Description of the presentation Liberal reforms of the 60-70s of the 19th century on slides

Plan for studying the topic 1. The reasons for the reforms of the 60–70s. 19th century 2. Reforms of local self-government. a) Zemstvo reform b) City reform 3. Judicial reform. 4. Reforms of the education system. a) School reform. b) University reform 5. Military reform.

Reforms of Alexander II (1855 - 1881) Peasant (1861) Zemskaya (1864) City (1870) Judicial (1864) Military (1874) Education (1863 -1864)

*Historians of the 19th – early 20th centuries. these reforms were rated as great (K. D. Kavelin, V. O. Klyuchevsky, G. A. Dzhanshiev). * Soviet historians they were considered incomplete and half-hearted (M. N. Pokrovsky, N. M. Druzhinina, V. P. Volobuev).

Name The content of the reform Their meaning Their shortcomings Peasant (1861) Zemskaya (1864) City (1870) Judicial (1864) Military (1874)

6 Peasant reform: Manifesto and Regulations February 19, 1861 Results of the peasant reform Opened the way for the development of bourgeois relations in Russia Was of an unfinished character, gave rise to social antagonisms (contradictions) "Will" without land

Reforms Their meaning Their shortcomings Peasant (1861) Turning point, the line between feudalism and capitalism. Created the conditions for the approval of the capitalist way of life as the dominant one. Preserved serf remnants; the peasants did not receive land in full ownership, they had to pay a ransom, they lost part of the land (cuts).

The reform of local self-government in 1864 introduced the "Regulations on zemstvo institutions". Local self-government bodies, zemstvos, were created in uyezds and provinces.

9 Zemskaya reform (Zemskaya reform (1864). “Regulations on the provinces). “Regulations on provincial and county zemstvo institutions” and county zemstvo institutions” Content of the reform Creation of provincial and county zemstvos - elected bodies of local self-government in rural areas Functions of zemstvos Maintenance of local schools, hospitals; construction of local roads; organization of agricultural statistics, etc.

11 Zemskaya reform (Zemskaya reform (1864).). “Regulations on provincial “Regulations on provincial and county zemstvo institutions” and county zemstvo institutions” on a qualification basis on a class basis, gathered annually

Zemstvo reform Representatives of all estates worked together in the Zemstvo, including in its permanent bodies (upravas). But the nobles still played the leading role, looking down on the "male" vowels. And the peasants often treated participation in the work of the zemstvo as a duty and elected short-receivers to the vowels. Zemstvo assembly in the province. Engraving after a drawing by K. A. Trutovsky.

Curia - categories into which voters were divided according to property and social characteristics in pre-revolutionary Russia during elections.

Zemstvo reform 1 vowel (deputy) for landowning and peasant curia was elected from every 3 thousand peasant allotments. According to the city curia - from the owners of property equal in value to the same amount of land. How many votes of peasants was equal to the voice of a landowner with 800 dessiatins. if the shower allotment was 4 des. ? In this case, 1 vote of the landowner = 200 votes of the peasants. Why, when the zemstvo bodies were created, was not equal suffrage provided for peasants, townspeople and landowners? Because in this case, the educated minority would "sink" into the illiterate, ignorant peasant masses. ?

Zemstvo reform Zemstvo assemblies met once a year: district assemblies for 10 days, provincial assemblies for 20 days. Estate composition of Zemstvo assemblies? Why was the share of peasants among the provincial councilors noticeably lower than among the county ones? Nobles Merchants Peasants Other Uyezd zemstvo 41, 7 10, 4 38, 4 9, 5 Provincial zemstvo 74, 2 10, 9 10, 6 4, 3 The peasants were not ready to deal with provincial affairs far from their daily needs. And getting to the provincial town was far and expensive.

Zemstvo reform Zemstvo assembly in the provinces. Engraving after a drawing by K. A. Trutovsky. Zemstvos received the right to invite specialists in certain sectors of the economy - teachers, doctors, agronomists - Zemstvo employees were introduced at the level of counties and provinces Zemstvos not only solve local economic affairs, but are also actively involved in the political struggle

Your comments. Zemstvos. The Moscow nobleman Kireev wrote about the zemstvos: “We, the nobles, are vowels; merchants, philistines, clergy - consonants, peasants - mute. Explain what the author wanted to say?

Zemstvo reform Zemstvos dealt exclusively with economic issues: building roads, fighting fires, agronomic assistance to peasants, creating food stocks in case of crop failure, maintaining schools and hospitals. For this collected zemstvo taxes. Zemstvo assembly in the province. Engraving after a drawing by K. A. Trutovsky. 1865? What groups are the vowels of the zemstvos divided into in K. Trutovsky's drawing?

Thanks to zemstvo doctors, rural residents received qualified medical care for the first time. The zemsky doctor was a generalist: a therapist, surgeon, dentist, obstetrician. Sometimes operations had to be done in a peasant's hut. Off-road in the Tver province. Country doctor. Hood. I. I. Tvorozhnikov.

Zemstvo reform Teachers played a special role among the zemstvo employees. What do you think this role was? Zemsky teacher not only taught children arithmetic and literacy, but often was the only literate person in the village. The arrival of the teacher in the village. Hood. A. Stepanov. ? Thanks to this, the teacher became a bearer of knowledge and new ideas for the peasants. It was among the zemstvo teachers that there were especially many liberal and democratically minded people.

Zemstvo reform In 1865–1880. in Russia there were 12 thousand rural zemstvo schools, and in 1913 - 28 thousand. Zemstvo teachers taught more than 2 million peasant children, including girls, to read and write. True, primary education never became compulsory. The training programs were developed by the Ministry of Education. Lesson in the zemstvo school of the Penza province. 1890s ? What, judging by the photograph, distinguished the zemstvo school from the state or parish?

23 Zemskaya reform (Zemskaya reform (1864).). “Regulations on provincial“Regulations on provincial and county zemstvo institutions”and county zemstvo institutions” Significance contributed to the development of education, health care, local improvement; became centers of the liberal social movement Restrictions were initially introduced in 35 provinces (by 1914 they operated in 43 out of 78 provinces) were not sodaned volost zemstvos acted under the control of the administration (governors and the Ministry of Internal Affairs)

Zemskaya (1864) The most energetic, democratic intelligentsia grouped around the zemstvos. The activity was aimed at improving the situation of the masses. Estates of the elections; the range of issues addressed by the zemstvos is limited. Reforms Their importance Their shortcomings

The city reform began to be prepared in 1862, but because of the assassination attempt on Alexander II, its implementation was delayed. The city regulation was adopted in 1870. The City Duma remained the highest body of city self-government. Elections were held in three curiae. Curia were formed on the basis of a property qualification. A list of voters was compiled in descending order of the amount of city taxes they paid. Each curia paid 1/3 of taxes. The first curia was the richest and smallest, the third the poorest and most numerous. ? What do you think: city elections were held on an all-estate or non-estate basis?

City reform City self-government: Voters of the 1st curia Voters of the 2nd curia Voters of the 3rd curia. City Council (administrative body) City government (executive body) elects the Mayor

City reform The head of city self-government was the elected mayor. AT major cities usually a nobleman or a wealthy guild merchant was chosen as the head of the city. Like zemstvos, city dumas and councils were in charge of exclusively local landscaping: paving and street lighting, maintaining hospitals, almshouses, orphanages and city schools, taking care of trade and industry, organizing water supply and urban transport. Samara Mayor P. V. Alabin.

28 City reform of 1870 – – “City regulation”

City (1870) Contributed to the involvement of the general population in management, which served as a prerequisite for the formation of civil society and the rule of law in Russia. The activity of city self-government was controlled by the state. Reforms Their importance Their shortcomings

Judicial reform - 1864 Zemstvo assembly in the province. Engraving after a drawing by K. A. Trutovsky. Principles of legal proceedings Inconsistency - the decision of the court does not depend on the class of the accused Election - the justice of the peace and the jury Publicity - the public could attend the court sessions, the press could report on the progress of the trial Independence - the administration could not influence the judges Competitiveness - the participation of the prosecutor in the trial (prosecution) and lawyer (defence)

33 Judicial Reform 1864 Judge appointed by the Ministry of Justice (principle of irremovability of judges) Sentencing in accordance with the law on the basis of the jury's verdict Basis for reform Judicial Statutes introduction of jury trial

34 Judicial reform of 1864 Jurors are selected from representatives of all classes (!) On the basis of a property qualification 12 people Pass a verdict (decision) on the guilt, its degree or innocence of the defendant

Judicial Reform Judges received high salaries. The decision on the guilt of the accused was made by the jury after hearing witnesses and debates between the prosecutor and the lawyer. A Russian citizen from 25 to 70 years old could become a juror (qualifications - property and residence). The decision of the court could be appealed.

