Scientific and socio-economic background.

The middle of the 19th century was quite favorable for the formulation and development of the doctrine of the evolution of the organic world. Under the conditions of a rapid rise in industrial production, the natural sciences and philosophy intensively developed, which came to important generalizations based on the study of the characteristics of the physical manifestations of the forces of nature and the development of ways to use them in practice, the study of the diversity of the animal and plant world and the laws of life.

The most important generalizations of the natural sciences of the pre-Darwinian period include the following:

1) The hypothesis of I. Kant and Laplace on the origin of the planets of the solar system and the Earth, small particles, nebulae and their development.

2) Substantiation in 1830 by the English naturalist C. Lyell (1797-1875) of the idea that history has not only the Earth, but also its surface, which changed under the influence of the same natural causes that operate now, and not as a result of catastrophes .

3) The formation of the idea that not only the earth's surface, but also the animals and plants that inhabited it, also changed over time and have their own history. This idea arose as a result of the study of geological layers and paleontological studies of the remains of creatures that lived in distant eras.

4) The formation of the idea of ​​the nature of all nature on the basis of the works of Berzelius and Wehler. The Swedish chemist Berzelius (1779-1848) proved that all animals and plants consist of the same elements that are found in living nature, and the German chemist F. Weser (1800-1882) in the laboratory for the first time in 1828. He artificially obtained urea and showed that the formation of organic substances is carried out without the participation of a certain "life force".

5) The theory of cellular structure, created by the botanist M. Schleider (1838) and the zoologist T. Schwann (1838-1839), substantiated the commonality of the microstructure and development of animals and plants.

6) Work on the taxonomy of animals and plants, grouping organisms in their likeness had importance to develop the idea of ​​the relatedness of animal beings, and then of the unity of their origin.

7) The position on the unity of the structure and common origin of animal beings, which were supported by important generalizations in the field of comparative anatomy, embryology, animal and plant physiology.

8) The development of transformism in the works of the French materialist philosophers of the 18th century, and the studies of natural scientists, the design of the first evolutionary theory by J.B. Lamarck, which became an important scientific prerequisite for the teachings of Charles Darwin.

Thus, the intensive development of science and its differentiation, accumulation in different areas the natural sciences of a large number of facts incompatible with creationist ideas prepared a good basis on which the teachings of Darwin successfully developed.

This was facilitated by the socio-economic conditions of the first half of the 19th century. England of this era was a classical capitalist country, in which large-scale industry, rail and sea transport developed rapidly, cities grew, the urban population increased sharply, mainly due to the ruin of small farmers. England continued to conquer more and more colonies. To keep them in line, they needed big army and powerful fleet.

The developing industry demanded more raw materials and foodstuffs from agriculture. Under these conditions, an intensive restructuring of agriculture was carried out: the concentration of land in the hands of large farmers increased, crop rotation was introduced, fertilizers were used, and machines were used for soil cultivation and plant care.

The selection developed especially rapidly. Existing animal breeds and plant varieties could not meet the growing demand. In England, experienced breeders appeared who, for relatively a short time brought out many new varieties of field, garden, ornamental plants and breeds of domestic animals with new useful features. From exhibition to exhibition, which were held systematically, it was possible to trace the main directions of plant varieties and animal breeds. The achievements of breeders testified that a person can change breeds and varieties, adapt them to his needs through artificial selection. Thus, the practice of agriculture at that time raised the question of the unlimited variability of animals and plants to its full potential. Breeders have proved that selection is the main factor in shaping, with the help of which it is possible to achieve the maximum development of the desired traits in animals and plants.

C. Darwin witnessed the success of English breeding. He summarized the great experience of breeders, and skillfully used the data of agricultural practice to substantiate the theory of evolution of the organic world.

Life and scientific activity Charles Darwin.

