Depardieu or Depardieu? Richelieu, maybe Richelieu? Fet or Fet? Where is the universe, and where is the universe, what deed was perfect, and what was perfect? And how to read "Peter the Great" by A.K. Tolstoy, if we don’t know whether there should be dots over e in the sentence: “Under such a sovereign, let’s take a break!”? The answer is not so obvious, and the expression "dot the I" in Russian could well be replaced by "dot the E".

This letter is replaced when printed with "e", but forced to put dots when writing by hand. But telegrams, radio messages, and Morse code ignore it. It was transferred from the last to the seventh place of the Russian alphabet. And she managed to survive the revolution, unlike, for example, the more ancient "fits" and "Izhitsa". What difficulties do the owners of surnames with this letter face in the passport offices and it is not necessary to say. Yes, and before the appearance of passport offices, this confusion was - so the poet Athanasius Fet forever remained Fet for us. Whether this is acceptable or not is up to the reader who has read to the end.

foreign ancestry

The youngest letter of the Russian alphabet "ё" appeared in it on November 29, 1783. It was proposed by Princess Dashkova at a meeting of the Russian Academy to replace the inconvenient combination of IO with a cap, as well as the rarely used signs io, їô, ió, io. The very form of the letter is borrowed from French or Swedish, where it is a full member of the alphabet, denoting, however, a different sound. It is estimated that the frequency of occurrence of Russian Yo is 1% of the text. This is not so little: for every thousand characters (about half a page of printed text), there are on average ten “ё”. Offered at various times different variants transmission of this sound in writing. It was proposed to borrow the symbol from the Scandinavian languages ​​(ö, ø), Greek (ε - epsilon), simplify the superscript symbol (ē, ĕ), etc.

Path to the alphabet

Despite the fact that Dashkova proposed this letter, Derzhavin is considered its father in Russian literature. He was the first to use new letter in correspondence, and also the first to print a surname with an “ё”: Potemkin. At the same time, Ivan Dmitriev published the book “And my knick-knacks”, imprinting all the necessary points in it. But the “ё” acquired the final weight after N.M. Karamzin, an authoritative author, in the first almanac Aonides published by him (1796) printed: “dawn”, “eagle”, “moth”, “tears”, as well as the first verb - “drip”. True, in his famous "History of the Russian State" "yo" did not find a place for itself. And yet, the letter "ё" was in no hurry to officially introduce into the Russian alphabet. Many were embarrassed by the “yoking” pronunciation, because it was too similar to “servile”, “low”, while the solemn Church Slavonic language ordered to pronounce (and, accordingly, write) “e” everywhere. Ideas about culture, nobility and intelligence could not come to terms with a strange innovation - two dots above the letter. As a result, the letter "ё" entered the alphabet only in Soviet time when no one was trying to show off intelligence. Yo could be used in the text or replaced by "e" at the request of the writer.

Stalin and maps of the area

In a new way, the letter "e" was looked at in the military of the 1940s. According to legend, I. Stalin himself influenced her fate by ordering the obligatory printing of “yo” in all books, central newspapers and maps of the area. This happened because German maps of the area fell into the hands of Russian intelligence officers, which turned out to be more accurate and "meticulous" than ours. Where the pronunciation of "yo" was "jo" in these cards - that is, the transcription was extremely accurate. And on Russian maps they wrote the usual “e” everywhere, and the villages with the names “Berezovka” and “Berezovka” could easily be confused. According to another version, in 1942, Stalin was brought an order for signature, in which the names of all the generals were written with an “e”. The leader was furious, and the next day the entire issue of the Pravda newspaper was full of superscripts.

Torment of typists

But as soon as control weakened, the texts rapidly began to lose their "ё". Now, in the era computer technology, it is difficult to guess the reasons for this phenomenon, because they are ... technical. On most typewriters, there was no separate letter “ё”, and typists had to contrive, doing unnecessary actions: type “e”, return the carriage, put a quotation mark. Thus, for each "ё" they pressed three keys - which, of course, was not very convenient. Those who write by hand spoke of similar difficulties, and in 1951 A. B. Shapiro wrote: “... The use of the letter e to this day and even in the most last years has not been widely disseminated in the press. This cannot be considered a random occurrence. ... The very shape of the letter ё (a letter and two dots above it) is an undoubted difficulty from the point of view of the writer's motor activity: after all, writing this frequently used letter requires three separate techniques (a letter, a dot and a dot), and each time you need to follow so that the dots are symmetrically placed above the sign of the letter. ... In the general system of Russian writing, which almost does not know superscripts (the letter й has a simpler superscript than ё), the letter ё is a very burdensome and, apparently, therefore not sympathetic exception.

