In the light of already published and future videos, for the general development and systematization of knowledge, I propose a generalized overview of the genera of the hominin family from the later Sahelanthropes, who lived about 7 million years ago, to Homo sapiens, who appeared from 315 to 200 thousand years ago. This review will help not to fall into the trap of those who like to mislead and systematize their knowledge. Since the video is quite long, for convenience, in the comments there will be a table of contents with a time code, thanks to which you can start or continue watching the video, from the selected genus or species, if you click on the blue numbers in the list. 1. Sahelanthropus This genus is represented by only one species: 1.1. The Chadian Sahelanthropus (Sahelanthropus tchadensis) is an extinct species of hominin, about 7 million years old. His skull, named Tumaina, which means "hope for life", was found in the northwest of the Republic of Chad in 2001 by Michel Brunet. The volume of their brain, presumably 380 cubic cm, is approximately the same as that of modern chimpanzees. According to the characteristic location of the occipital foramen, scientists believe that this is the most ancient skull of an upright creature. Sahelanthropus may represent a common ancestor of humans and chimpanzees, but there are still a number of questions about his facial features that may cast doubt on the status of Australopithecus. By the way, the affiliation of the Sahelanthropes to the human pedigree is disputed by the discoverers of the next genus with the only species Ororin tugensis. 2. Genus Orrorin (Orrorin) includes one species: Orrorin tugensis (Orrorin tugenensis), or man of the millennium, this species was first found in 2000 in the Tugen mountains of Kenya. Its age is about 6 million years. Currently, 20 fossils have been found at 4 sites: these include two parts of the lower jaw; symphyses and several teeth; three fragments of a thigh; partial humerus; proximal phalanx; and the distal phalanx of the thumb. By the way, in Orrorins, the femurs with obvious signs of upright posture, in contrast to the indirect ones in Sahelanthropes. But the rest of the skeleton, except for the skull, indicates that he climbed trees. Orrorins were about 1m tall. 20 centimeters. In addition, related finds indicated that Orrorin did not live in the savannah, but in an evergreen forest environment. By the way, it is this species that is demonstrated by lovers of sensations in anthropology or supporters of ideas about the extraterrestrial origin of people, saying that 6 million years ago aliens visited us. As evidence, they note that in this species the femur is closer to a human than in a later species of Afar Australopithecus, named Lucy, 3 million years old, this is true, but understandable, which scientists did 5 years ago, describing the level of primitiveness of similarity and that it is similar to primates that lived 20 million years ago. But on top of that argument, the TV experts report that Orrorin's reconstructed face is flat and human-like. And then take a close look at the images of the finds and find the parts from which you can assemble the face. Don't you see? Me too, but they are there, according to the authors of the programs! At the same time, fragments of a video about completely different finds are shown. This is calculated on the fact that they are trusted by hundreds of thousands, or even millions of viewers, and they will not check. This is how, mixing truth and fiction, a sensation is obtained, but only in the minds of their adherents, and, unfortunately, there are not a few of them. And this is just one example. 3. Ardipithecus (Ardipithecus), an ancient genus of hominids that lived 5.6-4.4 million years ago. At the moment, only two species are described: 3.1. Ardipithecus kadabba (Ardipithecus kadabba) was found in Ethiopia in the valley of the Middle Awash River in 1997. And in 2000, to the north, a few more finds were found. The finds are represented mainly by teeth and fragments of skeletal bones, from several individuals, 5.6 million years old. The following species from the genus Ardipithecus is more qualitatively described. 3.2. Ardipithecus ramidus (Ardipithecus ramidus) or Ardi, which means earth or root. The remains of Ardi were first discovered near the Ethiopian village of Aramis in 1992 in the Afar depression in the Awash River valley. And in 1994, more fragments were obtained, which accounted for 45% of the total skeleton. This is a very significant find, which combines the features of both monkeys and humans. The age of the finds was determined based on their stratigraphic position between two volcanic layers and amounted to 4.4 Ma. And between 1999 and 2003, scientists discovered the bones and teeth of nine more individuals of the Ardipithecus ramidus species, on the northern bank of the Awash River in Ethiopia, west of Hadar. Ardipithecus is similar to most of the primitive previously recognized hominins, but unlike them, Ardipithecus ramidus had a big toe that retained its grasping ability, adapted for climbing trees. However, scientists argue that other features of its skeleton reflect an adaptation to upright posture. Like late hominins, Ardi had reduced fangs. His brain was about the size of a modern chimpanzee and about 20% the size of a brain. modern man . Their teeth say that they ate both fruits and leaves without preference, and this is already the path to omnivorousness. In terms of social behavior, slight sexual dimorphism may indicate a decrease in aggression and competition between males in a group. The legs of the ramidus are well suited for walking both in the forest and in the conditions of meadows, swamps and lakes. 4. Australopithecus (Australopithecus), here it should immediately be noted that there is also the concept of Australopithecus, which includes 5 more genera and is divided into 3 groups: a) early Australopithecus (7.0 - 3.9 million years ago); b) gracile australopithecines (3.9 - 1.8 million years ago); c) massive australopithecines (2.6 - 0.9 million years ago). But Australopithecus as a genus is a fossil higher primate with signs of upright walking and anthropoid features in the structure of the skull. Who lived in the period from 4.2 to 1.8 million years ago. Let's consider 6 types of Australopithecus: 4.1. The Australopithecus anamensis of Anamen is believed to be the ancestor of humans, who lived about four million years ago. Fossils have been found in Kenya and Ethiopia. The first find of the species was discovered in 1965 near Lake Turkana in Kenya, previously the lake was called Rudolf. Then, in 1989, teeth of this species were found on the northern coast of Turkana, but on the territory of modern Ethiopia. And already in 1994, about a hundred additional fragments from two dozen hominids were discovered, including one complete lower jaw, with teeth resembling human ones. And only in 1995, on the basis of the described finds, the species was identified as Anamsky Australopithecus, which is considered a descendant of the species Ardipithecus ramidus. And in 2006, a new find of the Anaman Australopithecus was announced, in northeastern Ethiopia, about 10 km. from the site of the finds of Ardipithecus ramidus. The age of the Anamese australopithecines is about 4-4.5 million years. Anamsky Australopithecus is considered the ancestor of the following species of Australopithecus. 4.2. The Afar Australopithecus (Australopithecus afarensis), or "Lucy", after the first find, is an extinct hominid that lived between 3.9 and 2.9 million years ago. The Afar Australopithecus was closely related to the genus Homo, either as a direct ancestor or close relative of an unknown common ancestor. Lucy herself, 3.2 million years old, was discovered in 1974 in the Afar Basin near the village of Hadar in Ethiopia on November 24. "Lucy" was represented by an almost complete skeleton. And the name "Lucy" was inspired by the Beatles song "Lucy in the sky with diamonds." Afar australopithecines have also been found in other localities such as Omo, Maka, Feige and Belohdeli in Ethiopia and Koobi Fore and Lotagam in Kenya. Representatives of the species had fangs and molars relatively larger than those of modern humans, and the brain was still small - from 380 to 430 cubic cm - the face was with protruding lips. The anatomy of the arms, legs, and shoulder joints suggests that the creatures were partially arboreal and not only terrestrial, although in general anatomy the pelvis is much more human-like. However, due to the anatomical structure, they could already walk with an upright gait. The upright posture of the Afar Australopithecus may just be due to climate change in Africa from the jungle to the savannah. In Tanzania, 20 km from the Sadiman volcano, in 