Crimean War 1853-1856, also Eastern war- a war between the Russian Empire and a coalition of the British, French, Ottoman empires and the Kingdom of Sardinia. The fighting took place in the Caucasus, in the Danube principalities, in the Baltic, Black, White and Barents Seas, as well as in Kamchatka. They reached the greatest tension in the Crimea.

By the middle of the 19th century, the Ottoman Empire was in a state of decline, and only direct military assistance from Russia, England, France and Austria allowed the Sultan to twice prevent the capture of Constantinople by the rebellious vassal Muhammad Ali of Egypt. In addition, the struggle of the Orthodox peoples for liberation from the Ottoman yoke continued (see the Eastern question). These factors led the Russian Emperor Nicholas I in the early 1850s to think about separating the Balkan possessions of the Ottoman Empire, inhabited by Orthodox peoples, which was opposed by Great Britain and Austria. Great Britain, in addition, sought to oust Russia from the Black Sea coast of the Caucasus and from Transcaucasia. The Emperor of France, Napoleon III, although he did not share the plans of the British to weaken Russia, considering them excessive, supported the war with Russia as a revenge for 1812 and as a means of strengthening personal power.

In the course of a diplomatic conflict with France over the control of the Church of the Nativity in Bethlehem, Russia, in order to put pressure on Turkey, occupied Moldavia and Wallachia, which were under Russian protectorate under the terms of the Treaty of Adrianople. The refusal of the Russian Emperor Nicholas I to withdraw troops led to the declaration of war on Russia on October 4 (16), 1853 by Turkey, followed by Great Britain and France.

In the course of the ensuing hostilities, the Allies succeeded, using the technical backwardness of the Russian troops and the indecision of the Russian command, to concentrate quantitatively and qualitatively superior forces of the army and navy on the Black Sea, which allowed them to successfully land an airborne corps in the Crimea, inflict Russian army a series of defeats and, after a year-long siege, capture the southern part of Sevastopol, the main base of the Russian Black Sea Fleet. Sevastopol Bay, the location of the Russian fleet, remained under Russian control. On the Caucasian front, Russian troops managed to inflict a number of defeats on the Turkish army and capture Kars. However, the threat of Austria and Prussia joining the war forced the Russians to accept the terms of peace imposed by the allies. The humiliating Treaty of Paris, signed in 1856, demanded that Russia return to the Ottoman Empire everything captured in southern Bessarabia and the mouth of the Danube River and in the Caucasus. The empire was forbidden to have a combat fleet in the Black Sea, which was proclaimed neutral waters. Russia has stopped military construction in the Baltic Sea and much more.

The Crimean War, or, as it is called in the West, the Eastern War, was one of the most important and decisive events of the middle of the 19th century. At this time, the lands of the non-falling Ottoman Empire found themselves in the center of the conflict between the European powers and Russia, and each of the warring parties wanted to expand their territories by annexing foreign lands.

The war of 1853-1856 was called the Crimean War, since the most important and intense hostilities took place in the Crimea, although military clashes went far beyond the peninsula and covered large areas of the Balkans, the Caucasus, as well as the Far East and Kamchatka. Wherein tsarist Russia had to fight not only with Ottoman Empire, but with a coalition where Turkey was supported by Great Britain, France and the Kingdom of Sardinia.

Causes of the Crimean War

Each of the parties that took part in the military campaign had their own reasons and claims that prompted them to enter into this conflict. But in general, they were united by one single goal - to take advantage of Turkey's weakness and establish themselves in the Balkans and the Middle East. It was these colonial interests that led to the outbreak of the Crimean War. But to achieve this goal, all countries followed different paths.

Russia longed to destroy the Ottoman Empire, and its territories to be mutually beneficially divided among the claiming countries. Under its protectorate, Russia would like to see Bulgaria, Moldavia, Serbia and Wallachia. And at the same time, she was not opposed to the fact that the territories of Egypt and the island of Crete would go to Great Britain. It was also important for Russia to establish control over the Dardanelles and the Bosphorus, connecting the two seas: the Black and the Mediterranean.

Turkey, with the help of this war, hoped to suppress the national liberation movement that had engulfed the Balkans, and also to select very important Russian territories Crimea and the Caucasus.

England and France did not want to strengthen the positions of Russian tsarism in the international arena, and sought to preserve the Ottoman Empire, since they saw in her face a constant threat to Russia. Having weakened the enemy, the European powers wanted to separate the territories of Finland, Poland, the Caucasus and Crimea from Russia.

The French emperor pursued his ambitious goals and dreamed of revenge in a new war with Russia. Thus, he wanted to take revenge on his enemy for the defeat in the military campaign of 1812.

If we carefully consider the mutual claims of the parties, then, in fact, the Crimean War was absolutely predatory and predatory. After all, it was not in vain that the poet Fyodor Tyutchev described it as a war of cretins with scoundrels.

The course of hostilities

The beginning of the Crimean War was preceded by several important events. In particular, it was the issue of control over the Church of the Holy Sepulcher in Bethlehem, which was decided in favor of the Catholics. This finally convinced Nicholas I of the need to start military operations against Turkey. Therefore, in June 1853, Russian troops invaded the territory of Moldova.

The response of the Turkish side was not long in coming: on October 12, 1853, the Ottoman Empire declared war on Russia.