C. Darwin lived in an era of rapid social development, when natural science was on the rise, important discoveries were being made in science. He did not have a systematic biological education (he studied at the medical faculty in Edinburgh for two years, and then moved to the University of Cambridge, where he graduated from the theological faculty in 1831), but he was very fond of natural sciences, purposefully studied special literature, was engaged in collecting, hunting, took part in expeditions to study the geology, fauna, flora of certain regions of England, observed, wrote down what he saw, tried to give him a rational explanation. He became close friends with such well-known scientists as the zoologist R. Grant, the botanist J. Henslow, and A. Sedgwick. And it is not surprising that when it became necessary to recommend an experienced naturalist as part of the expedition, Genslo named Darwin, who had sufficient natural science knowledge and skills as a field researcher.

At the end of 1831, a five-year round-the-world trip began on the ship Beagle. This journey was important event in Darwin's life, a real school for him. Working intensively as a geologist, paleontologist, zoologist, botanist, he collected a huge and very valuable scientific material, which played an exceptional role in the development of the evolutionary idea.

1. Geological observations on oceanic islands, in South America, Cordillera and other places confirmed the idea of ​​C. Lyell about the constant change in the surface of the Earth under the influence of external and internal causes.

2. Darwin owns a number of interesting paleontological finds. Comparison of the skeletons of fossil sloths, shellfish with living species showed that their skeleton is characterized by many common features; at the same time, there are noticeable differences in the structure of the skeleton of the compared forms. After analyzing numerous facts, Darwin came to the conclusion that extinct and current animals have a common origin, but the latter have changed significantly. The reason for this could be the changes that occurred over time on the earth's surface. They could also be the cause of the extinction of species, the remains of which are found in the earth's layers.

During his round-the-world trip, Darwin collected interesting materials that explain the patterns of geographical distribution of organisms in the latitudinal (from Brazil to Tierra del Fuego) and vertical (when climbing mountains) directions. He drew attention to the dependence of fauna and flora on the conditions of existence of animals and plants.

Darwin collected especially valuable material on the islands of the Galapagos archipelago, which are located in the equatorial zone. Pacific Ocean at a distance of 800 - 900 km to the west from the coast of South America. Darwin was particularly struck by the uniqueness of the fauna and flora of the Galapagos. There are relatively few species on the archipelago, but most of them are characterized by a large number of individuals. Darwin collected 26 species of land birds, all of which, with the exception of one, are very special and are not found anywhere else. He described 13 species of finches - endemic birds, i.e. common only in this region. In addition to other features, the species of finches differ in the shape and size of the beak - from massive, like a grosbeak, to small and thin, like a chaffinch or robin. Darwin proved that the structural features of the beak depend on the nature of the food of these birds (plant seeds, insects, etc.). It is interesting that on different islands there are different forms finches, and Darwin notes that one can actually imagine that one species was taken and modified at different ends of the archipelago. Zoologists call these birds Darwin's finches.

Comparing the fauna of the Galapagos and South America, Darwin states that animal world The archipelago bears the imprint of continental forms and at the same time is a special Galapagos variant. He observed a similar phenomenon on the Cape Verde Islands, where he established the similarity of island forms of animals with African species. These and other facts led Darwin to the idea that the islands were inhabited by continental forms, from which species originate, which have changed significantly under the new conditions of existence on the islands. He also reflects on the importance of isolation in the differentiation of species. Later, Darwin wrote that the peculiarities, the nature of the distribution of the Galapagos organisms, so impressed him that he began to systematically collect all the facts that had a certain relation to the species.

Darwin's stay in Tierra del Fuego and meeting with the natives led him to the bold idea of ​​the animal origin of man. The study of the structure of coral reefs was the basis for the development of Darwin's theory of the formation of coral islands.

After returning from a trip on October 2, 1836, Darwin processed and published the collected geological, zoological and other materials in detail and worked on developing the idea historical development organic world, which originated during the journey. For over 20 years, he has been persistently developing and substantiating this idea, continues to collect and generalize facts, especially from the practice of plant growing and animal husbandry.

