biochemical unity of life.
The development of domestic microbiology is represented by various directions and activities of many famous scientists. A number of scientific institutions in our country bear the names of many of them. So, Lev Semenovich Tsenkovsky (1822-1877) studied big number protozoa, microalgae, lower fungi and concluded that there is no clear boundary between unicellular animals and plants. He also developed a method of inoculation against anthrax using the "live Tsenkovsky vaccine" and organized a Pasteur vaccination station in Kharkov. Georgy Norbertovich Gabrichevsky (1860-1907) proposed a method for the treatment of diphtheria using serum and participated in the creation of the production of bacterial preparations in Russia. A student of S.N. Vinogradsky Vasily Leonidovich Omelyansky (1867-1928) studied microorganisms involved in the transformation of carbon, nitrogen, sulfur compounds and in the process of anaerobic decomposition of cellulose. His work expanded the understanding of the activity of soil microorganisms. VL Omelyansky proposed schemes for the cycles of biogenic elements in nature. Georgy Adamovich Nadson (1867-1939) first studied microbial geochemical activity and the impact of various damaging factors on microbial cells. Subsequently, his work was devoted to the study of the heredity and variability of microorganisms and the production of stable artificial mutants of lower fungi under the action of radiation. One of the founders of marine microbiology is Boris Lavrentievich Isachenko (1871-1948). He put forward a hypothesis about the biogenic origin of sulfur and calcium deposits. Vladimir Nikolaevich Shaposhnikov (1884-1968) is the founder of Russian technical microbiology. His works on the physiology of microorganisms are devoted to the study of various types of fermentation. He discovered the phenomenon of two-phase nature of a number of microbiological processes and the development of ways to control them. VN Shaposhnikov's research became the basis for organizing microbiological production of organic acids and solvents in the USSR. The works of Zinaida Vissarionovna Ermolyeva (1898-1974) made a significant contribution to the physiology and biochemistry of microorganisms, medical microbiology, and also contributed to the development of the microbiological production of a number of domestic antibiotics. So, she studied the pathogens of cholera and other cholera-like vibrios, their interaction with the human body and proposed sanitary standards for chlorination of tap water as a means of preventing this dangerous disease. She created and applied for the prevention of the preparation of cholera bacteriophage, and later on, a complex preparation against cholera, diphtheria and typhoid fever. The use of lysozyme in medical practice is based on the work of Z.V. Ermolyeva on the discovery of new plant sources of lysozyme, the establishment of its chemical nature, the development of a method for isolation and concentration. Obtaining a domestic strain of the producer of penicillin and organizing the industrial production of the drug penicillin-crustosin during the Great Patriotic War is an invaluable merit of ZV Ermolyeva. These studies were an impetus for the search and selection of domestic producers of other antibiotics (streptomycin, tetracycline, levomycetin, ecmolin). The works of Nikolai Alexandrovich Krasilnikov (1896-1973) are devoted to the study of mycelial prokaryotic microorganisms - actinomycetes. A detailed study of the properties of these microorganisms allowed N.A. Krasilnikov to create a key to actinomycetes. The scientist was one of the first researchers of the phenomenon of antagonism in the world of microbes, which allowed him to isolate the actinomycete antibiotic mycetin. N.A. Krasilnikov also studied the interaction of actinomycetes with other bacteria and higher plants. His works on soil microbiology are devoted to the role of microorganisms in soil formation, their distribution in soils and their effect on fertility. A student of VN Shaposhnikov, Elena Nikolaevna Kondratieva (1925-1995) headed the study of the physiology and biochemistry of photosynthetic and chemolithotrophic microorganisms. She analyzed in detail the features of the metabolism of such prokaryotes and revealed the general patterns of photosynthesis and carbon metabolism. Under the leadership of E.N. Kondrat'eva, a new path of autotrophic CO 2 fixation in green non-sulfur bacteria was discovered, and strains of phototrophic bacteria of a new family were isolated and studied in detail. A unique collection of phototrophic bacteria was created in her laboratory. E.N.Kondratieva was the initiator of research into the metabolism of methylotrophic microorganisms using one-carbon compounds in their metabolism.
In the 20th century, microbiology fully developed as an independent science. Its further development took place taking into account discoveries made in other areas of biology (biochemistry, genetics, molecular biology, etc.). Currently, many microbiological studies are carried out jointly by specialists from different biological disciplines. Numerous achievements of microbiology at the end of XX - early XXI centuries will be summarized in the relevant sections of the textbook.