The first period of the Crimean War: October 1853 - April 1854

By the beginning of hostilities, there were about a million people in the Russian army. But as it turned out, its armament was very outdated and significantly inferior to the equipment of Western European armies: smooth-bore guns against rifled weapons, a sailing fleet against ships with steam engines. But Russia hoped that it would have to fight with an approximately equal in strength Turkish army, as happened at the very beginning of the war, and could not imagine that it would be opposed by the forces of the united coalition of European countries.

During this period, the fighting was carried out with varying success. And the most important battle of the first Russian-Turkish period of the war was the Battle of Sinop, which took place on November 18, 1853. The Russian flotilla under the command of Vice Admiral Nakhimov, heading for the Turkish coast, discovered large enemy naval forces in the Sinop Bay. The commander decided to attack the Turkish fleet. The Russian squadron had an undeniable advantage - 76 cannons firing explosive shells. This is what decided the outcome of the 4-hour battle - the Turkish squadron was completely destroyed, and the commander Osman Pasha was taken prisoner.

The second period of the Crimean War: April 1854 - February 1856

The victory of the Russian army in the battle of Sinop greatly disturbed England and France. And in March 1854, these powers, together with Turkey, formed a coalition to fight a common enemy - the Russian Empire. Now a powerful military force fought against her, several times superior to her army.

With the beginning of the second stage of the Crimean campaign, the territory of hostilities expanded significantly and covered the Caucasus, the Balkans, the Baltic, Far East and Kamchatka. But the main task of the coalition was the intervention in the Crimea and the capture of Sevastopol.

In the autumn of 1854, a united corps of 60,000 coalition forces landed in the Crimea near Yevpatoriya. And the first battle on the river Alma Russian army lost, so it was forced to retreat to Bakhchisaray. The garrison of Sevastopol began to prepare for the defense and defense of the city. The illustrious admirals Nakhimov, Kornilov and Istomin stood at the head of the valiant defenders. Sevastopol was turned into an impregnable fortress, which was protected by 8 bastions on land, and the entrance to the bay was blocked with the help of sunken ships.

The heroic defense of Sevastopol continued for 349 days, and only in September 1855 did the enemy capture Malakhov Kurgan and occupied the entire southern part of the city. The Russian garrison moved to the northern part, but Sevastopol never capitulated.

Results of the Crimean War

The military actions of 1855 weakened both the allied coalition and Russia. Therefore, the continuation of the war could no longer be discussed. And in March 1856, the opponents agreed to sign a peace treaty.

According to the Treaty of Paris, Russia, like the Ottoman Empire, was forbidden to have a navy, fortresses and arsenals on the Black Sea, which meant that the southern borders of the country were in danger.

As a result of the war, Russia lost a small part of its territories in Bessarabia and the mouth of the Danube, but lost its influence in the Balkans.

In order to expand your state borders and thus to strengthen their political influence in the world, most European countries, including the Russian Empire, sought to divide the Turkish lands.

Causes of the Crimean War

The main reasons for the outbreak of the Crimean War was the clash of political interests of England, Russia, Austria and France in the Balkans and the Middle East. For their part, the Turks wanted to take revenge for all their previous defeats in military conflicts with Russia.

The wire to the start of hostilities was the revision in the London Convention of the legal regime for the crossing of Russian vessels of the Bosphorus Strait, which caused indignation on the part of the Russian Empire, since it was significantly infringed on its rights.

Another reason for the outbreak of hostilities was the transfer of the keys to the Bethlehem Church into the hands of Catholics, which provoked a protest from Nicholas I, who, in the form of an ultimatum, began to demand their return to the Orthodox clergy.

In order to prevent the strengthening of Russia's influence, in 1853 France and England signed a secret treaty, the purpose of which was to oppose the interests of the Russian crown, which consisted in a diplomatic blockade. The Russian Empire severed all diplomatic relations with Turkey, and in early October 1853 hostilities began.

Military operations in the Crimean War: the first victories

During the first six months of hostilities, the Russian Empire received a series of stunning victories: the squadron of Admiral Nakhimov actually completely destroyed the Turkish fleet, besieged Silistria, and stopped the attempts of Turkish troops to seize Transcaucasia.

Fearing that the Russian Empire could capture the Ottoman Empire within a month, France and England entered the war. They wanted to attempt a naval blockade by sending their flotilla to major Russian ports: Odessa and Petropavlovsk - on Kamchatka, but their plan did not meet the desired success.

In September 1854, having consolidated their forces, the British troops made an attempt to capture Sevastopol. The first battle for the city on the Alma River was unsuccessful for Russian troops. At the end of September, the heroic defense of the city began, which lasted a whole year.

The Europeans had a significant advantage over Russia - these were steam ships, while the Russian fleet was represented by sailboats. The famous surgeon N.I. Pirogov and the writer L.N. participated in the battles for Sevastopol. Tolstoy.

Many participants in this battle went down in history as national heroes - these are S. Khrulev, P. Koshka, E. Totleben. Despite the heroism of the Russian army, she could not defend Sevastopol. Troops Russian Empire were forced to leave the city.

Consequences of the Crimean War

In March 1856, Russia signed the Treaty of Paris with European countries and Turkey. The Russian Empire lost its influence on the Black Sea, it was declared neutral. The Crimean War caused enormous damage to the country's economy.

The miscalculation of Nicholas I was that the feudal-serf Empire at that time had no chance of defeating strong European countries that had significant technical advantages. The defeat in the war was the main reason for the start of a series of social, political and economic reforms by the new Russian Emperor Alexander II.