Esoteric controversy

Disputes about "ё" do not stop until now, and the arguments of the parties sometimes surprise with their unexpectedness. So, supporters of the widespread use of this letter sometimes build their argument on ... esotericism. They believe that this letter has the status of "one of the symbols of Russian life", and therefore the rejection of it is a disregard for the Russian language and Russia. “A spelling mistake, a political mistake, a spiritual and moral mistake” calls the spelling e instead of e, the ardent defender of this letter, the writer V.T. Proponents of this point of view believe that 33 - the number of letters of the Russian alphabet - is a sacred number, and "yo" occupies the sacred 7th place in the alphabet. “And until 1917, the letter Zh was blasphemously placed in the sacred seventh place of the 35-letter alphabet,” their opponents answer. They believe that the "e" should be dotted only in a few cases: "in cases of possible discrepancies; in dictionaries; in books for students of the Russian language (i.e. children and foreigners); for the correct reading of rare toponyms, names or surnames. In general, it is these rules that are now in effect with regard to the letter “e”.

Lenin and "yo"

There was a special rule about how the patronymic of Vladimir Ilyich Lenin should be written. AT instrumental it was necessary to write Ilyich, while every other Ilyich Soviet Union after 1956, it was prescribed to be called only Ilyich. The letter Yo singled out the leader and emphasized his uniqueness. Interestingly, this rule has never been canceled in the documents. monument to this tricky letter stands in Ulyanovsk - hometown"yofikator" Nikolai Karamzin. Russian artists came up with a special badge - "epirayt" - for marking certified publications, and Russian programmers - "etator" - a computer program that automatically places a letter with dots in your text.

Vitamin E (tocopherol) is an important antioxidant. Learn more about why vitamin E is needed, where it is found, how and how much to take it.

The term "vitamin E" includes a family of eight antioxidants - four tocopherols and four tocotrienols. Each group exists in alpha, beta, gamma and delta forms.

Alpha-tocopherol is the only form of vitamin E found in the human body, primarily in the blood and tissues.

Therefore, it is she who is of the greatest importance to us. In this article, we will tellwhy vitamin E is needed, where it is found, how and how much to take it.

Why is vitamin E needed?

The main function of vitamin E in the human body is.

Tocopherol is ideal for fighting free radicals and preventing the breakdown of fats, which are important components of cell membranes.

Free radicals are made up of small particles that can enter the body from the outside (cigarette smoke and pollutants) or be formed during metabolic processes.

In addition to maintaining the structural integrity of cell membranes throughout the body, vitamin E also helps protect the fats found in low-density lipoprotein (LDL) from oxidation. Oxidized LDL has been found to be the cause of heart and vascular disease. This is because healthy, unoxidized lipoproteins carry cholesterol from the liver to the tissues. After oxidation, they transform and become harmful to the body.

Where is contained vitamin E?

The main sources of vitamin E in the diet modern man- these are vegetable oils, for example, olive, corn and sunflower.

It can also be found in green leafy vegetables, nuts, and whole grains. Eight forms of vitamin E are found in many foods, and their proportions vary.

How much vitamin E to take?

According to the Norms of physiological requirements for energy and nutrients for various groups of the population of the Russian Federation, the physiological need for vitamin E for adults is 15 mg current. equiv./day.

The physiological need for children is from 3 to 15 mg current. equiv./day. What is "current. equiv."? The activity of vitamin E forms is expressed as α-tocopherol equivalents. One equivalent is determined depending on the biological activity of 1 mg of alpha-tocopherol. According to the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), to get 1 current. eq., the amount of beta-tocopherol must be multiplied by 0.5, gamma-tocopherol - by 0.1, a-tocotrienol - by 0.3.

What is encrypted in the "message to the Slavs"?

How much did the letter "b" cost the Russian State?