Main directions in modern microbiology.
By the end of the 19th century, microbiology, depending on the tasks performed, began to be divided into a number of areas. Thus, studies of the basic laws of the existence of microorganisms and their diversity are classified as general microbiology, and private microbiology studies the characteristics of their different groups. The task of natural history microbiology is to identify the ways in which microorganisms live in natural habitats and their role in natural processes. Features of pathogenic microorganisms that cause diseases in humans and animals, and their interaction with the host organism, are studied by medical and veterinary microbiology, and microbial processes in agriculture and animal husbandry are studied by agricultural microbiology. Soil, sea, space, etc. microbiology are sections devoted to properties specific to these natural environments microorganisms and processes associated with them. And finally, industrial (technical) microbiology, as part of biotechnology, studies the properties of microorganisms used for various industries. At the same time, new scientific disciplines engaged in the study of certain narrower groups of objects (virology, mycology, algology, etc.). At the end of the 20th century, the integration of the biology of sciences is intensifying and many studies take place at the intersection of disciplines, forming such areas as molecular microbiology, genetic engineering, etc.
There are several main directions in modern microbiology. With the development and improvement of the methodological arsenal of biology, fundamental microbiological research has become more active, devoted to elucidating the pathways of metabolism and methods of their regulation. The taxonomy of microorganisms is rapidly developing, which aims to create such a classification of objects that would reflect the place of microorganisms in the system of all living things, family ties and the evolution of living beings, i.e. build a phylogenetic tree. The study of the role of microorganisms in natural processes and anthropogenic systems (environmental microbiology) is extremely important due to the increased interest in modern environmental issues. Considerable attention is drawn to studies of population microbiology, which deals with the elucidation of the nature of intercellular contacts and the ways in which cells interact in a population. Those areas of microbiology that are associated with the use of microorganisms in human activity do not lose their relevance.
The further development of microbiology in the 21st century, along with the accumulation of fundamental knowledge, is intended to help solve a number of global problems humanity. As a result of the barbaric attitude to nature and the widespread pollution of the environment with anthropogenic waste, a significant imbalance has arisen in the cycles of substances on our planet. Only microorganisms, possessing the broadest metabolic capabilities, high metabolic plasticity and significant resistance to damaging factors, can convert persistent and toxic pollution into compounds that are harmless to nature, and in some cases into products suitable for further human use. This will reduce the emission of so-called " greenhouse gases and the gas composition of the Earth's atmosphere stabilizes. By protecting the environment from pollution, microorganisms will simultaneously contribute to the constancy of the global cycle of elements. Microorganisms, developing on industrial and agricultural waste, can serve as alternative sources of fuel (biogas, bioethanol and other alcohols, biohydrogen, etc.). This will solve the energy problems of mankind associated with the depletion of minerals (oil, coal, natural gas, peat). Replenishment of food resources (especially protein) is possible by introducing cheap microbial biomass of fast-growing strains obtained from food industry waste or on very simple media into the diet. The preservation of the health of the human population will be facilitated not only by a thorough study of the properties of pathogenic microorganisms and the development of methods of protection against them, but also by the transition to "natural medicines" (probiotics), which increase the immune status of the human body.
The science of the forms, combinations and sizes of microorganism cells, their differentiation, as well as reproduction and development. - the science of the diversity of microorganisms and their classification according to the degree of kinship. At present, the systematics of microorganisms is based on molecular biological methods. - the science of the metabolism (metabolism) of microorganisms, including methods of consuming nutrients, their decomposition, synthesis of substances, as well as methods of obtaining energy by microorganisms as a result of processes fermentation, anaerobic respiration, aerobic respiration and photosynthesis.
Recommended reading
Paul de Kruy. Microbial hunters. Scientific and popular publication.
Guchev M.V., Mineeva L.A. Microbiology. Textbook for universities.
Netrusov A.I., Kotova I.B. General microbiology. Textbook for universities.
Netrusov A.I., Kotova I.B. Microbiology. Textbook for universities.
Workshop on microbiology. Ed. A.I. Netrusova. Tutorial for universities.
Ecology of microorganisms. Ed. A.I. Netrusova. Textbook for high schools.
Zavarzin G.A. Lectures on Natural History Microbiology. Scientific publication.