COURSE WORK

END AND RESULTS OF THE CRIMEAN WAR

CONTENT:

INTRODUCTION .. 3

1. REVIEW OF LITERATURE ... 4

... 5

2.1. On the complexity of the issue of the causes and initiators of the Crimean War .. 5

2.2.Subject lines of the diplomatic struggle.. 8

... 13

3.1. Signing and conditions of the peace treaty. thirteen

3.2. Causes of defeat, results and consequences of the Crimean War .. 14

CONCLUSION .. 18

BIBLIOGRAPHY ... 20

INTRODUCTION

The Crimean War (1853-1856) is one of the turning points in history international relations. The Crimean War was, in a certain sense, an armed resolution of the historical confrontation between Russia and Europe. Perhaps never before have Russian-European contradictions been revealed so clearly. In the Crimean War, the most urgent problems of Russia's foreign policy strategy were refraction, which have not lost their significance at the present time. On the other hand, she discovered the characteristic internal contradictions of development in Russia itself. The experience of studying the Crimean War has great potential for developing a national strategic doctrine and determining a diplomatic course.

It is noteworthy that in Russia the Crimean War was also known as the Sevastopol War, which made it incomprehensible to Russian public opinion, which perceived it as another Russian-Turkish battle. Meanwhile, in Western Europe and in the East, the conflict was also called the Eastern, Great, Russian war, as well as the war for the Holy places or Palestinian shrines.

Target term paper consists in a generalized assessment of the end and results of the Crimean War,

AT tasks work includes:

1. Determination of the main causes and initiators of the Crimean War.

2. Short review stages of the diplomatic struggle on the eve of the war and after its end.

3. Evaluation of the results of the Crimean War and its impact on the subsequent foreign policy strategy of Russia.

1. LITERATURE REVIEW

In Russian historiography of the XIX and XX centuries. K. M. Bazili, A. G. Zhomini (2nd half of the 19th century), A. M. Zaionchkovsky (beginning of the 20th century), V.N. Vinogradov (Soviet period), etc.

Among the most significant works devoted to the Crimean War and its results, one should also mention the works of E.V. Tarle "Crimean War": in 2 volumes; History of Diplomacy / Edited by Academician Potemkin V.P.M., 1945; F. Martens "Collection of treatises and conventions concluded by Russia with foreign powers." T. XII. SPb., 1898; research by I.V. Bestuzhev "Crimean War". - M., 1956, as well as extensive memoir literature, materials of the Central State Archive navy(TsGAVMF) and other sources.

Despite the fact that Russian historiography gave the Crimean War a prominent place, a continuous tradition of studying it has not developed. This circumstance was due to the lack of systematization of works on the problem. This gap was filled, in particular, by S.G. Tolstoy, who carried out a comprehensive review of the domestic historiography of the Crimean War. The author analyzes a number of works that previously remained outside the field of historiographic consideration, presents an overview of versions; assessments and interpretations of the most significant aspects of the history of the Crimean War.

2. ASSESSMENT OF THE CAUSES OF THE CRIMEAN WAR

2.1. On the complexity of the issue of the causes and initiators of the Crimean War

An objective assessment of any historical event involves the study of its root cause, so the task of this paragraph is to try to consider the genesis of the issue of the causes and initiators of the Crimean War, which is still debatable in science. From the point of view of most domestic researchers of the Crimean War, including our outstanding compatriot, Academician E.V. Tarle, Nicholas I was the direct initiator of diplomatic statements and actions that led to the outbreak of war with Turkey. The prevailing opinion is that tsarism started and lost the war. However, there was another position, shared mainly in the circles of the American public, as well as by a small minority in Western Europe on the eve, during and after the Crimean War. It included representatives of the conservative-aristocratic circles of Austria, Prussia, the Netherlands, Spain and all the states of Italy, except Sardinia. "Sympathizers" of tsarist Russia could be found even in the parliamentary (member of the House of Commons R. Cobden) and in the socio-political circles of Great Britain.

Many historians admit that the war was aggressive not only on the part of tsarist Russia. The Turkish government willingly went to unleashing a war, pursuing certain aggressive goals, namely the return of the northern coast of the Black Sea, the Kuban, and the Crimea.

England and France also had a special interest in the war, striving to prevent Russia from accessing the Mediterranean Sea, from participating in the future division of booty and from approaching the South Asian borders. Both Western powers sought to take over both the economy and the state finances of Turkey, which they completely succeeded as a result of the war.

Napoleon III looked at this war as a happy, unique opportunity to act together against a common enemy. "Do not let Russia out of the war"; fight with all his might against any belated attempts by the Russian government - when it has already realized the danger of the work begun - to abandon its original plans; by all means continue and continue the war, expanding its geographical theater - that was the slogan of the Western coalition.

The formal reason for the war was a dispute between the Catholic and Orthodox clergy about the so-called “holy places” in Jerusalem, that is, about who should be in charge of the “Holy Sepulcher” and who should repair the dome of the Bethlehem Church, where, according to legend, he was born Jesus Christ. Since the right to decide this issue belonged to the Sultan, Nicholas I and Napoleon III, both looking for reasons to put pressure on Turkey, intervened in the dispute: the first, of course, on the side of the Orthodox Church, the second - on the side of the Catholic Church. The religious strife resulted in a diplomatic conflict.