36 Judicial Reform of 1864 Additional Elements of Judicial Reform Established: Special courts for military personnel Special courts for clergy World courts for petty civil and criminal offenses

37 Judicial reform of 1864. The structure of the judiciary in Russia The Senate is the highest judicial and cassation (cassation - appeal, protest against the sentence of a lower court) body Judicial chambers courts for considering the most important cases and appeals (complaint, appeal for review of the case) against decisions of district courts District Courts Courts of First Instance. Considers complex criminal and civil cases Lawyer Prosecutor Magistrates' Courts petty criminal and civil cases 12 jurors (qualification)

Judicial reform Minor offenses and civil litigation (the amount of the claim is up to 500 rubles) were dealt with by the Magistrate's Court. The justice of the peace decided cases on his own, could impose fines (up to 300 rubles), arrest for up to 3 months, or imprisonment for up to 1 year. Such a trial was simple, quick and cheap. World judge. Modern drawing.

Judicial Reform The justice of the peace was elected by zemstvos or city dumas from among persons over 25 years of age, with an education not lower than secondary, and judicial experience of three years. The magistrate was supposed to own real estate for 15 thousand rubles. It was possible to appeal against the decisions of the magistrate at the county congress of magistrates. District Congress of Justices of the Peace of the Chelyabinsk District.

Judicial reform Public participation: 12 non-professional judges - jurors participated in the process. The jurors delivered a verdict: "guilty"; "guilty but deserving of leniency"; "innocent". Based on the verdict, the judge pronounced the verdict. Modern drawing.

Judicial Reform Jurors were elected by provincial zemstvo assemblies and city dumas on the basis of a property qualification, without regard to class affiliation. Jurors. Drawing from the beginning of the 20th century. ? What can be said about the composition of the jury, judging by this picture?

Judicial reform Adversarial: In criminal proceedings, the prosecution was supported by the prosecutor, and the defense of the accused was carried out by a lawyer (sworn attorney). In a jury trial, where the verdict did not depend on professional lawyers, the role of the lawyer was enormous. The largest Russian lawyers: K. K. Arseniev, N. P. Karabchevsky, A. F. Koni, F. N. Plevako, V. D. Spasovich. Fyodor Nikiforovich Plevako (1842–1908) speaking in court.

Judicial reform Glasnost: The public began to be allowed into court sessions. Court reports were published in the press. Special court reporters appeared in the newspapers. Lawyer V. D. Spasovich: “To a certain extent, we are knights of the word of the living, free, freer now than in print, which will not be calmed down by the most zealous and ferocious chairmen, because while the chairman is considering stopping you, the word has already galloped three miles away and his not return." Portrait of the lawyer Vladimir Danilovich Spasovich. Hood. I. E. Repin. 1891.

44 The Judicial Reform of 1864 Significance of Judicial Reform The most advanced judicial system in the world at that time was created. A big step in the development of the principle of "separation of powers" and democracy Preservation of elements of bureaucratic arbitrariness: administrative punishment, etc. retained a number of vestiges of the past: special courts.

45 Military reform in the 60s - 70s. XIX XIX century. Military reform of the 60s - 70s. XIX-XIX centuries The immediate impetus was the defeat of Russia in the Crimean War of 1853-1856.

Directions of military reform Result - mass army modern type

Military reform The first step in military reform was the abolition in 1855 of military settlements. In 1861, at the initiative of the new Minister of War D. A. Milyutin, the service life was reduced from 25 years to 16 years. In 1863 corporal punishment was abolished in the army. In 1867, a new military-judicial charter was introduced, based on the general principles of judicial reform (publicity, competitiveness). Dmitry Alekseevich Milyutin (1816–1912), Minister of War in 1861–1881

Military reform In 1863, military education was reformed: the cadet corps were transformed into military gymnasiums. Military gymnasiums provided a broad general education (Russian and foreign languages, mathematics, physics, natural science, history). The teaching load has doubled, but the physical and general military training has been reduced. Dmitry Alekseevich Milyutin (1816–1912), Minister of War in 1861–1881

1) The creation of military gymnasiums and schools for the nobility, cadet schools for all classes, the opening of the Military Law Academy (1867) and the Naval Academy (1877)

According to the new charters, the task was to teach the troops only what was necessary in the war (shooting, loose formation, sapper business), the time for drill training was reduced, and corporal punishment was prohibited.

Military reform What measure was to become the main one in the course of military reform? Recruitment cancellation. What were the shortcomings of the recruiting system? The inability to quickly increase the army in wartime, the need to maintain a large army in peacetime. Recruitment was suitable for serfs, but not for free people. Non-commissioned officer of the Russian army. Hood. V. D. POLENOV Fragment. ? ?

Military reform What could replace the recruiting system? Universal conscription. The introduction of universal conscription in Russia with its vast territory required the development of a road network. Only in 1870 was a commission established to discuss this issue, and on January 1, 1874, the Manifesto was published on the replacement of recruitment service with universal military service. Commander of the Dragoon Regiment. 1886?

Military Reform All males aged 21 were subject to conscription. Service life was 6 years in the army and 7 years in the navy. The only breadwinners and only sons were exempted from conscription. What principle was put in the basis of the military reform: all-estate or non-estate? Formally, the reform was without estates, but in fact, estates were largely preserved. "Behind" . Hood. P. O. Kovalevsky. Russian soldier 1870s in full travel gear. ?

Military reform What were the remnants of estates in the Russian army after 1874? The fact that the officer corps remained mainly noble, the rank and file - peasant. Portrait of Lieutenant of the Life Guards Hussar Regiment Count G. Bobrinsky. Hood. K. E. Makovsky. Drummer of the Life Guards Pavlovsky Regiment. Hood. A. Detail. ?

Military reform During the military reform, benefits were established for recruits who had a secondary or higher education. Those who graduated from the gymnasium served 2 years, those who graduated from the university - 6 months. In addition to a reduced service life, they had the right to live not in the barracks, but in private apartments. Volunteer of the 6th Klyastitsky Hussar Regiment

Smooth-bore weapons were replaced with rifled ones, cast-iron guns were replaced with steel ones, the Kh. Berdan rifle (Berdanka) was adopted by the Russian army, and the construction of a steam fleet began.

Military reform What social groups do you think military reform caused discontent and what were his motives? The conservative nobility was dissatisfied with the fact that people from other classes got the opportunity to become officers. Some nobles resented the fact that they could be called up as soldiers along with the peasants. Particularly dissatisfied was the merchant class, previously not subject to recruitment duty. The merchants even offered to take over the maintenance of the disabled if they were allowed to pay off the draft. ?

59 Military reforms of the 60s - 70s. XIX XIX century. Military reforms of the 60s - 70s. XIX-XIX centuries The most important element of the reform is the replacement of the system of recruitment kits with universal military service Compulsory military service for men of all classes from the age of 20 (6 years in the army, 7 years in the navy) with subsequent stay in the reserve combat-ready armed forces; increasing the country's defense capability

The meaning of the reform: the creation of a mass army of a modern type, the authority of military service was raised, a blow to the class system. Shortcomings of the reform: miscalculations in the system of organization and armament of the troops. Military reform of 1874

62 Education reforms. Educational reforms School reform of 1864 Formation new structure Primary and secondary education Folk schools District 3 years of study Parish since 1884 Parish schools 3 years of study Progymnasium 4 years of study Urban 6 years of study Primary education

School Reform (Secondary Education) Classical and real gymnasiums were intended for the children of nobles and merchants. "Charter of gymnasiums and progymnasiums" November 19, 1864 Progymnasium. Duration of study 4 years Classical gymnasium 7-class, term of study 7 years Real gymnasium 7-class Duration of study 7 years In the program classical gymnasiums ancient and foreign languages, ancient history, ancient literature prevailed. Mathematics, physics and other technical subjects prevailed in the program of real gymnasiums. Prepared to enter high school. They were located in county towns.

School reform In 1872, the term of study in classical gymnasiums was increased to 8 years (the 7th grade became two years old), and from 1875 they officially became 8th grade. Real gymnasiums retained a 7-year term of study and in 1872 were transformed into real schools. If graduates of classical gymnasiums entered universities without exams, then realists had to take exams in ancient languages. Without exams, they entered only in technical universities. What caused such restrictions for graduates of real schools? In classical gymnasiums, the children of nobles more often studied, in real ones - the children of merchants and commoners. ?

The university reform was the first after the abolition of serfdom, which was caused by student unrest. A new university charter to replace the Nikolaev charter of 1835 was adopted on June 18, 1863. The Minister of Education A. V. Golovnin became the initiator of the new charter. The universities were given autonomy. Councils of universities and faculties were created, which elected the rector and deans, awarded academic titles, distributed funds among departments and faculties. Andrey Vasilyevich Golovnin (1821 -1886), Minister of Education in 1861–1866

University reform Universities had their own censorship, received foreign literature without customs inspection. The universities had their own court and security, the police did not have access to the territory of the universities. Golovnin suggested creating student organizations and involving them in university self-government, but the State Council rejected this proposal. Andrey Vasilyevich Golovnin (1821 -1886), Minister of Education in 1861–1866 ? Why was this proposal removed from the university charter?