Kolotilova N.N., Zavarzin G.A. Introduction to Natural History Microbiology. Textbook for high schools.
Kondratieva E.N. autotrophic prokaryotes. Textbook for high schools.
Egorov N.S. Fundamentals of the doctrine of antibiotics. Textbook for universities.
Industrial microbiology. Ed. N.S. Egorova. Textbook for high schools.
MINISTRY OF EDUCATION OF THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION
TULA STATE UNIVERSITY
Department of Sanitary-hygienic and preventive disciplines
T. V. Chestnova, O. L. Smolyaninova
MEDICAL MICROBIOLOGY, VIROLOGY
AND IMMUNOLOGY
(Educational and practical guide for students medical schools).
TULA - 2008
UDC 576.8
Reviewers:…………
Medical Microbiology, Virology and Immunology: Educational and Practical Guide / Ed. M422 T.V. Chestnova, O.L. Smolyaninova, - ... .., 2008. - .... p.
The educational and practical manual was written by the staff of the Department of Sanitary and Hygienic and Preventive Disciplines of the Tula state university in accordance with the officially approved programs of teaching microbiology (bacteriology, virology, mycology, protozoology) and immunology for medical students of all faculties.
AT training manual a description of the bacteriological laboratory is given, microscopic research methods are outlined, the basics of preparing nutrient media, information is provided on the morphology, systematics and physiology of bacteria, fungi, protozoa and viruses. Also, the characteristics of various pathogenic microorganisms, viruses and methods of their laboratory research are given.
GENERAL MICROBIOLOGY
Introduction………………………………………………………………………………………………
Short story development of microbiology……………………………………………………………
Topic 1. Morphology and classification of microorganisms………………………………………..
1.1. Microbiological laboratories, their equipment, basic safety precautions and rules of work in them…………………………………………………………………………………..
1.2. Structure and classification of microorganisms……………………………………………………
1.3. Structure and classification of bacteria (prokaryotes)……………………………………………….
1.4. Structure and classification of fungi………………………………………………………………..
1.5. Structure and classification of protozoa………………………………………………………….
1.6. The structure and classification of viruses………………………………………………………………
Test on the topic…………………………………………………………………………………………..
Topic 2. Microscopy………………………………………………………………………………..
2.1. Microscopes, their device, types of microscopy, technique of microscopy of microorganisms, rules for handling a microscope…………………………………………………………….
2.2. Methods for preparation and staining of microscopic preparations……………………..
Test on the topic…………………………………………………………………………………………….
Topic 3. Physiology of microorganisms……………………………………………………………….
3.1. Growth and reproduction of bacteria. Phases of reproduction……………………………………………….
3.2. Nutrient media, principles of their classification, requirements for nutrient media, methods of cultivation of microorganisms…………………………………………..
3.3. Nutrition of bacteria………………………………………………………………………………….
3.4. Metabolism of a bacterial cell………………………………………………………………….
3.5. Types of plastic exchange………………………………………………………………………
3.6. Principles and methods for isolating pure cultures. Enzymes of bacteria, their identification. Intraspecific identification (epidemiological marking)……………………………..
3.7. Features of the physiology of fungi, protozoa, viruses and their cultivation………………
3.8. Bacteriophages, their structure, classification and application……………………………………..
Test on the topic………………………………………………………………………………………………
Topic 4. Influence of environmental conditions on microorganisms……………………………………..
4.1. Effect of physical, chemical and biological factors on microorganisms………….
4.2. The concept of sterilization, disinfection, asepsis and antisepsis. Sterilization methods, equipment. Disinfection quality control……………………………………………………………..
Topic 5. Normal microflora of the human body……………………………………………….
5.1. Normoflora, its significance for microorganisms. The concept of transient flora, dysbiotic conditions, their assessment, methods of correction………………………………………………………..
Topic 6. Genetics of microbes. ……………………………………………………………………………..
6.1. The structure of the bacterial genome. Phenotypic and genotypic variability. Mutations. Modifications.…………………………………………………………………………………………..
Genetic recombination of microorganisms. Fundamentals of genetic engineering, practical application…………………………………………………………………………………………………….
Test on the topic……………………………………………………………………………………………..
Topic 7. Antimicrobials………………………………………………………………….