1978 footprints of a family of upright hominids were discovered, preserved in volcanic ash south of Olduvai Gorge. Based on sexual dimorphism - the difference in body size between males and females - these creatures most likely lived in small family groups containing one dominant and larger male and several small breeding females. "Lucy" would live in a group culture that involves communication. In 2000, the skeletal remains of what is believed to be a 3-year-old child of Afar australopithecines, who lived 3.3 million years ago, were discovered in the Dikik region. These Australopithecus, according to archaeological finds, used stone tools for cutting meat from animal carcasses and crushing. But this is only the use, not the manufacture of them. 4.3. The Bahr el Ghazal Australopithecus (Australopithecus bahrelghazali) or Abel is a fossil hominin first discovered in 1993 in the Bahr el Ghazal Valley at the Koro Toro archaeological site in Chad. Abel is approximately 3.6-3 million years old. The find consists of a mandibular fragment, the lower second incisor, both the lower canines and all four of its premolars. This australopithecine fell into a separate species thanks to its lower three root premolars. It is also the first australopithecine discovered north of the previous ones, which indicates their wide distribution. 4.4 The African Australopithecus (Australopithecus africanus) was an early hominid that lived 3.3 to 2.1 million years ago during the late Pliocene and early Pleistocene. Unlike the previous species, it had a larger brain and more human-like features. Many scientists believe that he is the ancestor modern people . The African Australopithecus has only been found at four sites in southern Africa - Taung in 1924, Sterkfontein in 1935, Makapansgat in 1948 and Gladysvale in 1992. The first find was a baby skull known as the "Taung Baby" and described by Raymond Dart, who named it Australopithecus africanus, meaning "southern monkey of Africa". He claimed that this species was intermediate between apes and humans. Further discoveries confirmed their separation into a new species. This australopithecine was a bipedal hominid with arms slightly longer than legs. Despite its somewhat more human-like cranial features, other more primitive features are present, including simian-like, curved climbing fingers. But the pelvis was more adapted to bipedalism than in the previous species. 4.5. Australopithecus garhi (Australopithecus garhi), 2.5 million years old, was discovered in Ethiopia in the Bowri deposits. "Garhi" means "surprise" in the local Afar language. For the first time, tools similar to the Aldovan culture of stone processing were found along with the remains. 4.6. Australopithecus sediba (Australopithecus sediba) is a species of australopithecines of the early Pleistocene, represented by fossils dating back to about 2 million years. This species is known from four incomplete skeletons found in South Africa in a place called the "cradle of mankind", 50 km northwest of Johannesburg, within the Malapa cave. The discovery was made thanks to the Google Earth service. "Sediba" means "spring" in the Sotho language. Australopithecus sediba, two adults, and one 18-month-old infant were found together. In total, more than 220 fragments have been excavated so far. Australopithecus sediba may have lived in the savannah, but the diet included fruits and other forest products. The height of the sediba was about 1.3 meters. The first specimen of Australopithecus sediba was discovered by 9-year-old Matthew, son of paleoanthropologist Lee Berger, on August 15, 2008. The mandible found was part of a young male whose skull was discovered later in March 2009 by Berger and his team. Also in the area of ​​the cave were found fossils of various animals, including saber-toothed cats, mongooses and antelopes. The volume of the brain of a sediba was about 420-450 cubic cm, which is about three times less than that of modern people. Australopithecus sediba had a remarkably modern hand whose precision of grip suggests the use and manufacture of a tool. Sediba probably belonged to a late South African branch of Australopithecus, which coexisted with members of the genus Homo already living at that time. Currently, some scientists are trying to clarify the dates and look for a connection between Australopithecus sediba and the genus Homo. 5. Paranthropus (Paranthropus) - a genus of fossil higher primates. They have been found in Eastern and South Africa . They are also called massive australopithecines. Paranthropus finds are dated from 2.7 to 1 million years ago. 5.1. Ethiopian Paranthropus (Paranthropus aethiopicus or Australopithecus aethiopicus) The species was described from a 1985 find in the Turkana Lake area, Kenya, known as the "black skull" because of its dark color due to its manganese content. The skull has been dated to 2.5 million years. But later, part of the lower jaw, discovered in 1967 in the Omo River Valley, Ethiopia, was also attributed to this species. Anthropologists believe that the Ethiopian Paranthropus lived between 2.7 and 2.5 million years ago. They were quite primitive and share many features with the Afar Australopithecus, possibly being their direct descendants. Their special feature was strongly protruding jaws. This species is believed to diverge from the Homo lineage on the evolutionary branch of the hominid tree. 5.2. Boise's Paranthropus (Paranthropus boisei) aka Australopithecus boisei, aka "The Nutcracker" was an early hominin described as the largest of the Paranthropus genus. They lived in East Africa during the Pleistocene era from about 2.4 to 1.4 million years ago. The largest skull, found in Konso in Ethiopia, dates back to 1.4 million years. They were 1.2-1.5 m tall, and weighed from 40 to 90 kg. The well-preserved skull of the paranthropus bois was first discovered in Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania in 1959 and was given the name Nutcracker, due to its large teeth and thick enamel. It has been dated at 1.75 million. And 10 years later, in 1969, the son of the discoverer of the "Nutcracker" Mary Leakey Richard discovered another skull of paranthropus boyes in Koobi Fora near Lake Turkana in Kenya. Judging by the structure of the jaws, they ate massive plant foods, and lived in forests and shrouds. According to the structure of the skull, scientists believe that the brain of these Paranthropus was quite primitive, up to 550 cubic cm in volume. 5.3. Paranthropus massive (Paranthropus robustus). The first skull of this species was discovered at Kromdraai in South Africa in 1938 by a schoolboy who later traded it for chocolate to anthropologist Robert Broom. Paranthropus or Massive Australopithecus were bipedal hominids that probably evolved from graceful australopithecines. They are characterized by strong skullcaps, and gorilla-like cranial ridges that suggest strong chewing muscles. They lived between 2 and 1.2 million years ago. The remains of massive paranthropes have been found only within South Africa at Kromdraai, Swartkrans, Drimolen, Gondolin and Coopers. The remains of 130 individuals were found in a cave in Swartkrans. Dental studies have shown that massive paranthropes rarely lived to 17 years of age. The approximate height of the males was about 1.2 m, and their weight was about 54 kg. But the females were a little less than 1 meter tall and weighed about 40 kg, which indicates a rather large sexual dimorphism. Their brain size ranged from 410 to 530 cc. see. They ate rather massive food, such as tubers and nuts, possibly from open forests and savannahs. 6. Kenyanthropus (Kenyanthropus) a genus of hominids who lived from 3.5 to 3.2 million years ago in the Pliocene. This genus is represented by one species, Kenyanthropus flatface, but some scientists consider it a separate species of Australopithecus, like Australopithecus flatface, while others attribute it to the Afar Australopithecus. 6.1. The flat-faced Kenyanthropus (Kenyanthropus platyops) was found on the Kenyan side of Lake Turkana in 1999. These Kenyanthropes lived from 3.5 to 3.2 million years ago. This species remains a mystery, and suggests that 3.5 - 2 million years ago there were several humanoid species, each of which was well adapted to life in a certain environment. 7. The genus People or Homo includes both extinct species and Homo sapiens. Extinct species classified as ancestral, especially Homo erectus, or as closely related to modern humans. The earliest representatives of the genus, at the moment, date back to 2.5 million years. 