A brief background to the question is as follows. In the late 30s - early 40s. In the 19th century, Western powers began to show increased attention to Palestine. They tried to spread their influence by establishing consulates there, building churches, schools and hospitals. In 1839, England established a vice-consulate in Jerusalem, and in 1841, together with Prussia, appointed the first Anglican Protestant Bishop M. Solomon there in order to “lead the Jews of the Holy City to Christ” . A year later, the first Protestant church in the Arab East was built in the Old City (near the Jaffa Gate). In 1841, France also established its consulate in Jerusalem "for the sole purpose of protecting the Latins." Despite the repeated proposals of K. M. Bazili to establish a post of a Russian agent in Jerusalem to constantly monitor the significantly increased number of pilgrims, before the Crimean War, Russia did not dare to create its own consular representation there.

In February 1853, by imperial order, Prince Alexander Sergeevich Menshikov, the great-grandson of the famous temporary worker, Generalissimo A.D., sailed to Constantinople with emergency powers. Menshikov. He was instructed to demand that the sultan not only resolve the dispute over "holy places" in favor of the Orthodox Church, but also conclude a special convention that would make the tsar the patron of all the sultan's Orthodox subjects. In this case, Nicholas I became, as the diplomats said at the time, "the second Turkish sultan": 9 million Turkish Christians would acquire two sovereigns, of whom they could complain to one about the other. The Turks refused to conclude such a convention. On May 21, Menshikov, not having reached the conclusion of the convention, notified the Sultan of the break in Russian-Turkish relations (although the Sultan gave "holy places" under the control of Russia) and left Constantinople. Following that, the Russian army invaded the Danubian principalities (Moldavia and Wallachia). After a long diplomatic squabble on October 16, 1853, Turkey declared war on Russia.

It should be noted that Soviet historiography under the conditions of religious nihilism either simply ignored the “spiritual” aspect of the problem, or characterized it as absurd, artificial, far-fetched, secondary and irrelevant. Not only tsarism got it, but also the "forces of reaction" in Russia, which supported the course of Nicholas I to protect the Greek clergy. For this, the thesis was used that "the Orthodox hierarchs in Turkey not only did not ask the king for protection, but most of all they were afraid of such a protector" in this conflict. At the same time, references to specific Greek sources were not made.

This paper does not consider the issues of Russia's readiness for war, the state and number of its troops and the troops of opponents, since these issues are covered in sufficient detail in the literature. Of greatest interest are the plot lines of the diplomatic struggle that took place both at the beginning of the war, and during hostilities, and at their end.

2.2. Storylines of the diplomatic struggle

Under Nicholas I, St. Petersburg diplomacy in the Balkans is activated. She was not indifferent to who would appear near the southwestern borders of Russia after the collapse of the Ottoman Empire. Russian politics had the goal of creating friendly, independent Orthodox states in South-Eastern Europe, the territory of which could not be absorbed and used by other powers (in particular, Austria). In connection with the collapse of Turkey, the question arose of who would really control the Black Sea straits (Bosporus and Dardanelles) - a vital route for Russia to the Mediterranean.

In 1833, the Unkar-Iskelesi Treaty on the Straits, which was beneficial to Russia, was signed with Turkey. All this could not but provoke opposition from other powers. At that time, a new redistribution of the world began. It was associated with the growth of the economic power of England and France, who wanted to dramatically expand their spheres of influence. Russia stood in the way of these ambitious aspirations.

For Russian diplomacy, the war began not in 1953, but much earlier. In the anonymous book (A. G. Jomini) published in French by a “retired diplomat” entitled “Diplomatic Studies on the Crimean War”, the author, in the very title of his work, indicated its wider time frame - from 1852 to 1856, thus emphasizing that for Russia the battle on the diplomatic front began much earlier than on the Crimean one. In support of the thesis that for diplomats the war began long ago, one can cite a letter from Count Karl Vasilievich Nesselrode to A.P. Ozerov, Chargé d'Affaires of the Russian Mission in Constantinople. Trying to cheer up his subordinate, who "dared" to point out in his previous dispatch the fact of the delay in receiving instructions from St. Petersburg, Count Nesselrode wrote: his regiment on the day or on the eve of the battle (le jour ou la veille d'une bataille). Diplomacy also has its ses combats, and it was your lucky star's pleasure that you give them in the conduct of our mission. Do not lose your presence of mind or professionalism (Ne perdez donc ni courage, ni competence), and continue to speak firmly and act calmly. From our side, as you understand, we will not leave you in terms of feeding instructions.

It would not be out of place to recall also that by the time the war began, Sultan Abdul-Majid was pursuing a policy of state reforms - tanzimat. For these purposes, borrowed funds from the European powers, primarily French and British, were used. The funds were used not to strengthen the country's economy, but to purchase industrial products and weapons. It turned out that Turkey gradually fell under the influence of Europe peacefully. Great Britain, France and other European powers adopted the principle of inviolability of the Porte's possessions. No one wanted to see a self-sufficient and independent of European capital Russia in this region.

In addition, after the revolutions of 1848, the French emperor Napoleon III, mindful of the laurels of Napoleon I, wanted to strengthen his throne with the help of some victorious military conflict. And before the UK opened the prospect of forming an anti-Russian coalition, and at the same time to achieve a weakening of Russia's influence in the Balkans. Turkey was forced to use the last chance to restore its shattered position in the crumbling Ottoman Empire, especially since the governments of Great Britain and France were not opposed to participating in the war against Russia.

In turn, in the geopolitics of Russia, the evolution of the role of Crimea has also passed a difficult path. Along the way, not only military dramas happened, but also alliances were created against common enemies. It is thanks to this union in the XV century. the national statehood of both Russia and the Crimean Khanate was established in the 17th century. the union with the Crimea helped the formation of the national statehood of Ukraine.