Classic. Reform in the field of public education Changes in the education system University charter of 1863 School charter of 1864 Autonomy Gymnasiums Real Prepared for admission to the university Prepared for admission to higher technical educational establishments. A university council was created, which decided all internal issues. The election of the rector and teachers. Restrictions for students were removed (their misconduct was considered by the student court)

Women's education In the 60s and 70s. In Russia, women's higher education appeared. Women were not admitted to universities, but in 1869 the first Higher Women's Courses were opened. The courses opened by V. I. Gerrier in Moscow (1872) and K. N. Bestuzhev-Ryumin in St. Petersburg (1878) acquired the greatest fame. Only the Faculty of Literature and History was included in Guerrier's courses. On Bestuzhev courses - mathematical and verbal-historical departments. 2/3 of the students studied mathematics. Student. Hood. N. A. Yaroshenko.

Reforms in the field of education (1863 -1864) Significance of reforms: expansion and improvement of education at all levels. Shortcomings of the reforms: inaccessibility of the average and higher education for all segments of the population.

Judicial (1864) The most advanced judicial system in the then world. Preserved a number of vestiges: special courts. Military (1874) Creation of a mass army of a modern type, the authority of military service was raised, a blow to the class system. Miscalculations in the system of organization and armament of the troops. In the field of education (1863 -1864) Expansion and improvement of education at all levels. Inaccessibility of secondary and higher education for all segments of the population. Reforms Their importance Their shortcomings

71 The results and significance of the reforms They led to a significant acceleration of the country's development brought Russia closer to the level of the leading powers of the world They were incomplete and incomplete. In the 80s were replaced by counter-reforms of Alexander III

Significance of the reforms Zemsky Assembly in the provinces. Engraving after a drawing by K. A. Trutovsky. The country's advancement along the path of capitalist development, along the path of turning a feudal monarchy into a bourgeois one and the development of democracy The reforms were a step from the landlord state to the rule of law. The reforms demonstrated that positive changes in society can be achieved not by revolutions, but by transformations from above, by peaceful means

Summing up What is the historical significance of the reforms of the 1960s and 1970s? ? Thanks to the reforms of the 60-70s. many questions Everyday life were transferred from the jurisdiction of the bureaucracy to the jurisdiction of society in the person of zemstvos and city dumas; the equality of Russian citizens before the law was established; significantly increased the level of literacy of the population; universities received a greater degree of freedom in scientific and educational activities; censorship for the central press and book publishing was softened; the army began to be built on the basis of classless universal military service, which corresponded to the principle of equality before the law and made it possible to create trained reserves. ?

The abolition of serfdom posed new serious problems for the authorities. For centuries, the serf system determined the organization of the system of administration and legal proceedings in Russia, the principles of manning the army, etc. The collapse of this system dictated the need for further reforms. Zemstvo and city reforms The abolition of serfdom created many empty seats in the previously existing local government system, this latter was closely connected with serfdom. So, before each landowner in his estate was for his peasants the personification of power. And in the county and provincial administration, most of the posts since the time of Catherine II were filled at the choice of the nobility and from among its representatives. After the abolition of serfdom, the whole system collapsed. Individual landowners who maintained schools for their peasants closed them immediately after the abolition of serfdom. Therefore, it was decided to meet the needs of the liberal public (especially from the non-Chernozem provinces), which petitioned for the introduction of local all-estate self-government. These ideas were expressed by N.A. Milyutin in a note addressed to the emperor. Once approved by the latter, they became the guiding principles of the reform. These principles were expressed in the formula: to give local self-government as much confidence as possible, as much independence as possible, and as much unity as possible. On January 1, 1864, the law on zemstvo self-government was approved. Zemstvo reform began, during which a system of local self-government bodies was created in Russia at two territorial levels - in the county and the province. The administrative bodies of the zemstvos were county and provincial zemstvo assemblies, and the executive bodies were county and provincial zemstvo councils. Zemstvo elections were held every three years. In each county, three electoral congresses (curia) were created to elect deputies of the county zemstvo assembly. The first curia (private landowners) included persons, regardless of class, who had at least 200-800 acres of land (the land qualification was different in different counties). To the second (rural societies) - elected from volost gatherings. The third curia (city voters) included city owners with a certain property qualification. Each of the congresses elected a certain equal number of vowels (for a period of three years). District zemstvo assemblies elected provincial zemstvo councillors. To fulfill their tasks, the zemstvos received the right to impose a special tax on the population. As a rule, nobles predominated in zemstvo assemblies. The functions of the zemstvos were quite diverse. They were in charge of the local economy (construction and maintenance local roads etc.), public education, medicine, statistics. However, they could deal with all these matters only within their county or province. The shortcomings of the zemstvo reform were obvious: the incompleteness of the structure of the zemstvo bodies (the absence of a higher central body), the artificial creation of a numerical advantage for the landed nobility, and the limited scope of activity. At the same time, this reform was of great importance. The elective nature of the zemstvo bodies, their relative independence from bureaucratic structures made it possible to expect that these bodies, for all their shortcomings, would proceed from the interests of the local population and bring real benefits to them. These hopes were generally justified. Soon after the creation of zemstvos, Russia was covered with a network of zemstvo schools and hospitals. With the advent of the Zemstvo, the balance of power in the provinces began to change. Previously, all affairs in the counties were handled by government officials, together with the landowners. According to the law, the Zemstvos were purely economic organizations. But soon they began to play an important political role. Government policy towards the Zemstvo in the second half of the 1860s - 1870s. aimed at depriving him of any independence. The governors received the right to refuse to approve any person elected by the Zemstvo; even greater rights were given to them in relation to "employees" - zemstvo doctors, teachers, statisticians: on the slightest occasion they were not only expelled from the zemstvo, but also expelled from the province. On similar grounds, in 1870 it was published City regulation (law on the reform of city self-government).The issues of improvement (lighting, heating, water supply, cleaning, transport, arrangement of city roads, embankments, bridges, etc.), as well as the management of school, medical and charitable affairs, were subject to the patronage of city dumas and governments , care for the development of trade and industry. The municipal dumas were charged with mandatory expenses for the maintenance of the fire department, police, prisons, barracks (these expenses absorbed from 20 to 60% of the city budget). his property qualification.In the elections to the city duma, males who have reached 25 years of age participated in three electoral congresses (curia) (small, medium and large taxpayers) with equal total payments of city taxes. Judicial reform. In 1864, a judicial reform was also carried out, which radically transformed the structure of the Russian court and the entire process of legal proceedings. The former courts existed without any significant changes since the time of Catherine II, although the need for judicial reform was recognized by Alexander I. opportunities for abuse and lawlessness). The defendant was not always informed of even all the grounds on which the charges brought against him were based. The verdict was passed on the totality of the system of formal evidence, and not on the inner conviction of the judge. It was possible to take up the reform only after the abolition of serfdom, which forced the abandonment of the principle of class and the change of the conservative Minister of Justice, Count. V.N. Panin. The author of the judicial reform was a longtime supporter of changes in this area, State Secretary of the State Council Sergei Ivanovich Zarudny. In 1862, the emperor approved the main provisions of the judicial reform developed by him: 1) the absence of estates of the court, 2) the equality of all citizens before the law, 3) the complete independence of the court from the administration (which was guaranteed by the irremovability of judges), 4) careful selection of judicial personnel and their sufficient material support. The old class courts were abolished. Instead of them, a world court and a crown court were created - two systems independent of each other, which were united only by subordination to one supreme judicial body - the Senate. From the old courts, which conducted business in a purely bureaucratic manner, the new ones differed primarily in that they were public, i.e. open to the public and press. In addition, the judicial procedure was based on an adversarial process, during which the accusation was formulated, substantiated and supported by the prosecutor, and the interests of the defendant were defended by a lawyer from among the sworn lawyers. The world court, whose task was to provide the Russian people with a court “quick, right and merciful,” consisted of one person. The magistrate was elected by the zemstvo assemblies or city dumas for three years. The government could not by its power remove him from office (as well as the judges of the district crown court). The task of the magistrate's court was to reconcile the guilty, and if the parties were unwilling, the judge was given considerable scope in sentencing - depending not on any external formal data, but on his inner conviction. The introduction of magistrates' courts significantly relieved the crown courts from the mass of petty cases. Yet the judicial reform of 1864 remained unfinished. To resolve conflicts among the peasantry, the estate volost court was retained. This was partly due to the fact that peasant legal concepts were very different from general civil ones. In addition, soon after the start of the implementation of the judicial reform, largely under the influence of the unprecedented scope of terrorism, the authorities began to subordinate the courts to the dominating bureaucratic system. In the second half of the 1860s - 1870s, the publicity of court sessions and their coverage in the press were significantly limited; the dependence of judicial officials on the local administration increased: they were ordered to unquestioningly “submit to the legal requirements” of the provincial authorities. And yet, one can without hesitation admit that the judicial reform was the most radical and consistent of all the Great Reforms of the 1860s. Military reforms. In 1861, General Dmitry Alekseevich Milyutin was appointed Minister of War. Crimean War, he spent in the 1860s - I floor. 1870s a series of military reforms. One of the main tasks of the military reforms was to reduce the size of the army in peacetime and create the possibility for a significant increase in it in wartime. At the same time, a well-ordered, strictly centralized structure was created to streamline the military command and control system. In 1862 - 1864 Russia was divided into 15 military districts directly subordinate to the War Ministry. In 1865, the General Staff was established - central authority troop control. The transformations in the field of military education were also of great importance: instead of closed cadet corps military gymnasiums were established, close in program to high school(gymnasium) and opened the way to any higher educational institution. Those who wished to continue their military education entered the institutes established in the 1860s. specialized cadet schools - artillery, cavalry, military engineering. An important feature of these schools was their all-class nature, which opened access to the officer corps to persons of non-noble origin. Higher military education was given by the academies of the General Staff, artillery, military medical, naval, etc. The army was re-equipped (the first rifled breech-loading guns, Berdan rifles, etc.). Military reforms met with strong opposition from conservative circles of the generals and society; The main opponent of the reforms was Field Marshal Prince. A.I. Baryatinsky. Military "authorities" criticized the reforms for their bureaucratic nature, diminishing the role commanders, the overthrow of the age-old foundations of the Russian army. The results and significance of the reforms of the 1860s - 1870s. The reforms of the 1960s and 1970s did not affect the upper levels of power. The autocracy and the police system inherited from past eras were preserved.