On November 24, 1859, the already mentioned brilliant work of Charles Darwin "The Origin of Species by natural selection, or the Preservation of Favored Breeds in the Struggle for Life". This book, which masterfully presented and comprehensively substantiated the scientific foundations of evolutionary theory, was very popular, and its entire circulation was sold out on the first day. One of Darwin's contemporaries figuratively compared the appearance of The Origin of Species with an explosion “which science has not yet seen, which took so long to prepare and so quickly struck, so inaudibly let down and so deadly striking. In terms of the size and significance of the destruction caused, in terms of the echo that echoed in the most distant branches of human thought, this was a scientific feat that had no equal.

Darwin's epochal work was reprinted 7 times during the author's lifetime, it quickly became known to scientists in other countries and was translated into most European languages, including Russian (1864).

After the publication of The Origin of Species, Darwin continued to work vigorously on the rationale for the problem of evolution. In 1868, he published the major work "Change in Domestic Animals and Cultivated Plants", where he comprehensively analyzes the patterns of variability, heredity, and artificial selection. Darwin extends the idea of ​​the historical development of plants and animals to the problem of the origin of man. In 1871, his book "The Origin of Man and Sexual Selection" was published, in which numerous evidences of the animal origin of man are analyzed in detail. The Origin of Species and the following 2 books constitute a single scientific trilogy, they provide irrefutable evidence of the historical development of the organic world, establish the driving forces of evolution, determine the paths of evolutionary transformations, and finally show how and from what positions complex phenomena and processes of nature should be studied. Darwin published 12 volumes of his works. His autobiography “Memories of the Development of My Mind and Character” is very interesting (in 1957 it was published by the publishing house of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR).

Darwin was noted for his keen powers of observation, rather developed analytical and synthetic abilities, scientific integrity, exceptional diligence, striving and accuracy in his work. Before last days his life he did not stop the systematic scientific research. So, on April 17, 1882, Darwin recorded the results of observations in his garden, and on April 19, the big heart of the titan of human thought stopped beating. Darwin was buried in Westminster Abbey (London) next to I. Newton, M. Faraday and other prominent scientists of England.

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Prerequisites for the emergence of the teachings of Ch. Darwin

Natural science background

Immanuel Kant Theory of the origin of cosmic bodies in a natural way, and not as a result of divine creation

Pierre Simon Laplace Mathematically substantiated the theory of I. Kant in the work "Statement of the system of the world"

Advances in Chemistry In 1824, chemists first synthesized organic matter, proving that their formation occurs without the participation of "higher powers".

Jens Berzelius Showed the unity of the elemental composition of animate and inanimate nature.

T. Schwann and M. Schleiden In 1839 they created the cell theory, which postulated that all living organisms consist of cells that have a similar structure in plants and animals.

Karl Maksimovich Baer Showed that the development of all organisms begins with the egg. He revealed that all vertebrates have common features of embryonic development.

Paleontology The science of extinct plants and animals preserved as fossils, imprints and traces of their vital activity; about their change in the process of development of life on Earth.

Georges Cuvier Substantiated the principle of correlation: the structure of each animal organ corresponds to the principle of the structure of the whole organism, and a change in one part of the body should cause a change in other parts. Found similarities in the structure of the limbs of all terrestrial vertebrates. This indicated their possible relationship and common origin.

Charles Lyell Refuted the theory of catastrophes by J. Cuvier. He proved that the surface of the Earth changes gradually under the influence of natural factors: wind, rain, surf, volcanic eruptions, etc.

Socio-economic background

Development of agriculture New breeds of sheep and pigs have been created. High-yielding varieties of cultivated plants have been developed. Breeding methods have been developed that make it possible to quickly change animal breeds and plant varieties in the right direction.

Expansion of trade Development of new territories Establishment of relations with other countries Allowed to collect huge collections that were additional material to rethink the laws of development of nature

Adam Smith Created the doctrine according to which the elimination of unadapted individuals occurs in the process of free competition

Thomas Malthus was the first to introduce the expression "struggle for existence". He believed that man, like all other organisms, is characterized by the desire for unlimited reproduction. However, the lack of resources limits the growth of the human population, leading to poverty, hunger and disease.