7.1. Antibiotics natural and synthetic. Classification of antibiotics by chemical structure, mechanism, spectrum and type of action. Methods of obtaining…………………………….
7.2. Drug resistance of bacteria, ways to overcome it. Methods for determining sensitivity to antibiotics………………………………………………………………………………..
Topic 8. Doctrine of infection…………………………………………………………………………..
8.1. The concept of infection. Forms of infection and periods of infectious diseases. pathogenicity and virulence. pathogenicity factors. Toxins of bacteria, their nature, properties, obtaining……………………………………………………………………………………………………….
8.2. The concept of epidemiological surveillance of the infectious process. The concept of the reservoir, source of infection, ways and factors of transmission………………………………………………
Test on the topic……………………………………………………………………………………………..
GENERAL IMMUNOLOGY…………………………………………………………………………….
Topic 9. Immunology………………………………………………………………………………………
9.1. The concept of immunity. Types of immunity. Nonspecific protective factors…………….
9.2. Central and peripheral organs of the immune system. Cells of the immune system. Forms of the immune response………………………………………………………………………………
9.3. Complement, its structure, functions, ways of activation. Role in immunity…………………..
9.4. Antigens, their properties and types. Antigens of microorganisms…………………………………..
9.5. Antibodies and antibody formation. The structure of immunoglobulins. Classes of immunoglobulins and their properties ………………………………………………………………………………………
96. Serological reactions and their application……………………………………………………….
9.7. immunodeficiency states. Allergic reactions. immunological memory. immunological tolerance. Autoimmune processes……………………………………………
9.8. Immunoprophylaxis, immunotherapy……………………………………………………………..
PRIVATE MICROBIOLOGY………………………………………………………………………….
Topic 10. Causative agents of intestinal infections………………………………………………………….
10.1. Salmonella………………………………………………………………………………………..
10.2. Shigella………………………………………………………………………………………….
10.3. Escherichia…………………………………………………………………………………………….
10.4. Vibrio cholerae………………………………………………………………………………….
10.5. Yersinia …………………………………………………………………………………………….
Topic 11. Food poisoning. Food poisoning…………………………………………
11.1. General characteristics and causative agents of PTI……………………………………………………….
11.2. Botulism…………………………………………………………………………………………..
Topic 12. Causative agents of pyoinflammatory diseases…………………………………………
12.1. Pathogenic cocci (streptococci, staphylococci)………………………………………………..
12.2. Gram-negative bacteria (hemophilic, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Klebsiella, Proteus) ...
12.3. Wound anaerobic clostridial and non-clostridial infections……………………
Topic 13. Causative agents of bacterial airborne infections…………………………….
13.1. Corynebacteria………………………………………………………………………………………
13.2. Bordetella……………………………………………………………………………………………
13.3. Meningococci………………………………………………………………………………………..
13.4. Mycobacteria……………………………………………………………………………………..
13.5. Legionella………………………………………………………………………………………..
Topic 14. Causative agents of sexually transmitted diseases (STDs)………………………
14.1. Chlamydia…………………………………………………………………………………………..
14.2. The causative agent of syphilis……………………………………………………………………………….
14.3. Gonococci…………………………………………………………………………………………….
Topic 15. Rickettsiosis pathogens…………………………………………………………………..
Topic 16. Causative agents of bacterial zoonotic infections……………………………….
16.1. Francisella…………………………………………………………………………………………
16.2. Brucella…………………………………………………………………………………………….
16.3. The causative agent of anthrax……………………………………………………………………..
16.4. The causative agent of the plague……………………………………………………………………………………
16.5. Leptospira…………………………………………………………………………………………..
Topic 17. Pathogenic protozoa……………………………………………………………………..
17.1. Plasmodium malaria………………………………………………………………………………….
17.2. Toxoplasma………………………………………………………………………………………….
17.3. Leishmania………………………………………………………………………………………..
17.4. The causative agent of amoebiasis…………………………………………………………………………….
17.5. Giardia………………………………………………………………………………………………
Topic 18. Diseases caused by pathogenic fungi ………………………………………..
PRIVATE VIROLOGY……………………………………………………………………………..
Topic 19. SARS pathogens……………………………………………………………………………
19.1. Influenza viruses……………………………………………………………………………………….
19.2. Parainfluenza. RS viruses……………………………………………………………………………
19.3. Adenoviruses…………………………………………………………………………………………
19.4. Rhinoviruses………………………………………………………………………………………..
19.5. Reoviruses…………………………………………………………………………………………….
Topic 20. Causative agents of viral airborne infections…………………………………..