7.1. Homo gautengensis is a hominin species that was isolated in 2010 after a fresh look at a skull found back in 1977 in the Sterkfontein Cave in Johannesburg, South Africa, Gotheng Province. This species is represented by South African fossil hominins, formerly referred to as Handy Man (Homo habilis), Working Man (Homo ergaster), or in some cases Australopithecus. But Australopithecus sediba, who lived at the same time as Homo Gautengensis, turned out to be much more primitive. Homo gautengensis has been identified from skull fragments, teeth, and other parts found at various times in caves at a site called the Cradle of Humankind in South Africa. The oldest specimens are dated at 1.9-1.8 million years. The youngest specimens from Swartkrans date from about 1.0 million to 600 thousand years. According to the description, Homo Gautengensis had large teeth suitable for chewing plants and a small brain, most likely he consumed a predominantly plant food, in contrast to Homo erectus, Homo sapiens and, probably, Homo habilis. According to scientists, he produced and used stone tools, and judging by the burnt animal bones found with the remains of Homo Gautengensis, these hominins used fire. They were a little over 90 cm tall, and their weight was about 50 kg. Homo Gautengensis walked on two legs, but also spent considerable time in the trees, possibly feeding, sleeping, and sheltering from predators. 7.2. Rudolf man (Homo rudolfensis), a species of the genus Homo, who lived 1.7-2.5 million years ago, was first discovered in 1972 on Lake Turkana in Kenya. However, the remains were first described in 1978 by the Soviet anthropologist Valery Alekseev. Remains have also been found in Malawi in 1991 and in Koobi-fora, Kenya in 2012. Rudolf man coexisted in parallel with Homo habilis or skillful man and they could interact. Possibly ancestral to later Homo species. 7.3. Handyman (Homo habilis) is a species of fossil hominin that is considered to be representative of our ancestors. Lived from about 2.4 to 1.4 million years ago, during the Gelazian Pleistocene. The first finds were discovered in Tanzania in 1962-1964. Homo habilis was thought to be the earliest known species of the genus Homo, until the discovery of Homo Gautengensis in 2010. Homo habilis was short and had disproportionately long arms compared to modern humans, but with a flatter face than Australopithecus. The volume of his skull was less than half compared to modern humans. His finds are often accompanied by primitive stone tools from the Olduvai culture, hence the name "Handyman". And if it is easier to describe, then the body of the habilis resembles Australopithecus, with a more human-like face and smaller teeth. Whether Homo habilis was the first hominid to possess stone tool technology remains debatable, as Australopithecus garhi, dated 2.6 million years old, has been found with similar stone tools, and is at least 100,000 to 200,000 years older than Homo habilis. Homo habilis lived in parallel with other bipedal primates such as Paranthropus boisei. But Homo habilis, perhaps through the use of a tool and a more varied diet, appears to have been the forerunner of a whole line of new species by dental analysis, while the remains of Paranthropus boisei have not been found again. It is also possible that Homo habilis coexisted with Homo erectus around 500,000 years ago. 7.4. Homo ergaster is an extinct but one of the earliest species of Homo that lived in eastern and southern Africa during the early Pleistocene, 1.8 - 1.3 million years ago. Named for his advanced hand tool technology, he is sometimes referred to as the African Homo erectus. Some researchers consider the working man to be the ancestor of the Acheulian culture, while other scientists give the palm to the early erectus. There is also evidence of their use of fire. The remains were first discovered in 1949 in southern Africa. And the most complete skeleton was found in Kenya on the western shore of Lake Turkana, it belonged to a teenager and was called "The Boy from Turkana" or also "Nariokotome Boy", his age was 1.6 million years. Often this find is classified as Homo erectus. Homo ergaster is believed to have diverged from the Homo habilis lineage between 1.9 and 1.8 million years ago and existed for about half a million years in Africa. Scientists also believe that they quickly became sexually mature, even in their youth. Its distinguishing feature was also rather tall, about 180 cm. The worker also has less sexual dimorphism than Austropithecus, and this may mean more prosocial behavior. His brain was already larger, up to 900 cubic centimeters. Some scientists believe that they could use a proto-language based on the structure of the cervical vertebrae, but this is only speculation at the moment. 7.5. The Dmanisian hominid (Homo georgicus) or (Homo erectus georgicus) is the first member of the Homo genus to leave Africa. Finds dating back to 1.8 million years were discovered in Georgia in August 1991, described in different years also as Georgian Man (Homo georgicus), Homo erectus georgicus, Dmanisi hominid (Dmanisi) and as Working Man (Homo ergaster). But it was separated into a separate species and, together with erectus and ergaster, they are also often called archanthropes, or if we add here the Heidelberg man of Europe and Sinanthropus from China, we will already get Pithecanthropes. In 1991 by David Lordkipanidze. Along with ancient human remains, tools and animal bones were found. The brain volume of Dmanisian hominids is approximately 600-700 cubic centimeters - two times less than that of modern humans. This is the smallest hominid brain found outside of Africa, other than the Floresian man (Homo floresiensis). The Dmanisian hominid was bipedal and shorter than the abnormally tall ergaster, the average height of males was about 1. 2m. Dental conditions indicate omnivory. But among the archaeological finds, evidence of the use of fire was not found. Possibly a descendant of Rudolf Man. 7.6. Homo erectus, or simply Erectus, is an extinct species of hominin that lived from the late Pliocene to the late Pleistocene, approximately 1.9 million to 300,000 years ago. About 2 million years ago, the climate in Africa just changed to drier. The long time of existence and migrations could not but create many different views scientists for this kind. According to the available data and their interpretation, the species originated in Africa, then migrated to India, China and to the island of Java. In general, Homo erectus settled in the warm parts of Eurasia. But some scientists suggest that erectus appeared in Asia and only then migrated to Africa. Erectus have existed for over a million years, longer than other human species. The classification and lineage of Homo erectus is quite controversial. But there are some subspecies of erectus. 7.6.1 Pithecanthropus or "Javanese Man" - Homo erectus erectus 7.6.2 Yuanmou Man - Homo erectus yuanmouensis 7.6.3 Lantian Man - Homo erectus lantianensis 7.6.4 Nanjing Man - Homo erectus nankinensis 7.6.5 Sinanthropus or "Beijing Man" - Homo erectus pekinensis 7.6.6 Meganthrope - Homo erectus palaeojavanicus 7.6.7 Javanthrope or Soloyan man - Homo erectus soloensis 7.6.8 Man from Totavel - Homo erectus tautavelensis 7.6.9 Dmanisian hominid - Homo erectus georgicus 7.6.10 Man from Bilzingsleben - Homo erectus bilzingslebenensis 7.6.11 Atlantrope or Moorish man - Homo erectus mauritanicus 7.6.12 Cherpano man - Homo cepranensis, some scientists distinguish it, like many other subspecies, into a separate species, but the 1994 find in the vicinity of Rome is represented only by a skull, therefore little data for a more thorough analysis. Homo erectus got its name for a reason, its legs were adapted for both walking and running. Temperature metabolism was increased by thinner and shorter body hair. It is possible that erectus have already become hunters. Smaller teeth may indicate a change in diet, most likely due to fire treatment. And this is already a way to increase the brain, the volume of which in erectus varied from 850 to 1200 cubic cm. They were up to 178 cm tall. Erectus sexual dimorphism was less than that of its predecessors. They lived in hunter-gatherer groups and hunted together. They used fire both for warmth and cooking, and to scare away predators. They made tools, hand axes, flakes, and in general were carriers of the Acheulean culture. In 1998, there were suggestions that they were building rafts. 7.7. Homo antecessor is an extinct human species, between 1.2 million and 800,000 years old. Found in the Sierra de Atapuerca in 1994. Fossil of the upper jaw and part of the skull, 900 thousand years old. years, discovered in Spain, belonged to a boy of a maximum of 15 years. Many bones, both animal and human, were found nearby, bearing marks that could indicate cannibalism. Nearly all of those eaten were teenagers or children. At the same time, there was no evidence indicating a lack of food in the vicinity at that time. They were about 160-180 cm tall and weighed about 90 kg. The volume of the human brain of the previous (Homo antecessor) was about 1000-1150 cubic centimeters. Scientists suggest a rudimentary ability to speak. 