Evolutionary ideas in Russia Alexander Nikolaevich Radishchev developed materialistic ideas about the unity and development of the world. Afanasy Kaverznev explained the diversity of the animal world by the existence of variability.

Alexander Ivanovich Herzen suggested that the mental activity of people is not a divine sign, but is a logical result of the gradual development nervous activity in animals. Karl Frantsevich Rul'e laid the foundations of evolutionary paleontology. He put forward the position that changes in animals are due to two reasons: the characteristics of the organism itself (heredity) and the influence of external factors.

What mechanisms underlie the development of nature from simple to complex? Why do some species appear and others die out? What determines the expediency of emerging devices?

From this lesson you will learn about the prerequisites for the great discovery of Charles Darwin - the theory of evolution. You will learn how Charles Darwin and R. Wallace came to the understanding that all the diversity of living organisms appeared on Earth thanks to evolution, what facts made them doubt the prevailing doctrines and break the old ideas about the world. What giants did Darwin stand on? How did he use the positions and views of A. Smith and T. Malthus? Who else influenced Charles Darwin in his young and mature years? How was the theory of evolution created, which turned the picture of the world of millions of people? What does it represent today?

Topic: Evolutionary doctrine

Lesson: Prerequisites for the emergence of Darwin's theory

In the 17th century, a bourgeois revolution takes place in England, which leads to a revolution in the means of production or to industrial revolution.

The growth in the number of plants and factories led to an increase in demand for agricultural products, which, in turn, caused an increase in attention to agriculture and its rapid development.

At this time, based on the results of selection of domestic animals, Charles Darwin began to study the processes of speciation in the wild.

In the 19th century, England becomes the leading colonial power.

On one of the expeditions to the colony, to study natural resources Charles Darwin is sent as a naturalist on the Beagle.

For five years, C. Darwin (1831-1836) had the opportunity to explore the minerals, plants and animals of the studied places. The facts he discovered contradicted creationist views on the immutability of species and led the scientist to the idea of ​​evolution - that is, the consistent development of some types of living organisms from others.

Darwin's paleontological discoveries made in South America showed that species that existed millions of years ago not only differed from living animals, but also had common features with them.

Darwin noticed the similarity of extinct edentulous with modern armadillos, sloths and anteaters.

He noted that representatives of the fauna of the Galapagos Islands differ from related species of the American continent, but at the same time they are not found anywhere else.

He was surprised that on each large rocky island of the Galapagos archipelago there are different types of finches and giant tortoises (Fig. 1).

Rice. 1. Variety of Darwin's finches. On the left are the beaks of birds that feed on different foods.

Darwin could not believe that the Creator had the imagination to create so many different animals for such small islands. Thus, the views of creationists came into conflict with the observed reality.

Charles Darwin was greatly influenced by economic theories A. Smith and T. Malthus, created in the 18th century (on the economy and population growth).

Malthus noticed that geometric growth of the world's population, livelihoods increase only in arithmetic progression. The result is a shortage of livelihoods. This was due to the natural law of nature. Nature itself will bring balance through disease, famine, etc., sharply increasing competition.

The English naturalist Charles Lyell (a contemporary of Darwin) substantiated the idea that the earth's surface changes under the influence of water, climate, volcanic forces and other factors. He expressed the idea of ​​a gradual change in the organic world. His work also influenced the formation of the scientific worldview of Charles Darwin.

Chemists obtained results confirming the unity of animate and inanimate nature. Swedish scientist J. Berzelius at the end of the 18th century, studying chemical composition different parts of the body and some organic products (milk, blood, bones), came to the conclusion that Living being consists of the same chemical elements, as objects of inanimate nature.