Who actually suggested using the letter "yo"?

We reveal the secrets of the Russian alphabet.

Message to the Slavs

The usual set of letters of the Russian alphabet is actually nothing more than a "message to the Slavs." Each of the Cyrillic letters has its own name, and if you read these names in alphabetical order, you get: “Az buki vede. The verb is good. Live green, earth, and, like some people, think of our peace. Rtsy word firmly - uk furt her. Tsy, worm, shta ya yati. One of the options for translating this text is as follows: “I know the letters: a letter is a property. Work hard, earthlings, as you should reasonable people- comprehend the universe! Carry the word with conviction: knowledge is a gift from God! Dare, delve into, in order to comprehend the light of being!”

It is believed that the letter "e" came into the Russian language from French solely through the efforts of Karamzin. As if in 1797, he redid the word “sliozy” in one of the poems and indicated in the note: “The letter with two dots replaces“ io ”. In fact, the letter was proposed for use by Princess Vorontsova-Dashkova (a highly educated lady, president of the Academy of Sciences) in 1783. At one of the first meetings, she asked the academicians why the first sound in the word “olka” is represented by two letters . None of the great minds, among whom were the noble writers Gavriil Derzhavin and Denis Fonvizin, dared to point out to the princess that there were two sounds: “th” and “o”. Therefore, Dashkova suggested using a new letter "to express words and pronunciations, with this consent beginning as matiory, iolka, iozh, iol." The peak of the popularity of the letter “ё” fell on the Stalin years: for a whole decade, it received special honor in textbooks, newspapers and reprints of the classics. Today, "ё" is more often seen in the form of a monument to a letter (there are several of them in Russia) than in the form of the letter itself in a book or newspaper.

Thunderstorm of high school students

The letter "yat" was a kind of label that distinguished among the Russian words "primordial", Slavic. The object of heated debate for the "Westerners" and "Slavophiles" on the issue of the reform of Russian orthography. A real torment for high school students. However, resourceful young minds, to help themselves, even composed a rhyme composed only of words with “yat”: White, pale, poor b?s? Killed hungry l?s. He was rich in l?su, he was gal, R?dkoy with chr?nom? The writer and translator Dmitry Yazykov was the first to advocate the abolition of “yatya” at one time: “A letter? ... is like an ancient stone, lying in the wrong place, about which everyone stumbles and does not take it aside, then only that it is ancient and was once needed for the building." But already in Soviet times, Alexander Solzhenitsyn, known for his conservatism, advocated the return of “yatya” to Russian grammar along with “er”.

most expensive letter

Yer - "dumb" letter, which did not denote any sound and performed the functions of " solid mark”, which was traditionally written at the end of words after solid consonants until the spelling reform of 1918. However, at the same time, “er” took up more than 8% of time and paper when printing and cost Russia more than 400,000 rubles annually. A real letter embezzler, not otherwise!

Peace - peace!

Another terrible torment for high school students was the letters "i" and "i". True, when the philologists-reformers sat down to discuss which of the two letters to remove from the Russian alphabet, the matter was decided by voting! So insignificant were the arguments in defense of each of them. The fact is that in the Greek alphabet "and" and "i" denoted two different sounds. And in the Russian language, already in the time of Peter I, it was impossible to distinguish them by ear! The letter "i" in the root was found only in the word "world" in the meaning of "universe". If peace was meant, the absence of war, then the word was written as "peace". Accordingly, the words with the same root were written: “peaceful people” and “world order”.

How a letter became a word

In Cyrillic, the letter "f" bore the intricate name "fert". The phrase “to stand with a fert” appeared, akimbo, and then a new noun “fert”, and even a diminutive “fertik”.

Generally in Slavic alphabet there were two letters for the sound "f" - "fert" and "fita", but it was a real confusion! The word "Philip" was then written through "f", and "Fyodor", "arithmetic" through "fit". Go figure it out! (And to understand, let’s remember: in the Greek alphabet, the letter “f” means the sound “ph”, and “fita” or “theta” - “th”).

The noun "fert" eventually became disapproving, semi-abusive. In A. Chekhov: “Here a firth comes to us with a violin, chirping”, in Pushkin: “At the wall, a young fir stands with a magazine picture.”

E!