The reform of 1861 made the peasants free, solving the most important problem of Russian reality, but at the same time, it retained many traces of the old system, which could become an obstacle to the economic development of the country. The change in the legal status of such a large group of the population could not but affect all aspects of life in Russia. Therefore, the emancipation of the peasants had to be supplemented by a number of other reforms. First of all, this affected local government, in which the government tried to involve the public. As a result of the implementation of the zemstvo (1864) and city (1870) reforms, elected self-government bodies were created. Having relatively broad powers in the field of economic development, education, health and culture, the zemstvos, at the same time, did not have any rights in political life. The state also sought to prevent the coordination of the activities of the zemstvos, fearing their possible self-organization into a social movement. And yet, with all the restrictions imposed on the work of zemstvos, they played a very significant role in the development of the Russian provinces. No less decisive changes occurred due to the judicial reform (1864). She, perhaps, most of all stood out from the traditional framework of the Russian political system. All estates, the independence of the court from the administration, publicity, oral and competitive legal proceedings, the participation of jurors - all these principles decisively broke with the traditional foundations of the old judicial system. Therefore, despite a number of subsequent restrictive acts of the government, the judicial system became the first and, perhaps, the only institution in Russia completely independent of the state. In the direction of liberalizing public life, other steps taken by the state also developed: the softening of censorship rules (1865), the granting of autonomy to universities (1863) and even the military reform (1874), which resulted not only in the introduction of universal military service and reduction in service life, but attempts were made to humanize the army. Thus, the reforms of the 60s - 70s. 19th century brought great changes to the life of the country. They allowed Russia to get out of a protracted and deep crisis, significantly accelerated its development, both in socio-economic and political terms. At the same time, it was only the first step on a fairly long path leading to a new model of statehood in Russia. Although absolutism was clearly exhausting its possibilities and more and more often it had to make concessions to the public, it made these movements very reluctantly, as a rule, under pressure from below. Therefore, the success of the reforms of the 60s and 70s. did not receive due completion in the form of a constant movement towards the complete democratization of society. Being a conservative response to the challenge of the time, a reaction "from above", the reforms did not satisfy the public and caused more and more attempts to put pressure on the authorities in order to implement new liberal reforms. The refusal of the government to make these changes led to an increase in radicalism in the social movement, which, in turn, created the conditions for a new growth of the crisis. The contradictions not resolved by the reforms of the 1960s and 1970s were superimposed by new ones generated by the post-reform reality and, thereby, increased the conflict in the Russian state. The revolution was avoided, but it was not possible to prevent it in the future.

Zemstvo reform of 1864 Russia approached the peasant reform with an extremely backward and neglected local (zemstvo, as they used to say) economy. Honey. assistance in the village was practically non-existent. Epidemics claimed thousands of lives. The peasants did not know the elementary rules of hygiene. public education could never get out of its infancy. Individual landowners who maintained schools for their peasants closed them immediately after the abolition of serfdom. Nobody cared about country roads. Meanwhile, the state treasury was exhausted, and the government could not raise the local economy on its own. Therefore, it was decided to meet the needs of the liberal public, which petitioned for the introduction of local self-government.

On January 1, 1864, the law on zemstvo self-government was approved. It was established to guide households. affairs: the construction and maintenance of local roads, schools, hospitals, almshouses, for the organization of food assistance to the population in lean years, for agronomic assistance and the collection of statistical information.

The administrative bodies of the zemstvo were provincial and district zemstvo assemblies, and the executive bodies were district and provincial zemstvo councils. To fulfill their tasks, the zemstvos received the right to impose a special tax on the population.

Zemstvo elections were held every three years. In each county, for the election of vowels of the county zemstvo assembly, created. three elect. congress. The first congress was attended by landowners, regardless of class, who had at least 200-800 dessiatins. land (the land qualification for different counties was not the same). The second congress included city owners with a certain property qualification. The third, peasant, congress was attended by elected representatives from volost assemblies. Each of the congresses elected a certain number of vowels. District zemstvo assemblies elected provincial zemstvo councillors.

As a rule, nobles predominated in zemstvo assemblies. Despite conflicts with liber. landlords, the autocracy considered the local nobility to be its main support. Therefore, the Zemstvo was not introduced in Siberia and in the Arkhangelsk province, where there were no landowners. Zemstvo was not introduced in the Don Cossack Region, in the Astrakhan and Orenburg provinces, where Cossack self-government existed.

Zemstvos have played a large positive role in improving the life of the Russian countryside, in the development of education. Soon after their creation, Russia was covered with a network of zemstvo schools and hospitals.

With the advent of the Zemstvo, the balance of power in the Russian provinces began to change. Previously, all affairs in the counties were handled by government officials, together with the landowners. Now, when a network of schools, hospitals and statistical bureaus has developed, a “third element” has appeared, as zemstvo doctors, teachers, agronomists, and statisticians have come to be called. Many representatives of the rural intelligentsia showed high standards of service to the people. They were trusted by peasants, councils listened to their advice. Government officials have watched the rise of the "third element" with concern.

Urban reform of 1870 In 1870, following the Zemskaya type, a city reform was carried out to replace the former class dumas, created in accordance with the “Charter of Letters to Cities” of 1785, with all-class elective city institutions - city dumas and city councils.

The right to elect to the city duma was used by persons who had reached the age of 25 and paid city taxes. All voters, in accordance with the amount of fees paid in favor of the city, were divided into three curiae. The first curia consisted of a small group of the largest owners of real estate, industrial and commercial enterprises, who paid 1/3 of all taxes to the city treasury. The second curia included smaller taxpayers who contributed another 1/3 of the city fees. The third curia consisted of all other taxpayers. At the same time, each curia elected an equal number of councilors to the city duma, which ensured the predominance of representatives of the big financial and commercial and industrial bourgeoisie in it.

City public self-government was in charge of the decision of households. issues: the improvement of the city, the development of local trade and industry, health care and public education, the maintenance of the police, prisons, etc.

The activity of city self-government was controlled by the state. The mayor elected by the city duma was approved by the governor or the minister of the interior. The same officials could impose a ban on any decision of the Duma. To control the activities of city self-government in each province, a special body was created - the provincial presence for city affairs. However, for all its limitations, the urban reform was a step forward compared to the pre-reform organization of urban government during the Ec II. She, like the zemstvo reform, contributed to the involvement of the general population in solving management issues, which served as a prerequisite for the formation of civil society and the rule of law in Russia.

Judicial reform of 1864 The most consistent transformation of A II was the judicial reform carried out on the basis of new judicial charters adopted in November 1864. In accordance with it, the new court was built on the principles of bourgeois law: the formal equality of all classes before the law; publicity of the court; the independence of judges; competitiveness of prosecution and defense; the election of certain judicial bodies.

According to the new judicial statutes, two systems of courts were created - world and general.

The magistrates' courts heard petty criminal and civil cases. They were created in cities and counties. Justices of the peace administered justice alone. They were elected by county zemstvo assemblies, and in the capitals - by city dumas. For judges, a high educational and property qualification was established - not lower than secondary education and ownership of real estate in the amount of at least 15 thousand rubles or 400 acres of land. At the same time, judges received fairly high salaries - from 2,200 to 9,000 rubles a year,

The system of general courts included district courts and judicial chambers

The district court was appointed by the emperor on the proposal of the Minister of Justice and considered complex criminal and civil cases. Consideration of criminal cases took place with the participation of 12 jurors. A juror could be a citizen of Russia between the ages of 25 and 70 with an impeccable personal record, who had lived in the area for at least two years. A rather significant property qualification was also established - possession of real estate in the amount of at least 2 thousand rubles. Lists of jurors approved. governor.