7.8. Heidelberg man (Homo heidelbergensis) or protanthropus (Protanthropus heidelbergensis) is an extinct species of the genus Homo, which may be the direct ancestor of both Neanderthals (Homo neanderthalensis), if we consider its development in Europe, and Homo sapiens, but only in Africa. The discovered remains were dated from 800 to 150 thousand years. The first records of this species were made in 1907 by Daniel Hartmann in the village of Mauer in southwestern Germany. After that, representatives of the species were found in France, Italy, Spain, Greece and China. Also in 1994, a discovery was made in England near the village of Boxgrove, hence the name "Man from Boxgrove" (Boxgrove Man). However, there is also the name of the area - "horse slaughterhouse", which involves butchering horse carcasses with stone tools. Heidelberg man used the tools of the Acheulean culture, sometimes with transitions to the Mousterian culture. They were on average 170 cm tall, and in South Africa there were finds of individuals 213 cm tall and dated from 500 to 300 thousand years. Heidelberg man may have been the first species to bury their dead, based on 28 remains found in Atapuerca, Spain. He may have used tongue and red ocher as decoration, as evidenced by finds at Terra Amata near Nice on the slopes of Mount Boron. Dental analysis suggests they were right-handed. Heidelberg man (Homo heidelbergensis) was an advanced hunter, judging by hunting tools such as spears from Schöningen in Germany. 7.8.1. Rhodesian man (Homo rhodesiensis) is an extinct subspecies of hominins that lived from 400 to 125 thousand years ago. The Kabwe fossil skull is a typical specimen of this species, found in the Broken Hill Caves in Northern Rhodesia, now Zambia, by the Swiss miner Tom Zwieglaar in 1921. Previously, it stood out as a separate species. The Rhodesian man was massive, with very large eyebrows and a broad face. He is sometimes called the "African Neanderthal", although he has intermediate features between sapiens and Neanderthals. 7.9. Florisbad (Homo helmei) is described as an "archaic" Homo sapiens that lived 260,000 years ago. Represented by a partially preserved skull that was discovered in 1932 by Professor Dreyer within the archaeological and paleontological site of Florisbad near Bloemfontein in South Africa. It may be an intermediate form between Heidelberg man (Homo heidelbergensis) and Homo sapiens. Florisbad was the same size as a modern human, but with a large brain volume of about 1400 cubic cm. 7.10 The Neanderthal (Homo neanderthalensis) is an extinct species or subspecies within the genus Homo, closely related to, and interbreeding with, modern humans. The term "Neanderthal" comes from the modern spelling of the Neander Valley in Germany, where the species was first discovered in the Feldhofer Cave. Neanderthals existed, according to genetic data, from 600 thousand years ago, and according to archaeological finds from 250 to 28 thousand years ago, with the last refuge in Gibraltar. The finds are currently being intensively studied and it makes no sense to describe in more detail, since I will return to this species again and possibly more than once. 7.11. Homo Naledi Fossils were discovered in 2013 in the Dinaledi Chamber, Rising Star Cave System, Gauteng Province in South Africa and were quickly recognized as the remains of a new species in 2015, and distinct from those previously found. In 2017, the finds are dated from 335 to 236 thousand years ago. The remains of fifteen individuals, both male and female, were recovered from the cave, among them were children. The new species has been named Homo naledi and has an unexpected combination of modern and primitive features, including a fairly small brain. The growth of "Naledi" was about one and a half meters, the volume of the brain was from 450 to 610 cubic meters. See The word "ice" means "star" in the Sotho-Tswana languages. 7.12. Floresian man (Homo floresiensis) or Hobbit is an extinct dwarf species of the genus Homo. The Floresian man lived from 100 to 60 thousand years ago. Archaeological remains were discovered by Mike Morewood in 2003 on the island of Flores in Indonesia. Incomplete skeletons of nine individuals have been recovered, including one complete skull, from Liang Bua Cave. A distinctive feature of hobbits, as the name implies, is their height, about 1 meter and a small brain, about 400 cm3. Stone tools were found along with skeletal remains. There is still debate about the Floresian man, whether he could make tools with such a brain. The theory was put forward that the found skull is a microcephalic. But most likely this species evolved from erectus or other species in isolation on the island. 7.13. Denisov man("Denisovets") (Denisova hominin) are Paleolithic members of the genus Homo, which may belong to earlier unknown species person. It is believed to be the third person from the Pleistocene who has demonstrated a level of adaptation previously thought to be unique to modern humans and Neanderthals. Denisovans occupied large territories, stretching from cold Siberia to the tropical rainforests of Indonesia. In 2008, Russian scientists, in the Denisova Cave or Ayu-Tash, in the Altai Mountains, discovered the distal phalanx of a girl's finger, from which mitochondrial DNA was later isolated. The mistress of the phalanx lived in a cave about 41 thousand years ago. This cave was also inhabited by Neanderthals and modern humans at different times. In general, there are not many finds, including teeth and part of the phalanx of the toe, as well as various tools and jewelry, including a bracelet not made of local material. Analysis of the mitochondrial DNA of the finger bone showed that Denisovans are genetically different from Neanderthals and modern humans. They may have split from the Neanderthal line after the split with the Homo sapiens line. Recent analyzes have also shown that they overlapped with our species, and even interbred multiple times, at different times. Up to 5-6% of the DNA of the Melanesians and Australian Aborigines contain Denisovan admixtures. And modern non-Africans have about 2-3% impurities. In 2017, in China, fragments of skulls were found, with a large brain volume, up to 1800 cubic cm and an age of 105-125 thousand years. Some scientists, based on their description, suggested that they could belong to the Denisovans, but these versions are currently controversial. 7.14. Idaltu (Homo sapiens idaltu) is an extinct subspecies of Homo sapiens that lived about 160 thousand years ago in Africa. "Idaltu" means "firstborn". Fossils of Homo sapiens idaltu were discovered in 1997 by Tim White at Kherto Buri in Ethiopia. Although the morphology of the skulls indicates archaic features not found in later Homo sapiens, they are still considered by scientists to be the direct ancestors of modern Homo sapiens sapiens. 7.15. Homo sapiens is a species of the hominin family from a large detachment of primates. And it is the only living species of this genus, that is, us. If someone is reading or listening to this is not of our kind, write in the comments ...). Representatives of the species appeared for the first time in Africa about 200 or 315 thousand years ago, given the latest data from Jebel Irhud, but there are still many questions. Then they spread almost all over the planet. Although in a more modern form as Homo sapiens sapiens, well, a very intelligent person, a little more than 100 thousand years ago appeared. years ago, according to some anthropologists. Also in early times, in parallel with people, other species and populations developed, such as Neanderthals and Denisovans, as well as the Soloy man or Javanthropus, the Ngandong man and the Callao Man, as well as others that do not fit into the species. A reasonable man, but according to dating, who lived at the same time. As for example: 7.15.1. The Red Deer Cave people are an extinct population of humans, the latest known to science, that does not fit within the variability of Homo sapiens. And possibly belongs to another species of the genus Homo. They were discovered in the south of China in the Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region in the Longlin cave in 1979. The age of the remains is from 11.5 to 14.3 thousand years. Although they may well be the results of cross-breeding between different populations that lived at that time. These issues will still be discussed on the channel, so a brief description is enough for now. And now, who watched the video from beginning to end, put the letter "P" in the comments, and if in parts then "H", only to be honest!