The letter "e" was legalized in the Russian alphabet only in the 18th century, when borrowed words with the sound [e] at the beginning of the word began to penetrate into the Russian language, and their writing and reading began to cause inconvenience: how to read correctly - Euripides or Euripides, Euclid or Euclid? They met the letter unfriendly, and Mikhail Lomonosov even wrote that "if we invent new letters for foreign pronunciations, then our alphabet will be like the Chinese one." But already at the beginning of the 20th century encyclopedic Dictionary F. Pavlenkova ”recommends for the average intelligent reader: write pince-nez, kangaroo, catgut, keks. In general, in the Russian language there is a feeling that “e” is a foreign letter. Just remember how Irina Muravyova's heroine pronounces the word "krem" in the film "Moscow Doesn't Believe in Tears" to emphasize the status of cosmetics: imported, scarce.

The youngest letter of the alphabet "ё" was born more than two centuries ago. But to this day, she has both ardent supporters and those who consider the letter unnecessary. Together with the philologist, we figured out why the Russian language needs the letter “e”, what common mistakes it leads to ignoring it, and in what areas its use is mandatory.

Ё, ё - the seventh letter of the Russian alphabet. After consonants, it means their softness (if possible) and the sound [o], in other cases - the combination [yo].

The letter "e" was "born" in the house of the director of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences, Princess Ekaterina Dashkova, at one of the first meetings Russian Academy. Here, on November 29, 1783, they discussed the project of an explanatory Slavic-Russian dictionary. The princess wrote the word "Yolka" as "іolka" and asked: "Is it right to represent one sound with two letters?" Then she suggested using the new letter “ё” in such cases.

There is an assumption that Dashkova chose just such a letter, because she drank Moёt & Chandon champagne. The surname Moёt is not read according to the general rules French. And for the correct pronunciation, two dots are written above the French letter “e”.

The poet Gavriil Derzhavin was the first to use "ё" in personal correspondence. In 1795, in the book "And my knick-knacks" by Ivan Dmitriev, the letter was printed on a printing press. The first word printed with the letter "ё" was the word "everything". But in the highest circles there was an opinion that "yokane" was the lot of common speech.

The letter "ё" was officially recognized only in Soviet times. On December 24, 1942, by order No. 1825 of the People's Commissar of Education of the RSFSR Vladimir Potemkin, the mandatory use of the letter "ё" in school practice was introduced, and since that time it has been considered part of the Russian alphabet.

According to legend, Joseph Stalin personally influenced the fate of the letter. Allegedly, he was furious when a document was brought to him for signature, in which all the surnames were written with an “e”. According to another version, the scouts captured German maps, where "ё" was transmitted by the combination "jo", and the Russians could easily confuse the names of villages, for example, "Berezovka" and "Berezovka".

The letter "ё" is contained in more than 12.5 thousand words, in 2.5 thousand names of citizens of Russia and former USSR, in thousands of geographical names of Russia and the world and in thousands of names and surnames of citizens of foreign countries.

Reasons for dislike

The “Rules of Russian Spelling and Punctuation” of 1956, which are still in force today, fixed that “yo” must be written when it is necessary to prevent incorrect reading of a word, when it is necessary to indicate the pronunciation of a little-known word, in dictionaries and spelling reference books, as well as in textbooks for non-Russians, in books for younger children school age and in others special types literature. However, these guidelines were not always followed in practice.

The technical reason for not using "ё" is that there was often no separate key on typewriters. The letter was abandoned in order to reduce the number of keys. To type "ё", typists pressed three keys: "e", return the carriage, put a quotation mark.

The displacement is also associated with the rapid development of typographic activity. The presence of the letter "ё" in the typographical set caused additional material costs. Some early computer keyboards ignored the "ё". Although now the presence of a letter in the text with computer typing and layout in any size and typeface does not lead to an increase in the cost of printing.

When writing "ё" also caused problems. The Soviet linguist Abram Shapiro believed that “the very form of the letter “ё” (a letter and two dots above it) is an undoubted difficulty from the point of view of the motor activity of the writer: after all, writing this frequently used letter requires three separate techniques (letter, dot and dot) , and every time you need to make sure that the points are symmetrically placed above the sign of the letter.