The Court of Appeal for the District Court was the Trial Chamber. Moreover, an appeal against the verdict handed down by the jury was not allowed.

The Judicial Chamber considered cases of malfeasance committed by persons who had a rank higher than the titular adviser (that is, from the VIII class of the table of ranks). Such cases were equated with state. crimes and obeyed with the participation of class representatives. The highest court was the Senate.

The reform established the publicity of trials, which began to be held openly, the public was admitted to them, newspapers printed reports on courts of public interest. The principle of competitiveness of the parties was ensured by the presence at the trial of the prosecutor - the representative of the prosecution and the lawyer who defended the interests of the accused. In Russian society, there was an extraordinary interest in advocacy.

And although the new judicial system still retained a number of feudal vestiges (the existence of a special volost court for peasants, courts for the clergy, military and senior officials), nevertheless, it was the most advanced.

Establishment of zemstvos. After the abolition of serfdom, a number of other transformations were required. By the beginning of the 60s. the former local administration showed its complete failure. The activities of the officials appointed in the capital who led the provinces and districts, and the detachment of the population from making any decisions, brought economic life, health care, and education to extreme disorder. The abolition of serfdom made it possible to involve all segments of the population in solving local problems. At the same time, when establishing new governing bodies, the government could not ignore the moods of the nobles, many of whom were dissatisfied with the abolition of serfdom.

On January 1, 1864, an imperial decree introduced the "Regulations on provincial and district zemstvo institutions", which provided for the creation of elective zemstvos in the counties and provinces. Only men had the right to vote in the elections of these bodies. Voters were divided into three curia (categories): landowners, city voters and elected from peasant societies. Owners of at least 200 acres of land or other real estate in the amount of at least 15 thousand rubles, as well as owners of industrial and commercial enterprises that generate income of at least 6 thousand rubles a year, could be a voter in the landowning curia. The small landowners, uniting, put forward only representatives in the elections.

The voters of the city curia were merchants, owners of enterprises or trading establishments with an annual turnover of at least 6,000 rubles, as well as owners of real estate worth from 600 rubles (in small towns) to 3,600 rubles (in large cities).

Elections but the peasant curia were multi-stage: at first, rural assemblies elected representatives to volost assemblies. Electors were first elected at volost gatherings, who then nominated representatives to county self-government bodies. At district assemblies, representatives from the peasants were elected to the provincial self-government bodies.

Zemstvo institutions were divided into administrative and executive. Administrative bodies - zemstvo assemblies - consisted of vowels of all classes. Both in the counties and in the provinces, vowels were elected for a period of three years. Zemstvo assemblies elected executive bodies - zemstvo councils, which also worked for three years. The range of issues that were resolved by zemstvo institutions was limited to local affairs: the construction and maintenance of schools, hospitals, the development of local trade and industry, etc. The legitimacy of their activities was monitored by the governor. The material basis for the existence of zemstvos was a special tax, which was imposed on real estate: land, houses, factories and trade establishments.

The most energetic, democratically minded intelligentsia grouped around the zemstvos. The new self-government bodies raised the level of education and public health, improved the road network and expanded agronomic assistance to the peasants on a scale that the state power was incapable of. Despite the fact that representatives of the nobility prevailed in the zemstvos, their activities were aimed at improving the situation of the broad masses of the people.

Zemstvo reform was not carried out in the Arkhangelsk, Astrakhan and Orenburg provinces, in Siberia, in Central Asia- where there was no noble land ownership or it was insignificant. Poland, Lithuania, Belarus, Right-Bank Ukraine, and the Caucasus did not receive local governments, since there were few Russians among the landowners.

self-government in cities. In 1870, following the example of the Zemstvo, a city reform was carried out. It introduced all-estate self-government bodies - city dumas, elected for four years. Vowels of the Dumas elected for the same term permanent executive bodies - city councils, as well as the mayor, who was the head of both the thought and the council.

The right to choose new governing bodies was enjoyed by men who had reached the age of 25 and paid city taxes. All voters, in accordance with the amount of fees paid in favor of the city, were divided into three curia. The first was a small group of the largest owners of real estate, industrial and commercial enterprises, who paid 1/3 of all taxes to the city treasury. The second curia included smaller taxpayers contributing another 1/3 of the city fees. The third curia consisted of all other taxpayers. At the same time, each of them elected an equal number of vowels to the city duma, which ensured the predominance of large owners in it.

The activity of city self-government was controlled by the state. The mayor was approved by the governor or the minister of the interior. The same officials could impose a ban on any decision of the city duma. To control the activities of city self-government in each province, a special body was created - the provincial presence for city affairs.

City self-government bodies appeared in 1870, first in 509 Russian cities. In 1874, the reform was introduced in the cities of Transcaucasia, in 1875 - in Lithuania, Belarus and Right-Bank Ukraine, in 1877 - in the Baltic states. It did not apply to the cities of Central Asia, Poland and Finland. For all the limitations, the urban reform of the emancipation of Russian society, like the Zemstvo one, contributed to the involvement of broad sections of the population in solving management issues. This served as a prerequisite for the formation of civil society and the rule of law in Russia.

Judicial reform. The most consistent transformation of Alexander II was the judicial reform carried out in November 1864. In accordance with it, the new court was built on the principles of bourgeois law: the equality of all classes before the law; publicity of the court"; independence of judges; competitiveness of prosecution and defense; irremovability of judges and investigators; electivity of some judicial bodies.

According to the new judicial statutes, two systems of courts were created - world and general. The magistrates' courts heard petty criminal and civil cases. They were created in cities and counties. Justices of the peace administered justice alone. They were elected by zemstvo assemblies and city councils. High educational and property qualifications were established for judges. At the same time, they received rather high wages - from 2200 to 9 thousand rubles a year.

The system of general courts included district courts and judicial chambers. Members of the district court were appointed by the emperor on the proposal of the Minister of Justice and considered criminal and complex civil cases. Consideration of criminal cases took place with the participation of twelve jurors. The juror could be a citizen of Russia aged 25 to 70 with an impeccable reputation, living in the area for at least two years and owning real estate in the amount of 2,000 rubles or more. Jury lists were approved by the governor. Appeals against the District Court's decision were made to the Trial Chamber. Moreover, an appeal against the verdict was allowed. The Judicial Chamber also considered cases of malfeasance of officials. Such cases were equated with state crimes and were heard with the participation of class representatives. The highest court was the Senate. The reform established the publicity of trials. They were held openly, in the presence of the public; newspapers printed reports on trials of public interest. The competitiveness of the parties was ensured by the presence at the trial of the prosecutor - the representative of the prosecution and the lawyer defending the interests of the accused. In Russian society, there was an extraordinary interest in advocacy. Outstanding lawyers F. N. Plevako, A. I. Urusov, V. D. Spasovich, K. K. Arseniev, who laid the foundations of the Russian school of lawyer-orators, became famous in this field. The new judicial system retained a number of vestiges of estates. These included volost courts for peasants, special courts for the clergy, military and senior officials. In some national areas, the implementation of judicial reform dragged on for decades. In the so-called Western Territory (Vilna, Vitebsk, Volyn, Grodno, Kyiv, Kovno, Minsk, Mogilev and Podolsk provinces), it began only in 1872 with the creation of magistrates' courts. Justices of the peace were not elected, but appointed for three years. District courts began to be created only in 1877. At the same time, Catholics were forbidden to hold judicial office. In the Baltics, the reform began to be implemented only in 1889.

Only at the end of the XIX century. judicial reform was carried out in the Arkhangelsk province and Siberia (in 1896), as well as in Central Asia and Kazakhstan (in 1898). Here, too, the appointment of magistrates took place, who simultaneously performed the functions of investigators, the jury trial was not introduced.

military reforms. Liberal transformations in society, the desire of the government to overcome backwardness in the military field, as well as to reduce military spending, necessitated fundamental reforms in the army. They were conducted under the leadership of Minister of War D. A. Milyutin. In 1863-1864. reform of military educational institutions began. General education was separated from special education: future officers received general education in military gymnasiums, and professional training in military schools. The children of the nobility studied mainly in these educational institutions. For those who did not have a secondary education, cadet schools were created, where representatives of all classes were admitted. In 1868, military progymnasiums were created to replenish the cadet schools.

In 1867 the Military Law Academy was opened, in 1877 the Naval Academy. Instead of recruitment sets, all-class military service was introduced. According to the charter approved on January 1, 1874, persons of all classes from the age of 20 (later - from the age of 21) were subject to conscription. The total service life for the ground forces was set at 15 years, of which 6 years - active service, 9 years - in reserve. In the fleet - 10 years: 7 - valid, 3 - in reserve. For persons who received an education, the period of active service was reduced from 4 years (for those who graduated from elementary schools) to 6 months (for those who received higher education).