An equally important prerequisite for evolution was the discovery of the following phenomena:

1. The presence of homologous organs in animals and plants.

2. The unity of the plan of the structure of living organisms within types and divisions.

3. The similarity of the embryos of vertebrates in the early stages of development (the law of K. M. Baer).

4. The unity of the cellular structure of organisms (the cellular theory of Theodor Schwann and Matthias Schleiden).

These discoveries strengthened the idea of ​​the unity of the organic world, and created the prerequisites for the creation of the evolutionary theory formulated by Charles Darwin.

Bibliography

1. Kamensky A. A., Kriksunov E. A., Pasechnik V. V. General biology 10-11 class Bustard, 2005.

2. Belyaev D.K. Biology grade 10-11. General biology. A basic level of. - 11th ed., stereotype. - M.: Education, 2012. - 304 p.

3. Biology grade 11. General biology. Profile level / V. B. Zakharov, S. G. Mamontov, N. I. Sonin and others - 5th ed., stereotype. - Bustard, 2010. - 388 p.

2. What were the prerequisites for the emergence of the theory of Ch. Darwin?

3. What do speciation and selection have in common?

4. Why is Charles Darwin's journey on the Beagle so important?

5. Discuss with friends the premises of Darwinism. How has the outlook of people changed after the publication of Charles Darwin's works?

Socio-economic conditions of England in the first half of the XIX century. contributed to the development of evolutionary views. During the period under review, England was the most developed country. In England, industry developed intensively, cities grew, and the working population increased.

At the same time, the demand for agricultural products increased. This required an increase in the productivity of agricultural plants and domestic animals.

Plant breeders and livestock breeders improved breeding methods. It can be said that within a few years new highly productive varieties of wheat, rye and other crops, new breeds of sheep and cattle have appeared before our eyes. The achievements of breeders attracted the attention of inquisitive observers. They directed the thought of scientists towards the recognition of the variability of species, the historical view of wildlife.

In the first half of the XIX century. England became the largest colonial power, capturing more and more possessions. English military and merchant ships plowed all the seas and oceans, visited all continents.

As a rule, experienced naturalists were included in the crew of the ships. They accumulated rich natural-scientific collections in geology, paleontology, botany, and zoology in the museums of England. Charles Darwin took part in the expedition on the Beagle ship, making a round-the-world trip on it, which lasted 5 years (1831-1836).

The influence of the teachings of C. Lyell

In the half century between the publication of the works of Lamarck (1809) and Darwin (1859), natural science was enriched by a number of discoveries that contributed to the establishment of evolutionary views on living nature.

In chemistry, it was found that animate and inanimate nature consists of the same elements. In geology, C. Lyell (1797-1875) proved that the surface of the Earth does not change as a result of catastrophes, but constantly. Temperature fluctuations, wind, rain, sea surf, the activity of organisms (plants and animals), earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, etc. play a role in this process.

Lyell's theory played a progressive role in the development of all natural science. Darwin took the first volume of his outstanding work "Fundamentals of Geology" with him on a trip around the world. Geological observations during the journey convinced him of the validity of Lyell's theory. Acquaintance with this theory contributed to the formation of Darwin's evolutionary views.

The influence of the teachings of Cuvier, Schwann and Baer

Comparative anatomy has been replenished with major generalizations. J. Cuvier created the theory of animal structure types. A comparative anatomical study of animals within a type confirmed the similarity and possible relationship of organisms, their origin from a single root.

The creation of the cellular theory by T. Schwann, according to which the cell is the basis of the microscopic structure of all organisms, is one of the largest discoveries of the first half of the 19th century. The cell theory showed the deep unity of all living nature and, as F. Engels noted, this prepared the creation of an evolutionary theory.

Embryological studies of the Russian academician K.M. Baer showed that the development of all organisms begins with an egg. Baer showed that there is a striking similarity in the structure of the embryos of animals belonging to different classes, especially in the early stages of development.

accumulated by this time in in large numbers paleontological finds and materials from the area of ​​geographical distribution of animals and plants also did not fit into the previous metaphysical ideas.