The emergence of Homo sapiens was the result of a long evolutionary development that took tens of millions of years.


The first signs of life on Earth originated about 4 billion years ago, later plants and animals arose, and only about 90 million years ago did the so-called hominids appear on our planet, which were the earliest predecessors of Homo sapiens.

Who are hominids?

Hominids are a family of progressive primates that became the progenitors of modern humans. Appearing about 90 million years ago, they lived in Africa, Eurasia and.

Approximately 30 million years ago, Earth began global cooling, during which hominids became extinct everywhere, with the exception of the African continent, southern Asia and America. In the Miocene era, primates experienced a long period of speciation, as a result of which the early ancestors of humans, the Australopithecus, separated from them.

Who are Australopithecus?

Australopithecus bones were first found in 1924 in the African Kalahari desert. According to scientists, these creatures belonged to the genus of higher primates and lived in the period from 4 to 1 million years ago. Australopithecus were omnivorous and could walk on two legs.


It is possible that towards the end of their existence they learned to use stones for cracking nuts and other needs. Approximately 2.6 million years ago, primates split into two branches. The first subspecies, as a result of evolution, was transformed into a skilled man, and the second into an African Australopithecus, which later became extinct.

Who is a skilled person?

Handy man (Homo habilis) was the very first representative of the genus Homo and existed for 500 thousand years. Being a highly developed Australopithecus, he had a fairly large brain (about 650 grams) and quite consciously made tools.

It is believed that it was a skillful person who took the first steps towards subjugation surrounding nature, thus stepping over the border that separated primates from humans. Homo habilis lived in camps and used quartz to create tools, which they brought to their homes from distant places.

A new round of evolution turned a skilled man into a working man (Homo ergaster), who appeared about 1.8 million years ago. The brain of this fossil species was much larger, thanks to which it could make more advanced tools and start fires.


In the future, the working man was replaced by Homo erectus, which scientists already consider as the immediate ancestor of people. Erectus could make stone tools, wore skins and did not disdain to eat human flesh, and later learned to cook food on a fire. Subsequently, they spread from Africa throughout Eurasia, including China.

When did the reasonable man appear?

Until today, scientists believe that Homo sapiens replaced Homo erectus and its Neanderthal subspecies about 400-250 thousand years ago. According to DNA studies of fossil humans, Homo sapiens originated from Africa, where Mitochondrial Eve lived about 200,000 years ago.

By this name, paleontologists called the last common ancestor of modern man on the maternal side, from which people got a common chromosome.

An ancestor in the male line was the so-called "Y-chromosomal Adam", which existed a little later - about 138 thousand years ago. Mitochondrial Eve and Y-chromosomal Adam should not be identified with biblical characters, as both are merely scientific abstractions adopted for a more simplified study of the emergence of man.


In general, in 2009, after analyzing the DNA of the inhabitants of African tribes, scientists came to the conclusion that the most ancient human branch in Africa were the Bushmen, who probably became the common progenitors of all mankind.

Hostility to the very idea of ​​"gods" reigns in science today, but it's really just a matter of terminology and religious convention. A striking example is the cult of aircraft. After all, oddly enough, the best confirmation of the theory of the Creator-God is himself Man is Homo sapiens. Moreover, if you believe latest research, the idea of ​​God is embedded in man at the biological level.

Since Charles Darwin shocked the scientists and theologians of his time with evidence of the existence of evolution, man has been considered the final link in a long evolutionary chain, at the other end of which are the simplest forms of life, from which, since the emergence of life on our planet, over billions of years, developed vertebrates, then mammals, primates and Man himself.

Of course, a person can also be considered as a set of elements, but even then, if we assume that life arose as a result of random chemical reactions, then why did all living organisms on Earth develop from a single source, and not from many random ones? Why is only a small percentage of organic matter chemical elements, abundantly available on Earth, and a large number of elements that are rarely found on our planet and our life balances on a razor's edge? Does this mean that life was brought to our planet from another world, for example, by meteorites?

What caused the Great Sexual Revolution? And in general, there are many interesting things in a person - the sense organs, the mechanisms of memory, brain rhythms, the mysteries of human physiology, the second signal system, but the main topic of this article will be a more fundamental mystery - the position of man in the evolutionary chain.

It is now believed that the ancestor of man, the monkey, appeared on Earth about 25 million years ago! Discoveries in East Africa made it possible to establish that the transition to the type of great ape (hominid) took place about 14,000,000 years ago. Human and chimpanzee genes split from a common ancestral trunk 5 to 7 million years ago. Even closer to us were the pygmy chimpanzees "bonobos", which separated from chimpanzees about 3 million years ago.

Sex occupies a huge place in human relationships, and bonobos, unlike other monkeys, often copulate in a face-to-face position, and their sex life is such that it overshadows the promiscuity of the inhabitants of Sodom and Gomorrah! So it is likely that our common ancestors with monkeys behaved more like bonobos than like chimpanzees. But sex is a topic for a separate trial, and we will continue.

Among the skeletons found, there are only three contenders for the title of the first fully bipedal primate. All of them were found in East Africa, in the Rift Valley, cutting through the territories of Ethiopia, Kenya and Tanzania.

Approximately 1.5 million years ago, Homo erectus (upright man) appeared. This primate had a much more extensive skull than its predecessors, and was already beginning to create and use more complex stone tools. The wide spread of skeletons found indicates that between 1,000,000 and 700,000 years ago, Homo erectus left Africa and settled in China, Australasia and Europe, but disappeared altogether between 300,000 and 200,000 years ago for unknown reasons.

Around the same time, the first primitive man appeared on the scene, dubbed Neanderthal by scientists, after the name of the area where his remains were first discovered.

The remains were found by Johann Karl Fuhlrott in 1856 in the Feldhofer cave near Düsseldorf in Germany. This cave is located in the Neandertal Valley. In 1863, the English anthropologist and anatomist W. King suggested the name for the find Homo neanderthalensis. Neanderthals inhabited Europe and Western Asia from 300,000 to 28,000 years ago. For some time they coexisted with a human of the modern anatomical type, who settled in Europe about 40 thousand years ago. Previously, based on the morphological comparison of Neanderthals with humans modern type Three hypotheses have been proposed: Neanderthals are the direct ancestors of man; they have made some genetic contribution to the gene pool; they represented an independent branch, which was completely supplanted by modern man. It is the latter hypothesis that is confirmed by modern genetic studies. The time of existence of the last common ancestor of man and Neanderthal is estimated at 500 thousand years before our time.

Recent discoveries have forced a fundamental rethinking of the assessment of the Neanderthal. In particular, the skeleton of a Neanderthal man who lived 60 thousand years ago was found in the Kebara cave on Mount Carmel in Israel, in which the hyoid bone was completely preserved, completely identical to the bone of a modern person. Since the ability to speak depends on the hyoid bone, scientists were forced to admit that the Neanderthal had this ability. And many scientists believe that speech is the key to unlocking the great leap forward in human development.