Thus, each of the parties participating in the Crimean War hatched ambitious plans and pursued not momentary, but serious geopolitical interests.

The monarchs of Austria and Prussia were partners of Nicholas I in the Holy Alliance; France, according to the emperor, had not yet grown stronger after the revolutionary upheavals, Great Britain refused to participate in the war, and, in addition, it seemed to the king that Great Britain and France, being rivals in the Middle East, would not conclude an alliance with each other. In addition, Nicholas I, speaking out against Turkey, really hoped for an agreement with England, the government of which since 1852 was headed by his personal friend, D. Aberdeen, and for the isolation of France, where in 1852 Napoleon III, Napoleon's nephew, proclaimed himself emperor I (in any case, Nikolai was sure that France would not rapprochement with England, because the nephew would never forgive the British for his uncle's imprisonment). Further, Nicholas I counted on the loyalty of Prussia, where the brother of Nicholas's wife Friedrich-Wilhelm IV ruled, accustomed to obeying his powerful son-in-law, and on the gratitude of Austria, which since 1849 owed Russia its salvation from the revolution.

All these calculations did not come true, England and France united and acted together against Russia, while Prussia and Austria preferred neutrality hostile to Russia.

In the first period of the war, when Russia actually fought one on one with Turkey, and achieved great success. Military operations were conducted in two directions: the Danube and the Caucasus. Russian victories in the Black Sea and in the Transcaucasus provided England and France with a convenient pretext for a war with Russia under the guise of "defending Turkey." On January 4, 1854, they brought their squadrons into the Black Sea, and demanded that Nicholas I withdraw Russian troops from the Danubian principalities. Nicholas through Nesselrode notified , that he would not even respond to such an “insulting” demand. Then on March 27 England and March 28 France declared war on Russia.

However, British diplomacy failed to draw Austria and Prussia into the war with Russia, although the latter took a position hostile to Russia. On April 20, 1854, they concluded a "defensive-offensive" alliance among themselves and demanded in two voices that Russia lift the siege of Silistria and clear the Danubian principalities. The siege of Silistria had to be lifted. Danubian principalities - clear. Russia found itself in a position of international isolation.

Anglo-French diplomacy tried to organize a broad coalition against Russia, but managed to involve only the Sardinian kingdom dependent on France. Having entered the war, the Anglo-French undertook a grandiose demonstration off the coast of Russia, attacking in the summer of 1854 almost simultaneously Kronstadt, Odessa, the Solovetsky Monastery on the White Sea and Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky. The Allies hoped to disorientate the Russian command and at the same time to probe whether Russia's borders were vulnerable. The calculation failed. The Russian border garrisons oriented themselves well in the situation and repulsed all the attacks of the allies.

In February 1855, Emperor Nicholas I unexpectedly dies. His heir Alexander II continues the war, it is under him that the surrender of Sevastopol takes place. By the end of 1855, hostilities practically ceased, and in early 1856 a truce was concluded.

3. END AND MAIN RESULTS OF THE CRIMEAN WAR

3.1. Signing and terms of the peace treaty

The peace treaty was signed on March 30, 1856 in Paris at an international congress with the participation of all the belligerent powers, as well as Austria and Prussia. The congress was chaired by the head of the French delegation, the Minister of Foreign Affairs of France, Count Alexander Walevsky, cousin of Napoleon III. The Russian delegation was headed by Count A. F. Orlov - native brother Decembrist, revolutionary M. F. Orlov, who had to sign the capitulation of Russia to France and its allies. But he also managed to achieve conditions that were less difficult and humiliating for Russia than expected after this unfortunate war.

Under the terms of the Treaty, Russia returned Kars to Turkey in exchange for Sevastopol, Balaklava and other cities in the Crimea, captured by the allies; conceded to the Moldavian Principality the mouth of the Danube and part of Southern Bessarabia. The Black Sea was declared neutral, Russia and Turkey could not keep a navy there. Russia and Turkey could only maintain 6 steam ships of 800 tons each and 4 ships of 200 tons each for guard duty. The autonomy of Serbia and the Danubian Principalities was confirmed, but sovereignty the Turkish sultan over them was preserved. The previously adopted provisions of the London Convention of 1841 on the closure of the Bosphorus and Dardanelles for military vessels of all countries except Turkey were confirmed. Russia pledged not to build military fortifications on the Aland Islands and in the Baltic Sea.

At the same time, according to Article VII: “E.v. emperor of all Russia, e.v. emperor of austria, e.v. Emperor of the French, her c. Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, h.v. King of Prussia and E.V. the king of Sardinia declare that the Sublime Porte is recognized as participating in the benefits of common law and the union of European powers. Their Majesties undertake, each for their part, to respect the independence and integrity of the Ottoman Empire, ensure by their joint guarantee the exact observance of this obligation and, as a result, they will consider any action in violation of this as a matter of common rights and benefit.

The patronage of the Turkish Christians was transferred into the hands of the "concert" of all the great powers, that is, England, France, Austria, Prussia and Russia. Territories occupied during the war were subject to exchange.

The treaty deprived Russia of the right to protect interests Orthodox population on the territory of the Ottoman Empire, which weakened Russia's influence in the Middle East.