The only sons and the only breadwinners of the family were released from service, as well as those recruits whose older brother was serving or had already served a term of active service. Those exempted from conscription were enlisted in the militia, which was formed only during the war. Clerics of all faiths, representatives of some religious sects and organizations, the peoples of the North, Central Asia, part of the inhabitants of the Caucasus and Siberia were not subject to conscription. Corporal punishment was abolished in the army, punishment with rods was retained only for fines), food was improved, barracks were re-equipped, and literacy was introduced for soldiers. There was a rearmament of the army and navy: smooth-bore weapons were replaced by rifled ones, the replacement of cast-iron and bronze guns with steel ones began; The rapid-fire rifles of the American inventor Berdan were adopted for service. The system of combat training has changed. A number of new statutes, instructions, teaching aids, who set the task of teaching soldiers only what is needed in the war, significantly reducing the time for drill training.

As a result of the reforms, Russia received a massive army that met the requirements of the times. The combat readiness of the troops has significantly increased. The transition to universal military service was a serious blow to the class organization of society.

Reforms in the field of education. The education system has also undergone a significant restructuring. In June 1864, the "Regulations on Primary Public Schools" were approved, according to which such educational institutions could be opened by public institutions and private individuals. This led to the creation primary schools various types - state, zemstvo, parochial, Sunday, etc. The term of study in them did not exceed, as rule of three years.

Since November 1864, gymnasiums have become the main type of educational institution. They were divided into classical and real. In the classical, a large place was given to the ancient languages ​​- Latin and Greek. The term of study in them was at first seven years, and from 1871 - eight years. Graduates of classical gymnasiums had the opportunity to enter universities. Six-year real gymnasiums were designed to prepare "for employment in various branches of industry and trade."

The main attention was paid to the study of mathematics, natural science, technical subjects. Access to universities for graduates of real gymnasiums was closed, they continued their studies in technical institutes. The foundation was laid for women's secondary education - women's gymnasiums appeared. But the amount of knowledge given in them was inferior to what was taught in the men's gymnasiums. The gymnasium accepted children "of all classes, without distinction of rank and religion", however, at the same time, high tuition fees were set. In June 1864, a new charter for the universities was approved, restoring the autonomy of these educational institutions. The direct management of the university was entrusted to the council of professors, who elected the rector and deans, approved curricula, and resolved financial and personnel issues. Women's higher education began to develop. Since gymnasium graduates did not have the right to enter universities, higher women's courses were opened for them in Moscow, St. Petersburg, Kazan, and Kyiv. Women began to be admitted to universities, but as volunteers.

Orthodox Church in the period of reforms. Liberal reforms also affected the Orthodox Church. First of all, the government tried to improve the financial situation of the clergy. In 1862, a Special Presence was created to find ways to improve the life of the clergy, which included members of the Synod and senior officials of the state. Public forces were also involved in solving this problem. In 1864, parish guardianships arose, consisting of parishioners, who not only focused on the study of mathematics, natural science, and technical subjects. Access to universities for graduates of real gymnasiums was closed, they continued their studies at technical institutes.

The foundation was laid for women's secondary education - women's gymnasiums appeared. But the amount of knowledge given in them was inferior to what was taught in the men's gymnasiums. The gymnasium accepted children "of all classes, without distinction of rank and religion", however, at the same time, high tuition fees were set.

In June 1864, a new charter for the universities was approved, restoring the autonomy of these educational institutions. The direct management of the university was entrusted to the council of professors, who elected the rector and deans, approved curricula, and resolved financial and personnel issues. Women's higher education began to develop. Since gymnasium graduates did not have the right to enter universities, higher women's courses were opened for them in Moscow, St. Petersburg, Kazan, and Kyiv. Women began to be admitted to universities, but as volunteers.

Orthodox Church in the period of reforms. Liberal reforms also affected the Orthodox Church. First of all, the government tried to improve the financial situation of the clergy. In 1862, a Special Presence was created to find ways to improve the life of the clergy, which included members of the Synod and senior officials of the state. Public forces were also involved in solving this problem. In 1864, parish trustees arose, consisting of parishioners who not only managed the affairs of the parish, but also had to contribute to the improvement financial situation spiritual persons. In 1869-79. incomes of parish priests increased significantly due to the abolition of small parishes and the establishment of an annual salary, which ranged from 240 to 400 rubles. Old-age pensions were introduced for the clergy.

The liberal spirit of the reforms carried out in the field of education also touched church educational institutions. In 1863, graduates of theological seminaries received the right to enter universities. In 1864, the children of the clergy were allowed to enroll in gymnasiums, and in 1866, in military schools. In 1867, the Synod passed resolutions on the abolition of the heredity of parishes and on the right to enter seminaries for all Orthodox without exception. These measures destroyed class partitions and contributed to the democratic renewal of the clergy. At the same time, they led to the departure from this environment of many young, gifted people who joined the ranks of the intelligentsia. Under Alexander II, the legal recognition of the Old Believers took place: they were allowed to register their marriages and baptisms in civil institutions; they could now hold certain public positions and freely travel abroad. At the same time, in all official documents, adherents of the Old Believers were still called schismatics, they were forbidden to hold public office.

Conclusion: During the reign of Alexander II in Russia, liberal reforms were carried out that affected all aspects of public life. Thanks to the reforms, significant segments of the population received the initial skills of management and public work. The reforms laid down traditions, albeit very timid ones, of civil society and the rule of law. At the same time, they retained the estate advantages of the nobles, and also had restrictions for the national regions of the country, where free popular will determines not only the law, but also the personality of the rulers, in such a country political assassination as a means of struggle, it is a manifestation of the same spirit of despotism, the destruction of which in Russia we set as our task. The despotism of the individual and the despotism of the party are equally reprehensible, and violence is justified only when it is directed against violence.” Comment on this document.

The emancipation of the peasants in 1861 and the subsequent reforms of the 1960s and 1970s became a turning point in Russian history. This period was called the era of "great reforms" by liberal figures. Their result was the creation necessary conditions for the development of capitalism in Russia, which allowed her to go the pan-European path.

The pace of economic development has sharply increased in the country, and the transition to a market economy has begun. Under the influence of these processes, new sections of the population were formed - the industrial bourgeoisie and the proletariat. Peasant and landlord farms were increasingly involved in commodity-money relations.

The emergence of zemstvos, city self-government, democratic transformations in the judiciary and educational systems testified to the steady, although not so fast, movement of Russia towards the foundations of civil society and the rule of law.

However, almost all reforms were inconsistent and incomplete. They retained the estate advantages of the nobility and state control over society. On the national outskirts of the reforms were implemented in an incomplete manner. The principle of the autocratic power of the monarch remained unchanged.

The foreign policy of the government of Alexander II was active in almost all main areas. Through diplomatic and military means, the Russian state succeeded in solving the foreign policy tasks facing it and restoring its position as a great power. At the expense of the Central Asian territories, the boundaries of the empire expanded.

The era of "great reforms" has become a time of transformation of social movements into a force capable of influencing power or resisting it. Fluctuations in the government's course and the inconsistency of the reforms led to an increase in radicalism in the country. The revolutionary organizations embarked on the path of terror, striving to raise the peasants to the revolution through the assassination of the tsar and high officials.

Russian culture of the nineteenth century.

The 19th century became the golden age of Russian culture. From the Petrine reforms, in fact, they prepared forces for Russia to experience its revival in the 19th century.

The 19th century is indeed the golden age of Russian culture, it is the development of science, the development of education, Russian literature with its many names (primarily A. S. Pushkin), who created the modern Russian literary language.

If today we take Derzhavin’s predecessors, Pushkin’s teachers, then, undoubtedly, there is a certain difficulty in reading their work, and when you take Pushkin’s work, despite the fact that at least 200 years have already passed since the creation of these works, you feel when reading these poems a certain episode, respectively, understanding and realizing them. And after 100-80 years we read these verses quite calmly.

In the 19th century, such phenomena of Russian culture appeared as in prose Gogol, Dostoevsky, Turgenev, etc.

Social transformations became a huge event for Russian culture, it is no coincidence that in the second half of the 19th century we see the desire of musicians artists to contribute to social development Russia, from here appear such works as a mighty handful (associations of groups and composers), as the phenomenon of the Wanderers of Russian artists (who created a partnership of traveling art exhibitions), we see huge phenomena in Russian science - this is, first of all, the passage around the name of Mendeleev, who created periodic system etc.