Nowadays, most anthropologists believe that the Neanderthal was full-fledged, and for a long time, in terms of its behavioral characteristics, it was quite equivalent to other representatives of this species. It is possible that the Neanderthal was no less intelligent and human-like than we are in our time. It has been suggested that the large and coarse lines of his skull are simply the result of some kind of genetic disorder, like acromegaly. These disorders quickly dissolved in a limited, isolated population as a result of crossing.

But, nevertheless, despite the huge period of time - more than two million years - separating the developed Australopithecus and the Neanderthal, both used similar tools - pointed stones, and the features of their appearance (as we imagine them) practically did not differ.

“If you put a hungry lion, a man, a chimpanzee, a baboon and a dog in a large cage, then it is clear that the man will be eaten first!”

African folk wisdom

The emergence of Homo sapiens is not just an unfathomable mystery, it seems incredible. For millions of years, there has been little progress in the processing of stone tools; and suddenly, about 200 thousand years ago, it appeared with a cranial volume 50% larger than before, with the ability to speak and quite close to the modern anatomy of the body. (According to a number of independent studies, this happened in Southeast Africa.)

In 1911, the anthropologist Sir Arthur Kent compiled a list of anatomical features inherent in each of the species of primate monkeys that distinguish them from each other. He called them "common features". As a result, he got the following indicators: gorilla - 75; chimpanzee - 109; orangutan - 113; gibbon - 116; humans, 312. How can Sir Arthur Kent's research be reconciled with the scientifically proven fact that there is a 98% genetic similarity between humans and chimpanzees? I would reverse this ratio and ask the question - how does a difference in DNA of 2% determine the striking difference between humans and their "cousins" - primates?

We have to somehow explain how a 2% difference in genes gives rise to so many new characteristics in a person - brain, speech, sexuality and much more. It is strange that a cell of Homo sapiens contains only 46 chromosomes, while chimpanzees and gorillas have 48. The theory of natural selection was unable to explain how such a major structural change could occur - the fusion of two chromosomes.

In the words of Steve Jones, “...we are the result of evolution - a series of successive mistakes. No one will argue that evolution has ever been so abrupt that in one step a whole plan for the restructuring of the organism could be implemented. Indeed, experts believe that the possibility of the successful implementation of a large evolutionary leap called macromutation is extremely unlikely, since such a leap is most likely to be detrimental to the survival of species that are already well adapted to environment, or at least ambiguous, for example, due to the mechanism of action of the immune system, we have lost the ability to regenerate tissues like amphibians.

Catastrophe theory

Evolutionist Daniel Dennett neatly describes the situation with a literary analogy: someone is trying to improve on a classic literary text, making only proofreading. If most of the editing - placing commas or correcting misspelled words - has little effect, then tangible editing of the text in almost all cases spoils the original text. Thus, everything seems to be stacked against genetic improvement, but a favorable mutation can take place in the conditions of a small isolated population. Under other conditions, favorable mutations would dissolve into a larger mass of "normal" individuals.

Thus, it becomes obvious that the most important factor in the splitting of species is their geographical separation, in order to prevent interbreeding. And as unlikely as it is statistically likely that new species will emerge, there are currently about 30 million different species on Earth. And before, according to the calculations, there were another 3 billion, now extinct. This is possible only in the context of the catastrophic development of history on planet Earth - and this point of view is now becoming more and more popular. However, it is impossible to give a single example (with the exception of microorganisms) when any kind of Lately(during the last half million years) improved by mutation or split into two different species.

Anthropologists have always tried to present the evolution from Homo erectus to a gradual process, albeit in leaps and bounds. However, their attempts to adjust the archaeological data to the requirements of a given concept each time turned out to be untenable. For example, how to explain the sharp increase in the volume of the skull in Homo sapiens?

How did it happen that Homo sapiens gained intelligence and self-awareness, while its ape relative has spent the last 6 million years in a state of complete stagnation? Why has no other creature in the animal kingdom been able to advance to a high level of mental development?

The usual answer to this is that when the man got to his feet, both his hands were freed and he began to use tools. This advance accelerated learning through the feedback system, which, in turn, stimulated the process of mental development.

Recent scientific findings confirm that, in some cases, electrochemical processes in the brain can promote the growth of dendrites, tiny signal receptors that connect to neurons (nerve cells). Experiments with experimental rats have shown that if toys are placed in a cage with rats, then the mass of brain tissue in rats begins to grow faster. Researchers (Christopher A. Walsh and Anjen Chenn) have even been able to identify a protein called beta-catenin, which is responsible for why the human cortex is larger than that of other species. Walsh explained his findings: "The cerebral cortex of mice is normally smooth. In humans, it is very wrinkled due to the large volume of tissue and lack of space in the skull. This can be compared to how we put a piece of paper in a ball. We found that in mice with increased production of beta- catenin's cerebral cortex was much larger in volume, it was wrinkled in the same way as in humans. " Which, however, did not add clarity. After all, in the animal kingdom there are a lot of species whose representatives use tools, but at the same time do not become intelligent.

Here are some examples: an Egyptian kite throws stones from above at ostrich eggs, trying to break their hard shell. A woodpecker from the Galapagos Islands uses branches or needles of a cactus, using them with five different ways to pick out tree beetles and other insects from rotten trunks. A sea otter on the Pacific coast of the United States uses one stone as a hammer and another as an anvil to smash the shell to get its favorite delicacy, bear ear shells. Our closest relatives, the chimpanzee monkeys, also make and use simple tools, but do they reach our level of intelligence? Why did humans become intelligent and chimpanzees not? We read about the search for our oldest ape ancestors all the time, but in reality it would be much more interesting to find the missing link of Homo super erectus.

But back to man.According to common sense, it should have taken another million years to move from stone tools to other materials, and perhaps another hundred million years to master mathematics, civil engineering and astronomy, but for inexplicable reasons, man continued to live a primitive life, using stone tools, only within 160 thousand years, and about 40-50 thousand years ago, something happened that caused the migration of mankind and the transition to modern forms of behavior. Most likely they were climate change, although the issue requires separate consideration.

A comparative analysis of the DNA of different populations of modern people suggested that even before leaving Africa, about 60-70 thousand years ago (when there was also a decrease in the number, although not as significant as 135 thousand years ago), the ancestral population was divided at least at least into three groups that gave rise to the African, Mongoloid and Caucasoid races.

Part of the racial traits may have arisen later as an adaptation to living conditions. This applies at least to skin color, one of the most significant racial characteristics for most people. Pigmentation provides protection from solar radiation, but should not interfere with the formation, for example, of certain vitamins that prevent rickets and are necessary for normal fertility.

Since man came out of Africa, it would seem that it goes without saying that our distant African ancestors were similar to the modern inhabitants of this continent. However, some researchers believe that the first people who appeared in Africa were closer to the Mongoloids.

So: only 13 thousand years ago Man settled almost all over the globe. Over the next thousand years, he learned to lead Agriculture, after another 6 thousand years created great civilization with advanced astronomical science). And now, finally, after another 6 thousand years, a person goes into the depths of the solar system!

We do not have the means to determine the exact chronology for the periods where the application of the carbon isotope method ends (about 35 thousand years before our time) and further into the depths of history throughout the Middle Pliocene.