20.1. Measles and mumps viruses……………………………………………………………………………..
20.2. Herpes virus……………………………………………………………………………………...
20.3. Rubella virus………………………………………………………………………………………
Topic 21. Poxyviruses………………………………………………………………………………….
21.1. The causative agent of smallpox…………………………………………………………………….
Topic 22. Enteroviral infections…………………………………………………………………..
22.1. Polio virus…………………………………………………………………………………
22.2. ECHO viruses. Coxsackieviruses……………………………………………………………………
Topic 23. Retroviruses………………………………………………………………………………......
23.1. The causative agent of HIV infection………………………………………………………………………..
Topic 24. Arbovirus infections…………………………………………………………………….
24.1.Rhabdoviruses……………………………………………………………………………………….
24.2. Flaviviruses…………………………………………………………………………………………
24.3. Hantaviruses……………………………………………………………………………………….
Topic 25. Causative agents of viral hepatitis……………………………………………………………
25.1. Hepatitis A virus…………………………………………………………………………………….
25.2. Hepatitis B virus……………………………………………………………………………………..
25.3. Hepatitis C virus…………………………………………………………………………………..
PART ONE. GENERAL MICROBIOLOGY
Introduction.
Microbiology is a science that studies microscopic creatures called microorganisms, their biological characteristics, systematics, ecology, and relationships with other organisms.
Microorganisms include bacteria, actinomycetes, fungi, including filamentous fungi, yeasts, protozoa and non-cellular forms - viruses, phages.
Microorganisms play an extremely important role in nature - they carry out the cycle of organic and inorganic (N, P, S, etc.) substances, mineralize plant and animal remains. But they can do great harm - causing damage to raw materials, food products, organic materials. In this case, toxic substances can be formed.
Many types of microorganisms are pathogens of human, animal and plant diseases.
At the same time, microorganisms are now widely used in national economy: via different types bacteria and fungi receive organic acids (acetic, citric, etc.), alcohols, enzymes, antibiotics, vitamins, fodder yeast. On the basis of microbiological processes, bread-baking, wine-making, brewing, the production of dairy products, fermentation of fruits and vegetables, as well as other branches of the food industry, work.
Currently, microbiology is divided into the following sections:
Medical microbiology - studies pathogenic microorganisms that cause human diseases and develops methods for diagnosing, preventing and treating these diseases. It studies the ways and mechanisms of their spread and methods of combating them. A separate course, virology, adjoins the course of medical microbiology.
Veterinary microbiology is the study of pathogenic microorganisms that cause disease in animals.
Biotechnology considers the features and conditions for the development of microorganisms used to obtain compounds and drugs used in the national economy and medicine. It develops and improves scientific methods for the biosynthesis of enzymes, vitamins, amino acids, antibiotics and other biologically active substances. Biotechnology also faces the task of developing measures to protect raw materials, foodstuffs, organic materials from spoilage by microorganisms, and studying the processes that occur during their storage and processing.
Soil microbiology studies the role of microorganisms in the formation and fertility of the soil, in plant nutrition.
Aquatic microbiology studies the microflora of water bodies, its role in food chains, in the cycle of substances, in pollution and purification of drinking and waste water.
The genetics of microorganisms, as one of the youngest disciplines, considers molecular bases heredity and variability of microorganisms, patterns of mutagenesis processes, develops methods and principles for controlling the vital activity of microorganisms and obtaining new strains for use in industry, agriculture and medicine.
Brief history of the development of microbiology.
The credit for the discovery of microorganisms belongs to the Dutch naturalist A. Leeuwenhoek (1632-1723), who created the first microscope with a magnification of 300 times. In 1695 he published the book "Secrets of Nature" with drawings of cocci, rods, spirilla. This aroused great interest among naturalists. The state of science of that time allowed only to describe new species (morphological period).
The beginning of the physiological period is associated with the activities of the great French scientist Louis Pasteur (1822-1895). The most important discoveries in the field of microbiology are associated with the name of Pasteur: he investigated the nature of fermentation, established the possibility of life without oxygen (anaerobiosis), rejected the theory of spontaneous generation, investigated the causes of spoilage of wines and beer. He proposed effective ways to combat food spoilage pathogens (pasteurization), developed the principle of vaccination and methods for obtaining vaccines.