1. Russian culture of the 19th century

To understand the features of Russian culture of the XIX and early XX centuries. knowledge of the nature of politics, economics and law is essential Russian Empire. As a result of Peter's reforms in Russia, an absolute monarchy was established and a bureaucracy was formalized legislatively, which was especially pronounced in the "golden age" of Catherine II. Early XIX in. was marked by the ministerial reform of Alexander 1, who in practice pursued a line to strengthen the feudal-absolutist order, taking into account the new "spirit of the times", primarily the influence of the Great French Revolution of 1789 on the minds, on Russian culture. One of the archetypes of this culture is the love of freedom, sung by Russian poetry, from Pushkin to Tsvetaeva. The establishment of ministries marked a further bureaucratization of administration and improvement central office Russian Empire. One of the elements of the modernization and Europeanization of the Russian state machine is the establishment State Council, whose function was to centralize the legislative business and ensure the uniformity of legal norms.

Ministerial reform and the formation of the State Council completed the reorganization of the central administration, which existed until 1917. After the abolition of serfdom in 1861, Russia firmly embarked on the path of capitalist development. However, the political system of the Russian Empire was permeated through and through with serfdom. Under these conditions, the bureaucracy turned into a "weather vane", trying to ensure the interests of the bourgeoisie and the nobles, the same situation was preserved later, in the era of imperialism. It can be said that the political system of Russia was conservative in nature, this was also manifested in law. The latter is a mixed law, because it intertwined the norms of feudal and bourgeois law. In connection with the development of bourgeois relations in the 70s of the last century, the “Russian Civil Code” was adopted, copied from the Napoleonic Code, which was based on classical Roman law.

The political system and law express the peculiarities of the economic development of Russia in the 19th century, when a new, capitalist mode of production was being formed in the depths of serfdom.

The main area where the new mode of production was formed earlier and more intensively was industry. Russia in the first half of the last century is characterized by the widespread distribution of small-scale industry, predominantly peasant. In the manufacturing industry, which produced consumer goods, small peasant crafts occupied a dominant position. The development of peasant industry transformed the economic appearance of the countryside and the very way of life of the peasant. In the fishing villages, the processes of social stratification of the peasantry and its separation from agriculture were more intense, the conflict between phenomena of a capitalist nature and feudal relations became more acute. But this was the case only in the most economically developed central industrial region, in other areas subsistence farming prevailed. And only after 1861, an industrial revolution was carried out in Russia, but the emerging Russian bourgeoisie depended on tsarism; it was characterized by political inertia and conservatism. All this left an imprint on the development of Russian culture, gave it a contradictory character, but, ultimately, contributed to its high rise.

Indeed, serfdom, which kept the peasantry in the dark and downtrodden, tsarist arbitrariness, which suppresses all living thought, and the general economic backwardness of Russia in comparison with Western European countries, hindered cultural progress. And yet, despite these unfavorable conditions, and even in spite of them, Russia in the 19th century made a truly gigantic leap in the development of culture, made an enormous contribution to world culture. Such a rise in Russian culture was due to a number of factors. First of all, it was associated with the process of formation of the Russian nation in the critical era of transition from feudalism to capitalism, with the growth of national self-consciousness and was its expression. Great value also had the fact that the rise of Russian national culture coincided with the beginning of the revolutionary liberation movement in Russia.

An important factor that contributed to the intensive development of Russian culture was its close communication and interaction with other cultures. The world revolutionary process and advanced Western European social thought had a strong influence on the culture of Russia. This was the heyday of German classical philosophy and French utopian socialism, the ideas of which were widely popular in Russia. We should not forget the influence of the heritage of Muscovite Russia on the culture of the 19th century: the assimilation of old traditions made it possible to germinate new shoots of creativity in literature, poetry, painting and other areas of culture. N. Gogol, N. Leskov, P. Melnikov-Pechersky, F. Dostoevsky and others created their works in the traditions of ancient Russian religious culture. But the work of other geniuses of Russian literature, whose attitude to Orthodox culture is more contradictory - from A. Pushkin and L. Tolstoy to A. Blok - bears an indelible stamp, testifying to Orthodox roots. Even the skeptical I. Turgenev gave an image of Russian folk holiness in the story "Living Powers". Of great interest are the paintings of M. Nesterov, M. Vrubel, K. Petrov-Vodkin, the origins of creativity, which go into Orthodox iconography.

Vivid phenomena in the history of musical culture were ancient church singing (the famous chant), as well as the later experiments of D. Bortnyansky, P. Tchaikovsky and S. Rachmaninov.

Russian culture perceived best achievements cultures of other countries and peoples, without losing their identity and, in turn, influencing the development of other cultures. A considerable mark was left in the history of European peoples, for example, by Russian religious thought. Russian philosophy and theology influenced Western European culture in the first half of the 20th century. thanks to the works of V. Solovyov, S. Bulgakov, P. Florensky, N. Berdyaev, M. Bakunin and many others. Finally, the most important factor that gave a strong impetus to the development of Russian culture was the "thunderstorm of the twelfth year." The rise of patriotism in connection with Patriotic War 1812 contributed not only to the growth of national self-consciousness and the formation of Decembrism, but also to the development of Russian national culture, V. Belinsky wrote: “The year 1812, having shaken all of Russia, aroused the people's consciousness and people's pride.”

Cultural and historical process in Russia in the XIX - early XX century. has its own characteristics. Noticeable acceleration of its pace, due to the above factors. At the same time, on the one hand, there was a differentiation (or specialization) of various spheres of cultural activity (especially in science), and on the other hand, the complication of the cultural process itself, that is, greater “contact” and mutual influence of various areas of culture: philosophy and literature, literature, painting and music, etc. It is also necessary to note the intensification of the processes of diffuse interaction between the components of the Russian national culture - the official (“high” professional) culture, patronized by the state (the church is losing spiritual power), and the culture of the masses (“folklore” layer ”), which originates in the depths of the East Slavic tribal unions, is formed in Ancient Russia and continues its full-blooded existence throughout Russian history. In the bowels of the official-state culture, a layer of "elitist" culture is noticeable, serving the ruling class (the aristocracy and the royal court) and having a special susceptibility to foreign innovations. Suffice it to recall the romantic painting of O. Kiprensky, V. Tropinin, K. Bryullov, A. Ivanov and other major artists of the 19th century.

Starting from the 17th century. a “third culture” is emerging and developing, amateur-craft, on the one hand, based on folklore traditions, and on the other, gravitating towards the forms of official culture. The interaction of these three layers of culture, often conflicting, is dominated by a tendency towards a single national culture based on the convergence of official art and the folklore element, inspired by the ideas of nationality and nationality. These aesthetic principles were affirmed in the aesthetics of the Enlightenment (P. Plavilshchikov, N. Lvov, A. Radishchev), they were especially important in the era of Decembrism in the first quarter of the 19th century. (K. Ryleev, A. Pushkin) and acquired fundamental importance in the work and aesthetics of the realistic type in the middle of the last century.

The intelligentsia, originally made up of educated people of two privileged classes - the clergy and the nobility, is increasingly actively involved in the formation of Russian national culture. In the first half of the XVIII century. raznochintsy intellectuals appear, and in the second half of this century a special social group- serf intelligentsia (actors, painters, architects, musicians, poets). If in the XVIII - first half of the XIX century. the leading role in culture belongs to the noble intelligentsia, then in the second half of the XIX century. - raznochintsy. The composition of the raznochintsy intelligentsia (especially after the abolition of serfdom) comes from peasants. In general, raznochintsy included educated representatives of the liberal and democratic bourgeoisie, who did not belong to the nobility, but to the bureaucracy, the bourgeoisie, the merchant class and the peasantry. This explains such an important feature of the culture of Russia in the 19th century as the process of its democratization that has begun. It manifests itself in the fact that not only representatives of the privileged classes are gradually becoming cultural figures, although they continue to occupy a leading position. The number of writers, poets, artists, composers, scientists from the unprivileged classes, in particular from the serfs, but mainly from among the raznochintsy, is increasing.

In the 19th century Literature becomes the leading area of ​​Russian culture, which was facilitated, first of all, by its close connection with the progressive liberation ideology. Pushkin's ode "Liberty", his "Message to Siberia" to the Decembrists and "Response" to this message of the Decembrist Odoevsky, Ryleev's satire "To the temporary worker" (Arakcheev), Lermontov's poem "On the death of the poet", Belinsky's letter to Gogol were, in fact, , political pamphlets, militant, revolutionary appeals that inspired the progressive youth. The spirit of opposition and struggle inherent in the works of progressive Russian writers made Russian literature of that time one of the active social forces.

Even against the backdrop of all the richest world classics, Russian literature of the last century is an exceptional phenomenon. One could say that it is like Milky Way, which clearly stands out in a sky strewn with stars, if some of the writers who made up its glory were not more like dazzling luminaries or independent "universes". The names alone of A. Pushkin, M. Lermontov, N. Gogol, F. Dostoevsky, L. Tolstoy immediately evoke ideas about vast artistic worlds, a multitude of ideas and images that are refracted in their own way in the minds of more and more new generations of readers. The impressions produced by this "golden age" of Russian literature were beautifully expressed by T. Mann. Speaking of its "extraordinary internal unity and integrity", "the close cohesion of its ranks, the continuity of its traditions." It can be said that Pushkin's poetry and Tolstoy's prose are a miracle; It is no coincidence that Yasnaya Polyana was the intellectual capital of the world in the last century.