The articles of the Paris Peace Treaty, which were restrictive for Russia and Turkey, were canceled only at the London Conference in 1872 as a result of a long diplomatic struggle between the Minister of Foreign Affairs of Russia A.M. Gorchakov.

3.2. Causes of defeat, results and consequences of the Crimean War

The defeat of Russia can be explained by three groups of causes or factors.

The political reason for the defeat of Russia during the Crimean War was the unification of the main Western powers (England and France) against it with the benevolent (for the aggressor) neutrality of the rest. In this war, the consolidation of the West against a civilization alien to them was manifested.

The technical reason for the defeat was the relative backwardness of the weapons of the Russian army.

The socio-economic reason for the defeat was the preservation of serfdom, which is inextricably linked with the restriction of industrial development.

Crimean War in the period 1853-1856. claimed the lives of over 522 thousand Russians, 400 thousand Turks, 95 thousand French and 22 thousand British.

In terms of its grandiose scale - the width of the theater of operations and the number of mobilized troops - this war was quite comparable to the world war. Defending on several fronts - in the Crimea, Georgia, the Caucasus, Sveaborg, Kronstadt, Solovki and Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky - Russia fought alone in this war. It was opposed by an international coalition consisting of Great Britain, France, the Ottoman Empire and Sardinia, which inflicted a crushing defeat on our country.

The defeat in the Crimean War led to the fact that the country's authority in the international arena fell extremely. The destruction of the remnants of the battle fleet on the Black Sea and the liquidation of the fortress on the coast opened the southern border of the country to any enemy invasion. In the Balkans, Russia's position as a great power has been shaken by a series of restrictive restrictions. According to the articles of the Paris Treaty, Turkey also abandoned its Black Sea Fleet, but the neutralization of the sea was only an appearance: through the Bosphorus and Dardanelles, the Turks could always bring their squadrons there from the Mediterranean Sea. Shortly after accession to the throne, Alexander II dismissed Nesselrode: he was an obedient executor of the will of the former sovereign, but was not suitable for independent activity. Meanwhile, Russian diplomacy faced the most difficult and important task - to achieve the abolition of the humiliating and difficult for Russia articles of the Paris Treaty. The country was in complete political isolation and had no allies in Europe. M.D. was appointed Minister of Foreign Affairs instead of Nesselrode. Gorchakov. Gorchakov was distinguished by independence of judgment, he was able to accurately correlate the possibilities of Russia and its specific actions, he brilliantly mastered the art of the diplomatic game. In choosing allies, he was guided by practical goals, and not by likes and dislikes or speculative principles.

The defeat of Russia in the Crimean War opened the era of the Anglo-French redistribution of the world. Having knocked the Russian Empire out of world politics and secured their rear in Europe, the Western powers actively used the gained advantage to achieve planetary domination. The path to the success of England and France in Hong Kong or Senegal lay through the destroyed bastions of Sevastopol. Shortly after the Crimean War, England and France attacked China. Having achieved a more impressive victory over him, they turned this giant into a semi-colony. By 1914, the countries occupied or controlled by them accounted for 2/3 of the territory of the globe.

The main lesson of the Crimean War for Russia was that in order to achieve its global goals, the West is ready to unite its power with the Muslim East without hesitation. In this case, to crush the third center of power - Orthodox Russia. The Crimean War frankly exposed the fact that with the aggravation of the situation near the Russian borders, all the allies of the empire smoothly moved into the camp of its opponents. At the western Russian borders: from Sweden to Austria, as in 1812, there was a smell of gunpowder.

The Crimean War made it clear to the Russian government that economic backwardness leads to political and military vulnerability. Further economic backwardness from Europe threatened with more serious consequences.

At the same time, the Crimean War served as a kind of indicator of the effectiveness of the military reforms undertaken in Russia during the reign of Nicholas I (1825-1855). hallmark this war was bad command and control (on both sides). At the same time, the soldiers, despite the horrendous conditions, fought exceptionally courageously under the leadership of outstanding Russian commanders: P.S. Nakhimova, V.A. Kornilova, E.I. Totleben and others.

The main task foreign policy Russia 1856 - 1871, began the struggle for the abolition of the restrictive articles of the Paris Peace. Russia could not put up with a situation in which its Black Sea border remained undefended and open to military attack. The economic and political interests of the country, as well as the interests of the state's security, demanded the abolition of the neutralization of the Black Sea. But in the conditions of foreign policy isolation and military-economic backwardness, this task had to be solved not by military means, but by diplomatic means, using the contradictions of the European powers. This explains the major role of Russian diplomacy in these years.

In 1857 - 1860. Russia managed to achieve diplomatic rapprochement with France. However, the very first diplomatic initiatives of the Russian government on the very narrow issue of carrying out reforms by Turkey for the Christian peoples in the Balkan provinces showed that France did not intend to support Russia.

At the beginning of 1863, an uprising broke out in Poland, Lithuania, and Western Belarus. The rebels demanded independence, civil equality and the allocation of land to the peasants. Shortly after the events began, on January 27, an agreement was reached between Russia and Prussia on mutual assistance in suppressing the uprising. This convention sharply aggravated Russia's relations with England and France.

The result of these international events was a new alignment of forces. Mutual estrangement between Russia and England grew even more. The Polish crisis interrupted the rapprochement between Russia and France. There was a noticeable improvement in relations between Russia and Prussia, in which both countries were interested. The Russian government was abandoning its traditional course in Central Europe aimed at preserving a fragmented Germany.

CONCLUSION

Summarizing the above, we emphasize the following.