R. Koch, a contemporary of Pasteur, introduced crops on dense nutrient media, counting microorganisms, isolating pure cultures, and sterilizing materials.
The immunological period in the development of microbiology is associated with the name of the Russian biologist I.I. Mechnikov, who discovered the doctrine of the body's immunity to infectious diseases (immunity), was the founder of the phagocytic theory of immunity, revealed antagonism in microbes. Simultaneously with I.I. Mechnikov, the mechanisms of immunity to infectious diseases were studied by the largest German researcher P. Ehrlich, who created the theory of humoral immunity.
Gamaleya N.F. - the founder of immunology and virology, discovered bacteriophagy.
DI. Ivanovsky first discovered viruses and became the founder of virology. Working in the Nikitsky Botanical Garden on the study of tobacco mosaic disease, which caused enormous damage to tobacco plantations, in 1892. established that this disease, common in the Crimea, is caused by a virus.
N.G. Gabrichevsky organized the first bacteriological institute in Moscow. He owns works on the study of scarlet fever, diphtheria, plague and other infections. He organized the production of anti-diphtheria serum in Moscow and successfully applied it to treat children.
P.F. Zdrodovsky is an immunologist and microbiologist, known for his fundamental work on the physiology of immunity, as well as in the field of rickettsiology and brucellosis.
V.M. Zhdanov is a prominent virologist, one of the organizers of the global elimination of smallpox on the planet, who stood at the origins of molecular virology and genetic engineering.
M.P. Chumakov is an immunobiotechnologist and virologist, organizer of the Institute of Poliomyelitis and Viral Encephalitis, author of the oral polio vaccine.
Z.V. Ermolyeva - the founder of domestic antibiotic therapy
Microbes appeared on our planet earlier than animals and humans. It is proved that pathogenic microbes existed in ancient times. This is evidenced by the discovery of antigens of pathogenic bacteria, such as the plague agent, in the remains of ancient burials (mummies). Even before the discovery of microbes, people suspected the existence of external factors that cause disease. Therefore, we can say that microbiology arose even before our era and went through a long path of development. In accordance with the level of knowledge about microbes, with the advent of new discoveries and methods, as well as the formation of new directions, the history of microbiology can be divided into five periods: 1) heuristic; 2) morphological; 3) physiological; 4) immunological; 5) molecular genetic.
Heuristic period
This period begins from the moment when Hippocrates (III-IV century BC) conjectured (heuristics - conjecture) that diseases transmitted from person to person are caused by invisible, inanimate substances. These substances he called "miasma". It must be said that in ancient times, not knowing about the existence of microbes, people used the fruits of the activity of microbes - winemaking, brewing, baking bread, etc.
Only in the XV - XVI centuries. the Italian physician and poet Geralimo Fracastoro (1476 - 1553) substantiated the opinion that "living contagions" cause diseases, which transmit diseases through the air or through objects, that these creatures live in the environment and to fight diseases, isolation of the patient is necessary, destruction contagion, etc. By the way, Fracastoro is considered the founder of epidemiology for these works.
Thus, over two millennia, scientists have gone from guesswork and assumptions to the belief that human diseases are caused by some invisible living beings.
Morphological period
This period begins at the end of the 17th - beginning of the 18th century, when the Dutch naturalist Anthony van Leeuwenhoek (1632 - 1723) discovered bacteria. The microscope he created magnified objects 150-300 times. Examining everything in a row (water, blood, plaque from the teeth, etc.), Leeuwenhoek discovered many living "animals", which he called "animalculuses". Systematically making sketches and descriptions, he sent letters to the Royal Society of London. These letters were printed in scientific journals, and then, in 1695, a book was published entitled "Secrets of Nature, discoveries by Anthony van Leeuwenhoek using a microscope." Thus, Leeuwenhoek marked the beginning of a morphological period that continues to this day. The first Russian to see microbes was Peter the Great, who visited Leeuwenhoek in Holland; he also brought the microscope to Russia, and the first researcher was the doctor M.M.Terekhovsky (1740 - 0796).