A. Pushkin was the founder of Russian realism, his novel in verse "Eugene Onegin", which V. Belinsky called the encyclopedia of Russian life, was the highest expression of realism in the work of the great poet.

Outstanding examples of realistic literature are the historical drama "Boris Godunov", the stories "The Captain's Daughter", "Dubrovsky" and others. Pushkin's world significance is associated with the realization of the universal significance of the tradition he created. He paved the way for the literature of M. Lermontov, N. Gogol, I. Turgenev, L. Tolstoy, F. Dostoevsky and A. Chekhov, which rightfully became not only a fact of Russian culture, but also the most important moment spiritual development humanity.

Pushkin's traditions were continued by his younger contemporary and successor M. Lermontov. The novel "A Hero of Our Time", in many respects consonant with Pushkin's novel"Eugene Onegin" is considered the pinnacle of Lermontov's realism. Creativity M. Lermontov was highest point development of Russian poetry of the post-Pushkin period and opened up new paths in the evolution of Russian prose. His main aesthetic reference is the work of Byron and Pushkin during the period of "southern poems" (Pushkin's romanticism). Russian "Byronism" (this romantic individualism) is characterized by the cult of titanic passions and extreme situations, lyrical expression, combined with philosophical self-deepening. Therefore, Lermontov's attraction to the ballad, romance, lyrical-epic poem, in which a special place belongs to love, is understandable. Lermontov's method of psychological analysis, the "dialectic of feelings", had a strong influence on subsequent literature.

In the direction from pre-romantic and romantic forms to realism, Gogol's work also developed, which turned out to be a decisive factor in the subsequent development of Russian literature. In his Evenings on a Farm near Dikanka, the concept of Little Russia, this Slavic ancient rome- as a whole continent on the map of the universe, with Dikanka as its original center, as the focus of both national spiritual specificity and national destiny. At the same time, Gogol is the founder of the "natural school" (the school of critical realism); by chance, N. Chernyshevsky called the 30s - 40s of the last century the Gogol period of Russian literature. “We all came out of Gogol's Overcoat,” Dostoevsky figuratively remarked, characterizing Gogol's influence on the development of Russian literature. At the beginning of the XX century. Gogol receives worldwide recognition and from that moment on he becomes an active and ever-increasing figure in the world artistic process, the deep philosophical potential of his work is gradually realized.

The work of the genius L. Tolstoy deserves special attention, which marked a new stage in the development of Russian and world realism, threw a bridge between the traditions of the classical novel of the 19th century. and literature of the 20th century.

History of Russia from the beginning of the XVIII to the end of the XIX century Bokhanov Alexander Nikolaevich

§ 4. Liberal reforms of the 60-70s

Russia approached the peasant reform with an extremely backward and neglected local (zemstvo, as they used to say) economy. Medical assistance in the village was practically non-existent. Epidemics claimed thousands of lives. The peasants did not know the elementary rules of hygiene. Public education could not get out of its infancy. Individual landowners who maintained schools for their peasants closed them immediately after the abolition of serfdom. Nobody cared about country roads. Meanwhile, the state treasury was exhausted, and the government could not raise the local economy on its own. Therefore, it was decided to meet the needs of the liberal public, which petitioned for the introduction of local self-government.

On January 1, 1864, the law on zemstvo self-government was approved. It was established to manage economic affairs: the construction and maintenance of local roads, schools, hospitals, almshouses, to organize food assistance to the population in lean years, for agronomic assistance and the collection of statistical information.

The administrative bodies of the zemstvo were provincial and district zemstvo assemblies, and the executive bodies were district and provincial zemstvo councils. To fulfill their tasks, the zemstvos received the right to impose a special tax on the population.

Zemstvo elections were held every three years. In each county, three electoral congresses were created to elect deputies of the county zemstvo assembly. The first congress was attended by landowners, regardless of class, who had at least 200-800 dessiatins. land (the land qualification for different counties was not the same). The second congress included city owners with a certain property qualification. The third, peasant, congress was attended by elected representatives from volost assemblies. Each of the congresses elected a certain number of vowels. District zemstvo assemblies elected provincial zemstvo councillors.

As a rule, nobles predominated in zemstvo assemblies. Despite conflicts with liberal landlords, the autocracy considered the local nobility to be its main support. Therefore, the Zemstvo was not introduced in Siberia and in the Arkhangelsk province, where there were no landowners. Zemstvo was not introduced in the Don Cossack Region, in the Astrakhan and Orenburg provinces, where Cossack self-government existed.

Zemstvos have played a large positive role in improving the life of the Russian countryside, in the development of education. Soon after their creation, Russia was covered with a network of zemstvo schools and hospitals.

With the advent of the Zemstvo, the balance of power in the Russian provinces began to change. Previously, all affairs in the counties were handled by government officials, together with the landowners. Now, when a network of schools, hospitals and statistical bureaus has unfolded, a “third element” has appeared, as zemstvo doctors, teachers, agronomists, and statisticians have come to be called. Many representatives of the rural intelligentsia showed high standards of service to the people. They were trusted by peasants, councils listened to their advice. Government officials watched with concern the growing influence of the "third element".

According to the law, the Zemstvos were purely economic organizations. But soon they began to play an important political role. In those years, the most enlightened and humane landowners usually went to the zemstvo service. They became vowels of zemstvo assemblies, members and chairmen of administrations. They stood at the origins of the zemstvo liberal movement. And the representatives of the "third element" were attracted to the left, democratic, currents of social thought.

On similar grounds, in 1870, a reform of city self-government was carried out. The issues of improvement, as well as the management of school, medical and charitable affairs, were subject to the patronage of city dumas and councils. Elections to the City Duma were held in three electoral congresses (small, medium and large taxpayers). Workers who did not pay taxes did not participate in the elections. The mayor and the council were elected by the Duma. The mayor headed both the Duma and the Council, coordinating their activities. City dumas carried out a lot of work on the improvement and development of cities, but in the social movement they were not as noticeable as the zemstvos. This was due to the long-standing political inertia of the merchants and the business class.

Simultaneously with the Zemstvo reform, in 1864, a judicial reform was carried out. Russia received a new court: classless, public, competitive, independent of the administration. Court hearings became open to the public.

The central element of the new judicial system was the district court with jurors. The prosecution was supported by the prosecutor. The defender objected. Jurors, 12 people, were appointed by lot from representatives of all classes. After hearing the arguments, the jury returned a verdict (“guilty”, “not guilty”, or “guilty but deserves leniency”). Based on the verdict, the court issued a sentence. Russian general criminal law at that time did not know such a measure of punishment as the death penalty. Only special judicial bodies (military courts, the Special Presence of the Senate) could sentence to death.

Small cases were dealt with by the world court, which consisted of one person. The magistrate was elected by the zemstvo assemblies or city dumas for three years. The government could not by its power remove him from office (as well as the judges of the district court). The principle of irremovability of judges ensured their independence from the administration. The judicial reform was one of the most consistent and radical transformations of the 60s and 70s.

Yet the judicial reform of 1864 remained unfinished. To resolve conflicts among the peasantry, the estate volost court was retained. This was partly due to the fact that peasant legal concepts were very different from general civil ones. A magistrate with a "Code of Laws" would often be powerless to judge the peasants. The volost court, which consisted of peasants, judged on the basis of the customs existing in the area. But he was too exposed to the influence of the wealthy upper classes of the village and all sorts of bosses. The volost court and the mediator had the right to award corporal punishment. This shameful phenomenon existed in Russia until 1904.

In 1861, General Dmitry Alekseevich Milyutin (1816–1912) was appointed minister of war. Taking into account the lessons of the Crimean War, he carried out a number of important reforms. They had the goal of creating large trained reserves with a limited peacetime army. At the final stage of these reforms, in 1874, a law was passed that abolished recruitment and extended the obligation to serve in the army to men of all classes who had reached the age of 20 and were fit for health reasons. In the infantry, the service life was set at 6 years, in the navy - at 7 years. For those who graduated from higher educational institutions, the term of service was reduced to six months. These benefits have become an additional incentive for the dissemination of education. The abolition of recruitment, along with the abolition of serfdom, significantly increased the popularity of Alexander II among the peasantry.

The reforms of the 1960s and 1970s are a major phenomenon in the history of Russia. New, modern self-government bodies and courts contributed to the growth of the country's productive forces, the development of civil consciousness of the population, the spread of education, and the improvement of the quality of life. Russia joined the pan-European process of creating advanced, civilized forms of statehood based on the self-activity of the population and its will. But these were only the first steps. AT local government the remnants of serfdom were strong, many noble privileges remained intact. The reforms of the 1960s and 1970s did not affect the upper levels of power. The autocracy and the police system, inherited from past eras, were preserved.

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