What reliable data do we have about Homo sapiens? At a conference held in 1992, the most reliable evidence obtained up to that time was summed up. The dates given here are the average for a number of all specimens found in the area and are given with an accuracy of ±20%.

The most revealing find, made in Kaftsekh in Israel, is 115,000 years old. Other specimens found at Skul and Mount Carmel in Israel are 101,000-81,000 years old.

The specimens found in Africa, in the lower layers of the Frontier Cave, are 128,000 years old (and dating from ostrich egg shells has been confirmed to be at least 100,000 years old).

In South Africa, at the mouth of the Clasis River, dates range from 130,000 to 118,000 years before present (BP).
And, finally, in Jebel Irhoud, in South Africa, specimens were found with the earliest dating - 190 thousand-105 thousand years BC.

From this we can conclude that Homo sapiens appeared on Earth less than 200 thousand years ago. And there is not the slightest evidence that there are earlier remains of a modern or partially modern person. All specimens are no different from their European counterparts - the Cro-Magnons, who settled in Europe about 35 thousand years ago. And if you dress them in modern clothes, then they would be practically no different from modern people. How did the ancestors of modern man appear in Southeast Africa 150-300 thousand years ago, and not, say, two or three million years later, as the logic of the movement of evolution suggests? Why did civilization begin at all? There is no obvious reason why we should be more civilized than the tribes in the Amazon jungle or the impenetrable forests of New Guinea, which are still at a primitive stage of development.

Civilization and Methods of Managing Consciousness and Human Behavior

Summary

• The biochemical composition of terrestrial organisms indicates that they all developed from a “single source”, which, however, does not exclude either the hypothesis of “accidental spontaneous generation” or the version of “introducing the seeds of life”.
• Man is clearly knocked out of the evolutionary chain. At huge number"distant ancestors" the link that led to the creation of man has not been found. At the same time, the rate of evolutionary development has no analogues in the animal world.
• It is surprising that the modification of only 2% of the genetic material of chimpanzees caused such a radical difference between humans and their closest relatives - monkeys.
• Features of the structure and sexual behavior of man indicate a much longer period of peaceful evolution in a warm climate than determined by archaeological and genetic data.
• The genetic predisposition to speech and the efficiency of the internal structure of the brain strongly point to two essential requirements of the evolutionary process - its incredibly long period, and the vital need to achieve an optimal level. The course of the proposed evolutionary development does not at all require such efficiency of thinking.
• Babies' skulls are disproportionately large for safe delivery. It is quite possible that the “turtles” were inherited from the “race of giants”, so often mentioned in ancient myths.
• The transition from gathering and hunting to farming and cattle breeding, which took place in the Middle East about 13,000 years ago, created the prerequisites for the accelerated development of human civilization. Interestingly, this coincides in time with the alleged Flood that destroyed the mammoths. By the way, around that time the Ice Age ended.

If we talk about the species of homo sapiens, that is, "reasonable man", he is relatively young. Official science gives him about 200 thousand years. This conclusion was made on the basis of a study of mitochondrial DNA and the famous skulls from Ethiopia. The latter were found in 1997 during excavations near the Ethiopian village of Kherto. These were the remains of a man and a child, whose age was at least 160,000 years old. To date, these are the most ancient representatives of Homo sapiens known to us. Scholars dubbed them homo sapiens idaltu, or "oldest sane man."

At about the same time, maybe a little earlier (200 thousand years ago), the progenitor of all modern people, “mitrochondria Eve”, lived in the same place in Africa. Her mitochondria (a set of genes that is transmitted only through the female line) is present in every living person. However, this does not mean that she was the first woman on earth. Just in the course of evolution, it was her descendants who were most fortunate. By the way, “Adam”, whose Y-chromosome every man has today, is relatively younger than “Eve”. It is believed that he lived about 140 thousand years ago.

However, all these data are inaccurate and inconclusive. Science is based only on what it has, and more ancient representatives of homo sapiens have not yet been found. But the age of Adam has recently been revised, which can add another 140 thousand years to the age of mankind. A recent study of the genes of one African American, Albert Perry, and 11 other villagers in Cameroon showed that they have a more “ancient” Y chromosome, which was once passed on to his descendants by a man who lived about 340,000 years ago.

Neanderthals [History of failed humanity] Vishnyatsky Leonid Borisovich

homeland of homo sapiens

homeland of homo sapiens

With all the variety of views on the problem of the origin of Homo sapiens (Fig. 11.1), all the proposed options for solving it can be reduced to two main opposing theories, which were briefly discussed in Chapter 3. According to one of them, monocentric, the place of origin of people of the modern anatomical type there was some rather limited territorial region, from where they subsequently settled throughout the planet, gradually displacing, destroying or assimilating the hominid populations that preceded them in different places. Most often, East Africa is considered as such a region, and the corresponding theory of the appearance and spread of Homo sapiens is called the theory of the "African Exodus". The opposite position is taken by researchers who defend the so-called "multi-regional" - polycentric - theory, according to which the evolutionary formation of Homo sapiens took place everywhere, that is, in Africa, and in Asia, and in Europe, on a local basis, but with a more or less wide exchange genes between populations of these regions. Although the dispute between monocentrists and polycentrists, which has a long history, is still not over, the initiative is now clearly in the hands of the supporters of the theory of the African origin of Homo sapiens, and their opponents have to give up one position after another.

Rice. 11.1. Possible origin scenarios Homo sapiens: but- the candelabra hypothesis, suggesting independent evolution in Europe, Asia and Africa from local hominids; b- multi-regional hypothesis, which differs from the first one in the recognition of gene exchange between populations of different regions; in- the hypothesis of complete replacement, according to which our species originally appeared in Africa, from where it subsequently spread throughout the planet, displacing the forms of hominids that preceded it in other regions and at the same time not mixing with them; G- assimilation hypothesis, which differs from the hypothesis of complete replacement by the recognition of partial hybridization between sapiens and the aboriginal population of Europe and Asia

Firstly, fossil anthropological materials unequivocally indicate that people of a modern or very close physical type appeared in East Africa already at the end of the Middle Pleistocene, i.e., much earlier than anywhere else. The oldest known anthropological find attributable to Homo sapiens is the skull of Omo 1 (Fig. 11.2), discovered in 1967 near the northern coast of Lake. Turkana (Ethiopia). Its age, judging by the available absolute dates and a number of other data, ranges from 190 to 200 thousand years ago. The well-preserved frontal and, especially, the occipital bones of this skull are anatomically quite modern, as are the remains of the bones of the facial skeleton. A sufficiently developed chin protrusion is fixed. According to the conclusion of many anthropologists who studied this find, the skull of Omo 1, as well as the known parts of the postcranial skeleton of the same individual, do not bear signs that go beyond the range of variability usual for Homo sapiens.

Rice. 11.2. Skull Omo 1 - the oldest of all anthropological finds attributed to Homo sapiens

On the whole, three skulls found not so long ago at the Herto site in the Middle Awash, also in Ethiopia, are very similar in structure to the finds from Omo. One of them has come down to us almost completely (except for the lower jaw), the safety of the other two is also quite good. The age of these skulls is from 154 to 160 thousand years. In general, despite the presence of a number of primitive features, the morphology of the Kherto skulls allows us to consider their owners as ancient representatives modern form person. Comparable in age, the remains of people of a modern or very close to that anatomical type were also found at a number of other East African sites, for example, in the Mumba grotto (Tanzania) and the Dire-Dawa cave (Ethiopia). Thus, a number of well-studied and rather reliably dated anthropological finds from East Africa indicates that people who did not differ or differed little in anatomical terms from the current inhabitants of the Earth lived in this region 150-200 thousand years ago.