Crimean War 1853-1856 was originally fought between the Russian and Ottoman empires for dominance in the Middle East. On the eve of the war, Nicholas I made three irreparable mistakes: regarding England, France and Austria. Nicholas I did not take into account either the great commercial and financial interests of the big French bourgeoisie in Turkey, or the advantage for Napoleon III of diverting the attention of the French broad sections of the people from internal affairs to foreign policy.

The first successes of the Russian troops, and in particular the defeat of the Turkish fleet in Sinop, prompted England and France to intervene in the war on the side of Ottoman Turkey. In 1855, the Kingdom of Sardinia joined the warring coalition. Sweden and Austria were ready to join the allies, previously bound by the bonds of the “Holy Alliance” with Russia. Military operations were conducted in the Baltic Sea, in Kamchatka, in the Caucasus, in the Danube principalities. The main actions unfolded in the Crimea during the defense of Sevastopol from the Allied forces.

As a result, by common efforts, the united coalition was able to win this war. Russia signed the Treaty of Paris with humiliating and unfavorable conditions.

Three groups of factors can be named among the main reasons for Russia's defeat: political, technical, and socio-economic.

The international prestige of the Russian state was undermined. The war was the strongest impetus for the aggravation of the social crisis within the country. It contributed to the development of mass peasant uprisings, accelerated the fall of serfdom and the implementation of bourgeois reforms.

Created after the Crimean War, the “Crimean System” (the Anglo-Austrian-French bloc) sought to maintain the international isolation of Russia, therefore, first of all, it was necessary to get out of this isolation. The art of Russian diplomacy (in this case, its Minister of Foreign Affairs Gorchakov) consisted in the fact that it very skillfully used the changing international situation and the contradictions between the participants in the anti-Russian bloc - France, England and Austria.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Bestuzhev I.V. Crimean War. - M., 1956.

2. Jomini A. G. Russia and Europe in the era of the Crimean War. - St. Petersburg, 1878.

3. History of Diplomacy / Edited by Academician Potemkin V.P. - M., 1945.

4. Collection of treaties between Russia and other states. 1856-1917. - M., Mrs. Publishing House Polit. Literature, 1952.

5. Smilyanskaya I.M. Konstantin Mikhailovich Bazili // Syria, Lebanon and Palestine in descriptions Russian travelers, consular and military reviews of the first half of XIX century. - M.: Nauka, 1991.

6. Smolin N.N. The role of the moral factor of the Russian army during the Crimean War. 1853-1856// Diss. cand. ist. sciences, spec. 07.00.02. M, 2002.

7. Soviet Military Encyclopedia. T. I. M., 1977.

8. Tarle E. V. Crimean War: in 2 volumes - M.-L.: 1941-1944.

9. Tolstoy S.G. Domestic historiography Crimean War (second half of the 19th - first half of the 20th centuries). // Diss. cand. ist. sciences, spec. 07.00.09, M. 2002.

10. Armstrong K. A History of Jerusalem: One City, Tree Faiths. Glasgow, 1996.

See the introductory article by I. M. Smilyanskaya "Konstantin Mikhailovich Basili" in the book Syria, Lebanon and Palestine in the descriptions of Russian travelers, consular and military reviews of the first half of the 19th century. – M.: Nauka, 1991.

Tolstoy S.G. Domestic historiography of the Crimean War (second half of the 19th - first half of the 20th centuries).// Diss. cand. ist. sciences, spec. 07.00.09, M. 2002.

See Tarle E.V. Crimean War: in 2 volumes - M.-L.: 1941-1944. T.1.

Armstrong K. A History of Jerusalem: One City, Tree Faiths. Glasgow, 1996. P.353.

In 1839, K.M. Bazili, by royal decree, was sent as a consul to Syria and Palestine, where he served for less than fifteen years until the rupture of diplomatic relations on the eve of the Crimean War.

Tarle E.V. Crimean War. pp. 135, 156.

Alexander Genrikhovich Jomini, Baron, Russian diplomat of French origin. The son of Baron Jomini, one of the initiators and organizers of the creation of the Military Academy at the General Staff in St. Petersburg. From 1856 to 1888 - Senior Advisor to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs; in 1875 - combined the post of temporary manager of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Author of the books Etude Diplomatique sur la Guerre de Crimee (1852 a 1856). Par un ancien diplomate. T. 1-2, Tanera, Paris, 1874; Etude Diplomatique sur la Guerre de Crimee (1852 a 1856) par un ancien diplomate. V. 1-2, St. Petersburg, 1878; Jomini A. G. Russia and Europe in the era of the Crimean War. SPb., 1878.

Karl Vasilyevich Nesselrode (Karl Wilhelm, Karl-Robert) (1780-1862), count, Russian statesman and diplomat. Former Austrian subject. He was accepted into the diplomatic service in Russia in 1801. He served under Alexander I and Nicholas I. 1816-1856. - Head of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. From 1828 - Vice-Chancellor, from 1845-1856. - State (stats-) chancellor. Protestant denomination (Anglican rite). He was attacked by the Slavophiles, who sarcastically called him the "Austrian Minister of Russian Foreign Affairs." After the Crimean War and Paris Congress was dismissed by Alexander II in resignation.

Ozerov Alexander Petrovich, Russian diplomat, State Councilor of the Imperial Russian Mission in Constantinople. From March 1852 until the arrival of Prince Menshikov (February 16/28, 1853) - Chargé d'Affaires of the Mission. After the rupture of diplomatic relations with Turkey (May 6/18, 1853) and the departure of Ambassador Extraordinary Menshikov (May 9/21, 1853), he left Constantinople on the military steamer Bessarabia.