After the discovery of Leeuwenhoek, the victorious march of microbiology began. New bacteria, fungi, protozoa were discovered, and at the end of the 19th century. viruses have been discovered. To prove the etiological role of microbes in human pathology, animal studies were conducted, as well as experiments on self-infection. It should be noted the bold experiments of the Russian epidemiologist Danila Samoilovich (1724 - 1810), who infected himself with the detachable bubo of a plague patient. Historically, a number of experiments on self-infection with materials or cultures of pathogens taken from a patient with cholera (Petenhofer, I.I. Mechnikov, D.K. Zabolotny, N.F. Gamaleya), typhus (G.N. Minkh), plague (V .P. Smirnov), polio virus (M.N. Chumakov), etc.
End of the 19th century marked by the discovery of viruses. In 1892, the Russian botanist D.I. Ivanovsky (1864 - 1920) discovered the kingdom of viruses while studying tobacco mosaic disease. Then many viruses were discovered that infect humans, animals, plants and bacteria. In the first half of the XX century. an independent discipline took shape - virology, and in 1992 the whole world celebrated the 100th anniversary of the discovery of viruses by D.I. Ivanovsky.
The discovery and emergence of new types of microbes, as well as a change in the pathogenic properties of already known microbes, is quite natural, since, on the one hand, microbiological methods are being improved, and on the other hand, representatives of the microworld are evolving with the general laws of biology and genetics. Over the past 20-30 years alone, more than three dozen new and modified variants of known microbes have been discovered. All of them are combined into a group of dangerous unpredictable infections.
In the future, man also expects the emergence of new or modified pathogens of infectious diseases. An example is the increasing role of T-cell leukemia viruses, hepatitis viruses, prions, etc., in human pathology.
Physiological period
Since the discovery of microbes, naturally, the question arose not only about their role in human pathology, but also about the device, biological properties, life processes, ecology, etc.
Therefore, from the middle of the 19th century, an intensive study of the physiology of bacteria began. This period, which began in the 19th century and continues to the present day, has conventionally been called the physiological period in the development of microbiology.
An important role in this period was played by the work of the outstanding French scientist Louis Pasteur (1822 - 1895). Being a chemist by education, possessing broad erudition, the talent of an experimenter and the wisdom of an organizer of science, L. Pasteur made a number of fundamental fundamental discoveries in many fields of science, which allowed him to become the founder of a number of sciences: microbiology, biotechnology, disinfectology, stereochemistry.
L. Pasteur discovered:
1. The nature of fermentation;
2. Anaerobiosis;
3. Refuted the theory of spontaneous generation;
4. Substantiated the principle of sterilization;
5. Developed the principle of vaccination and methods for obtaining vaccines.
At the age of 26, L. Pasteur defended his doctoral thesis “On arsenic compounds of potassium, sodium and ammonia”, in which he proved that only certain stereoisomers are absorbed when growing mushrooms. Thus, L. Pasteur became the founder of stereochemistry.
Before Pasteur, Liebig's chemical theory of fermentation dominated. Pasteur made a discovery by proving that fermentation (lactic acid, alcohol, acetic) is a biological phenomenon that is caused by microbes and their enzymes, i.e. Pasteur became the founder of biotechnology.
Before Pasteur, there was a theory of spontaneous generation of all living things, i.e. it was believed that animals not only descended from each other, but also arise spontaneously (frogs are born from silt, etc.). Thus, microbes were also self-generated. Pasteur refuted this proposition with his experiments. He proved that if sterile broth is left in an open flask, then it will germinate, but if sterile broth is placed in a flask that communicates with air through a spiral glass tube, then the broth will not germinate, since bacteria with dust particles from the air will be deposited on curved parts of the spiral tube and will not fall into the broth.
Pasteur also proved that some bacteria not only do not tolerate oxygen, but live and multiply only in an oxygen-free environment. Thus, the phenomenon of anaerobiosis was discovered, and a group of microbes was called anaerobes.
Evidence of the role of microbes in enzymatic processes led Pasteur to solve a number of practical problems, in particular, to develop a method for combating wine diseases by heating it at 50 - 60 ° C in order to destroy bacteria. This method, then called pasteurization, is widely used today in the food industry.