Rice. 11.3. Some links in the evolutionary line, which led, as expected, to the appearance of the species Homo sapiens: 1 - Bodo, 2 - Broken Hill, 3 - Letoli, 4 - Omo 1, 5 - Border

Secondly, of all the continents, only in Africa a large number of remains of transitional hominids are known, allowing at least in general terms to trace the process of transformation of local homo erectus into people of a modern anatomical type. It is believed that the immediate predecessors and ancestors of the first Homo sapiens in Africa could be hominids represented by skulls such as Singa (Sudan), Florisbad (South Africa), Ileret (Kenya) and a number of other finds. They date from the second half of the Middle Pleistocene. Skulls from Broken Hill (Zambia), Ndutu (Tanzania), Bodo (Ethiopia) and a number of other specimens are considered as somewhat earlier links in this line of evolution (Fig. 11.3). All African hominids, anatomically and chronologically intermediate between Homo erectus and Homo sapiens, are sometimes referred, together with their European and Asian contemporaries, to Homo Heidelbergensis, and sometimes are included in special species, the earlier of which is called Homo Rhodesiensis ( Homo rhodesiensis), and the later Homo helmei ( Homo helmei).

Thirdly, genetic data, according to most experts in this field, also point to Africa as the most likely initial center for the formation of the Homo sapiens species. It is no coincidence that the greatest genetic diversity among modern human populations is observed precisely there, and as we move away from Africa, this diversity decreases more and more. This is how it should be if the theory of the “African Exodus” is correct: after all, the populations of Homo sapiens, who were the first to leave their ancestral home and settled somewhere in the vicinity of it, “captured” only part of the species gene pool on their way, those groups that then spun off from them and moved even further - only a part of a part and so on.

Finally, fourthly, the skeleton of the first European Homo sapiens is characterized by a number of features that are typical of the inhabitants of the tropics and hot subtropics, but not of high latitudes. This has already been discussed in Chapter 4 (see Figures 4.3–4.5). This picture is in good agreement with the theory of the African origin of people of the modern anatomical type.

From the book Neanderthals [History of failed humanity] author Vishnyatsky Leonid Borisovich

Neanderthal + homo sapiens = ? So, as we already know, genetic and paleoanthropological data indicate that the wide distribution of people of the modern anatomical type outside Africa began about 60-65 thousand years ago. They were first colonized

author Kalashnikov Maxim

"Golem sapiens" We, as an intelligent form on Earth, are not alone at all. Next to us there is another mind - non-human. Or rather, superhuman. And this is evil incarnate. His name is the intelligent Golem, Holem sapiens. We have been leading you to this conclusion for a long time. Too bad he's scary and

From the book The Third Project. Volume II "Transition Point" author Kalashnikov Maxim

Goodbye homo sapiens! So let's recap. The rupture of ties between the natural and social components of the Big Human World, between technological needs and natural opportunities, between politics, economics and culture inevitably plunges us into a period

From the book Secrets of Great Scythia. Historical Pathfinder's Notes author Kolomiytsev Igor Pavlovich

Motherland of the Magogs “Sleep, silly, otherwise Gog and Magog will come,” - for centuries in Russia, small naughty children were so scared. For it is said in the prophecy of John the Theologian: “When the thousand years are over, Satan will be set free and will come out to deceive the nations that are at the four corners of the earth,

From the book Naum Eitingon - Stalin's punishing sword author Sharapov Eduard Prokopevich

The hero's homeland The city of Shklov stands on the Dnieper - the center of the district of the same name in the Mogilev region of the Republic of Belarus. To the regional center - 30 kilometers. There is a railway station on the Orsha-Mogilev line. The 15,000th population of the city works on paper

From the book Forgotten Belarus author

Small Motherland

From the book History of Secret Societies, Unions and Orders the author Schuster Georg

THE MOTHERLAND OF ISLAM To the south of Palestine, bounded from the west by the Red Sea, from the east by the Euphrates and the Persian Gulf, Indian Ocean large Arabian Peninsula. The interior of the country is occupied by a vast plateau with boundless sandy deserts, and

From the book Ancient World author Ermanovskaya Anna Eduardovna

Homeland of Odysseus When the Phaeacians finally sailed to Ithaca, Odysseus was fast asleep. When he woke up, he did not recognize his native island. His patron goddess Athena had to reacquaint Odysseus with his kingdom. She warned the hero that his palace was occupied by pretenders to the throne of Ithaca,

From the book Myths about Belarus author Deruzhinsky Vadim Vladimirovich

THE HOMELAND OF BELARUS The degree of prevalence of these purely Belarusian features on the map of present-day Belarus allowed scientists to reconstruct the genealogy of Belarusians and identify the ancestral home of our ethnic group. That is, the place where the concentration of purely Belarusian features is maximum.

From the book Pre-Letopisnaya Rus. Russia pre-Orda. Russia and Golden Horde author Fedoseev Yury Grigorievich

Prehistoric Russia Common ancestors. Homo sapiens. Space disasters. global flood. The first resettlement of the Aryans. Cimmerians. Scythians. Sarmatians. Wends. The emergence of Slavic and Germanic tribes. Goths. Huns. Bulgarians. arr. Bravlin. Russian Khaganate. Hungarians. Khazar genius. Russia

From the book “We bombed all objects to the ground!” The bomber pilot remembers author Osipov Georgy Alekseevich

The motherland is calling Having flown to the Drakino airfield by October 10, our regiment became part of the 38th Air Division of the Air Force of the 49th Army. Before the troops of the 49th Army, the enemy continued the offensive, cutting wedges into the location of our troops. There was no solid front. October 12, parts of the 13th army

From the book It was forever until it ended. The last Soviet generation the author Yurchak Alexey

"Homo sovieticus", "divided consciousness" and "masked pretenders" Among the studies of "authoritarian" systems of power, there is a widespread model according to which participants in political statements, acts and rituals in such systems are allegedly forced to pretend in public

From the book Warrior under the St. Andrew's flag author Voinovich Pavel Vladimirovich

Homeland of elephants The whole history became just a parchment, from which the original text was scraped off and a new one was written as needed. George Orwell. "1984" After the war, the ideology in the Soviet Union became more and more painted in the colors of Russian chauvinism and great power.

From the book Nine centuries of the south of Moscow. Between Fili and Brateev author Yaroslavtseva S I

They were called by the Motherland In the chronological description of the past, XX century, I have already touched on the period of the Great Patriotic War 1941–1945 But, speaking about the history of the development of the Zyuzin agricultural artel, I could not touch on other problems related to the war in more detail. And at

From the book History of Imperial Relations. Belarusians and Russians. 1772-1991 author Taras Anatoly Efimovich

CONCLUSION. HOMO SOVIETICUS: BELARUSIAN VERSION (Maxim Petrov, Doctor of Science in Information Technology) Anyone who is a slave against his will can be free in his soul. But he who became free by the grace of his master, or gave himself into slavery,

From the book Reason and Civilization [Flicker in the Dark] author Burovsky Andrey Mikhailovich

Chapter 6. Sapiens, but not our relative This lemur really gave the impression of a small man with a dog's head. B. Euvelmans Sapiens, but not homo? It is believed that there were no human ancestors in America. There were no great apes. special group ancestors