Why do you need "yo"

According to Oksana Isachenko, Candidate of Philological Sciences, Associate Professor of the Department of General and Russian Linguistics of the Institute of Geological Studies of the Novosibirsk State University, Professor of the Department of the Russian Language of NVVKU, the letter “ё” is needed to maintain balance in Russian spelling.

“Descriptive similarity, to the point of confusion, e and e does not mean that this is a “duplication”. The difference is that e is the sound [e] (now we are talking only about stressed positions), and e is [o]. These sounds are also expressed by the letters o and e. But no one even has a thought to look for something superfluous in this pair. Exactly the same difference between e and yo. Rather, you need to think about the doubleness of the letters o and ё. It is she who determines the need for a spelling choice o // ё (rustle, whisper). But there is a clear rule that is taught in school,” says the linguist.

She notes that this letter has one important quality - it always means percussive sound[o]: hairstyle, village, Semyon Semyonych! With such words, few people have difficulties. But a whole series of words, as a result of neglecting the letter "ё", fell into the zone of "orthoepic risk".

“It’s just a shame that we ourselves “organized” these pronunciation errors when we decided to ignore the letter “ё”. As a result of massive confusion newborn, ice, beaten, Godfather, beet, scabrous, click;talk nonsense, settled way of life, settled, black ice, procession, scam, being, guardianship. Where "ё", you need to consistently write it everywhere (people will stop getting confused); if today there are options (bl yo cool // bl e cool, man yo vr // man e vr, f yo lie // f e lch), forcibly unify them, ”the philologist notes.

A monument to the letter "ё" is installed in Ulyanovsk. This is a red granite stele with an engraved enlarged copy of the letter first printed on page 166 in the word "tears" in Nikolai Karamzin's almanac "Aonida" in 1797.

Where do you need "yo"

Cases of consistent and selective use of "ё" are listed in the "Complete Academic Reference" 2009 edition in the section "Use of the letter "ё" in texts for various purposes." Isachenko is sure that not just consistent, but mandatory should be "e" in educational literature designed to study mother tongue and native literature(thing " Literary reading”), as well as for learning Russian as a foreign language.

For example, in textbooks elementary school"the era of stress" ends in the first grade, and then - themselves. This is the wrong position. Especially if you take into account the literary assortment that children are stuffed with in grades 2-4: epics, lives, fragments of ancient Russian chronicles, fairy tales of writers of the 18th-19th centuries. Even technically, it is impossible to master these texts without stresses, not to mention that it would not hurt to understand,” she explains.

In her experience, another area of ​​mandatory (rather than selective, as the guide recommends) use of "ё" - a surname, especially in registry offices.

“I had a bad example. History, I think, is not uncommon. I wanted to register the child under the paternal surname, but with "ё" - in accordance with the pronunciation. In the registry office they told me that then it would be "not obvious" that this child was this man's son. This, of course, is incredibly stupid. Negligence is the opposite of "literalism". For example, the famous poet Fet became so due to the carelessness of the publisher of the Otechestvennye Zapiski magazine, in fact he was Fet. And now such stories are not uncommon, ”the linguist notes.

Ministry of Education and Science Russian Federation in 2012 commented on the spelling of the letters "e" and "ё" in official documents. The reason was the appeals of citizens on the issue of spelling the letters "e" and "ё" when drawing up documents proving the identity of a citizen of the Russian Federation, preparing forms of certificates of state registration of acts of civil status, drawing up documents on education issued by state-accredited educational institutions, as well as other documents. The agency explained that in proper names (last name, first name, patronymic), the use of the letter “ё” should be mandatory.

“Judicial practice in this case proceeds from the fact that, on the basis of the Rules (the spelling of the letters “e” and “ё” is equated. Writing the letter “e” instead of “ё” and vice versa in the surname, name and patronymic does not distort the data of the owner of the documents, while provided that the data on the basis of which it is possible to identify a person in such documents correspond,” the letter says.

“If I were a legislator, I would suggest that in all the metrics of a person, the surname be accurately recorded and even stressed. By the way, the consistent use of "ё" when writing surnames in part would have eliminated this problem. For example, recorded today Chernyshev can be read as: Che "rnyshev, Cherny" shev and Chernysh [o] in, and write Chernyshev, you get a surname - no options, ”summed up Isachenko.