A significant contribution to the development of microbiology during this period was made by the German bacteriologist Robert Koch (1843 - 1910), who proposed the staining of bacteria, microphotography, a method for obtaining pure cultures, as well as the famous Henle-Koch triad to establish the etiological role of microbes in infectious diseases. According to the triad, three conditions are necessary to prove the role of microbes in the occurrence of a specific disease:
1. So that the microbe is found only in the patient and is not found in healthy people and patients with other diseases;
2. A pure culture of the microbe must be obtained;
3. The microbe must cause a similar disease when it infects animals.
These principles were put forward by Henle before Koch, Koch formulated and developed them. In our time, this triad is of relative importance, since it is sometimes difficult to reproduce the disease in animals (for example, HIV infection) and often the pathogen is found in healthy individuals (carrier).
Thus, the study of the biological and physiological properties of microorganisms since the end of the 19th century. and throughout the 20th century. led to the knowledge of the deep processes of vital activity of bacteria, viruses and protozoa.
Immunological period
This period in the development of microbiology is associated primarily with the names of the French scientist L. Pasteur, the Russian biologist I.I. Mechnikov (1843-1916) and the German chemist Paul Ehrlich (1854-1915). These scientists can rightfully be called the founders of immunology.
L. Pasteur discovered and developed the principle of vaccination, I.I. Mechnikov - the phagocytic theory, P. Ehrlich hypothesized about antibodies and developed the humoral theory of immunity.
It should be noted that more than 200 years ago, the English physician Edward Jenner (1749 - 1823) found a way to create immunity to the causative agent of smallpox by inoculating a person with cowpox virus. It was the greatest discovery, but it had an empirical character. And only L. Pasteur scientifically substantiated the principle of vaccination, the method of obtaining vaccines and extended it to many countries. In the summer of 1886, created by I.I. Mechnikov and his talented student N.F. Gamaleya the first Pasteur stations.
Grateful humanity for the discoveries made with funds raised by international subscription, in 1888 built the Pasteur Institute in Paris, which still operates today. At the Pasteur Institute, such scientists worked as Aley, the first Pasteur student N.I. .M. Bezredka (proposed a method of desensitization), J. Borde (immunochemist), G. Ramon (developed a method for obtaining anatoxins) and many others.
A huge contribution was made by I.I. Mechnikov, who received the Nobel Prize in 1908 for the development of the theory of phagocytosis. In addition, I.I. Mechnikov was fond of the aging process, the role of normal human microflora, he is rightfully considered the founder of gerontology and the doctrine of dysbacteriosis. Opponent I.I. Mechnikov, P. Ehrlich for the humoral theory of immunity was also awarded the Nobel Prize in 1908.
In 1900, R. Koch discovered delayed-type hypersensitivity, in 1902 - 1905. Ch. Richet, J. Portier, G.P. Sakharov described immediate hypersensitivity, in the 1950s tolerance to antigens was discovered (P. Medovar, M. Hasek), immunological memory (F. Burnet). At the same time, the structure of immunoglobulins was studied (R. Porter and E. Edelman), interferon was discovered (A. Isaacs and J. Lindeman) and other immunomodulators. In addition, numerous studies have been devoted to the study of lymphocytes and their role in immunity, cooperative interactions of cells, etc.
Immunology in the middle of the 20th century took shape as an independent science with goals, objectives, structure and classification.
Molecular genetic period
The development of molecular biology, genetics, genetic and protein engineering and other sciences in the second half of the 20th century gave impetus to the development of the molecular and genetic aspects of microbiology.
During this period, the molecular structure of bacteria and viruses, the structure and composition of their genome, pathogenicity factors and immune defense factors were deciphered.
Deciphering the genes of bacteria and viruses, their synthesis made it possible to artificially create recombinant DNA and obtain recombinant strains of microorganisms based on them, which are widely used to obtain biologically active substances (hormones, drugs, food proteins, sugars, etc.). Genetic engineering has made it possible to obtain vaccine and diagnostic preparations (hepatitis B vaccine, monoclonal antibodies, etc.).
Immunogenetics is being developed, the purpose of which is gene prophylaxis and gene therapy of immunodeficiencies. Gene diagnostics (polymerase chain reaction) is widely used in microbiology.
Great progress has been made in the study of the histocompatibility system, which has solved the problems in transplantology during organ and tissue transplantation, the problem of maternal and fetal incompatibility in obstetrics and gynecology.
Evolution has undergone chemotherapy and antibiotic therapy of infectious diseases. A huge number of antiviral and antibacterial drugs have been created.
Thus, advances in microbiology and immunology not only ensured success in the fight against infectious diseases, but also opened up new ways and methods for diagnosing and treating non-communicable diseases.