The birth of a theory

So, in the first half of the XIX century. a huge amount of material has already been collected from various areas natural sciences (geology, paleontology, biogeography, embryology, comparative anatomy, the study of the cellular structure of organisms, selection), which contradicts the metaphysical worldview and testifies in favor of evolution.

What was needed was an idea, a theory, a generalization that would be able to explain the accumulated facts and give them a correct interpretation. This is what Darwin did. The fact that Darwin made a revolution in science was facilitated by both his personal qualities and the socio-economic and scientific environment in which his activities took place and his worldview was formed.

Prerequisites for the emergence of Darwinism (briefly)

• Discovery of the cellular structure of animals;
• detection of germ similarity different types animals;
• work on the evolution of the Earth's surface under the influence of natural causes (temperature, humidity, wind, etc.);
• development of selection and agriculture;
• around the world on the Beagle.

Socio-economic background
1. In the first half of the XIX century. England has become one of the most economically developed countries in the world with a high level of urbanization due to the ruin of small farmers and the concentration of land in large latifundia; the demographic rise in England and the associated shortage of vital resources
2. Rapid development of industry and agricultural production; an increase in the demand of industry for natural raw materials (wool, leather) and the population of growing cities for food
3. Establishing the fact of the influence of crop rotation, the use of fertilizers and tillage on the morphology and productivity of plants
4. Intensive development of breeding and success in breeding new breeds and varieties of animals and plants, which proved that breeds of domestic animals and varieties of cultivated plants are changed and created by man
5. Territorial expansion and colonization of new regions of the world by England, which led to the influx of new biological material; round-the-world and local expeditions with the aim of developing the natural resources of the colonies, associated with expanding the range of known biological phenomena
6. The dominance of creationist, idealistic, religious beliefs in the scientific worldview and the idea of ​​freedom in the social, cultural and scientific sphere of activity as a result of the French Revolution

Natural science background
1. Development of the ideas of natural philosophy and transformism, ideas about the variability of species under the influence of environmental factors
2. Formulation of J. B. Lamarck's first evolutionary theory (1809)
3. Substantiation of the fundamental laws of the universe in the first half of the 19th century: developments solar system(mathematical justification of I. Kant's theory of the development of the solar system by P. Laplass, French), the law of conservation of energy, atomic structure chemical elements
4. Formation of the historical method of research in science
5. Approval in biology of a comparative anatomical method of research, the doctrine of homologous organs and the theory of types in (J. Cuvier), indicating the possibility of the origin of one type of animal from a single ancestor
6. Development of taxonomy, attempts to create natural system(classification) of the organic world on the basis of their historical relationship (the doctrine of natural groups by Jussieu, Bonnet
7. Formulation of the theory of cellular structure (Schwann, M. Schleiden, German, 1838)
8. Advances in embryology (the discovery of the mammalian egg and the formulation of the law of germinal similarity (K. Baer, ​​Russian), showing the historical relationship of vertebrates
9. Progress in paleontology, which showed the change of animal and plant forms over time, an increase in the organization of animals over time, the growing similarity of the structure of extinct animals with modern ones, anthropological finds
10. Proof of variability and evolution earth's crust in time under the influence of natural causes that are still in effect (climate, precipitation, winds, earthquakes, volcanoes, etc.); the principle of actualism, i.e., the connection between the transformations of the earth's crust and changes in living nature (C. Lyell, English,! 833); C. Lyell's book "Fundamentals of Geology" Charles Darwin took on a trip around the world and considered him his teacher
11. Malthusian population theory
12. Vigorous accumulation of descriptive factual material in all areas of biological science (systematics, comparative anatomy, embryology, zoology, botany, biogeography, ecology, paleontology, etc.)
13. Trip around the world in Ch. Darwin as a naturalist on the ship "Beagle" (1831 - 1836) collection of huge paleontological and modern biological material, natural science facts during the expedition and more than twenty years of work on its study and comprehension