A copy from a particular letter from Count Nesselrode to A.P. Ozerov in Constantinople from S.-P. November 22, 1852 (in French). WUA RI, f. Office of the Foreign Ministry, op. 470, 1852, d. 39, l. 436-437rev.

The heroic defense of Sevastopol began on September 13, 1854 and lasted 349 days. Admiral V. A. Kornilov became the organizer of the defense. Kornilov's closest assistants were Admiral P.S. Nakhimov, Rear Admiral V.I. Istomin, and military engineer Colonel E.L. Totleben. The defense conditions were incredibly difficult. Everything was lacking - people, ammunition, food, medicines. The defenders of the city knew that they were doomed to death, but they did not lose either dignity or endurance. On August 27, 1855, the French finally managed to take the barrow that dominated the city of Malakhov, after which Sevastopol became defenseless. On the same evening, the remnants of the garrison sank the remaining ships, blew up the surviving bastions and left the city.

Collection of agreements between Russia and other states. 1856-1917. M., Mrs. Publishing house of political literature, 1952.

Soviet Military Encyclopedia. T. I. M., 1977. S. 487.

See Smolin N.N. The role of the moral factor of the Russian army during the Crimean War. 1853-1856// Diss. cand. ist. sciences, spec. 07.00.02. M, 2002.

Crimean War 1853−1856 (or the Eastern War) is a conflict between the Russian Empire and coalitions of countries, the cause of which was the desire of a number of countries to gain a foothold on Balkan Peninsula and the Black Sea, as well as reduce the influence of the Russian Empire in this region.

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Basic information

Participants in the conflict

Almost all the leading countries of Europe became participants in the conflict. Against the Russian Empire, on the side of which was only Greece (until 1854) and the vassal Principality of Megrel, a coalition consisting of:

• Ottoman Empire;
• French Empire;
• British Empire;
• Sardinian kingdom.

Support for the coalition troops was also provided by: the North Caucasian Imamate (until 1955), the Abkhazian principality (part of the Abkhazians sided with the Russian Empire and led against the coalition troops guerrilla war), Circassians.

It should also be noted that the friendly neutrality of the coalition countries was shown by the Austrian Empire, Prussia and Sweden.

Thus, the Russian Empire could not find allies in Europe.

Numerical aspect ratio

The numerical ratio (ground forces and navy) at the time of the outbreak of hostilities was approximately as follows:

• Russian Empire and allies (Bulgarian Legion, Greek Legion and foreign voluntary formations) - 755 thousand people;
• coalition forces - about 700 thousand people.

From a logistical point of view, the army of the Russian Empire was significantly inferior armed forces coalition, although none of the officials and generals wanted to accept this fact . Moreover, the team, in its preparedness was also inferior to command staff the combined forces of the enemy.

Geography of hostilities

For four years hostilities were:

• in the Caucasus;
• on the territory of the Danube principalities (Balkans);
• in Crimea;
• on the Black, Azov, Baltic, White and Barents Seas;
• in Kamchatka and the Kuriles.

This geography is explained, first of all, by the fact that the opponents actively used the navy against each other (the map of hostilities is presented below).

Brief History of the Crimean War of 1853−1856

Political situation on the eve of the war

The political situation on the eve of the war was extremely acute. main reason this aggravation has become, first of all, the obvious weakening of the Ottoman Empire and the strengthening of the positions of the Russian Empire in the Balkans and the Black Sea. It was at this time that Greece gained independence (1830), Turkey lost its Janissary corps (1826) and fleet (1827, the Battle of Navarino), Algeria retreated to France (1830), Egypt also renounced historical vassalage (1831).

At the same time, the Russian Empire received the right to freely use the Black Sea straits, sought autonomy for Serbia and a protectorate over the Danubian principalities. By supporting the Ottoman Empire in the war with Egypt, the Russian Empire is seeking a promise from Turkey to close the straits for any ships other than Russian ones in the event of any military threat (the secret protocol was in effect until 1941).

Naturally, such a strengthening of the Russian Empire instilled a certain fear in the European powers. In particular, UK has done it all so that the London Convention on the Straits would come into force, which prevented their closure and opened up the possibility for France and England to intervene in the event of a Russian-Turkish conflict. Also, the government of the British Empire achieved from Turkey "most favored nation treatment" in trade. In fact, this meant the complete subordination of the Turkish economy.

At this time, Britain did not want to further weaken the Ottomans, as this eastern empire became a huge market in which to sell English goods. Britain was also concerned about the strengthening of Russia in the Caucasus and the Balkans, its advance into Central Asia and that is why she interfered in every possible way with Russian foreign policy.

France was not particularly interested in affairs in the Balkans, but many in the Empire, especially the new emperor Napoleon III, longed for revenge (after the events of 1812-1814).

Austria, despite the agreements and common work in the Holy Alliance, did not want the strengthening of Russia in the Balkans and did not want the formation of new states there, independent of the Ottomans.

Thus, each of the strong European states had its own reasons for unleashing (or heating up) the conflict, and also pursued its own goals, strictly determined by geopolitics, the solution of which was possible only if Russia was weakened, involved in a military conflict with several opponents at once.

Causes of the Crimean War and the reason for the outbreak of hostilities

So, the reasons for the war are quite clear:

• the desire of Great Britain to preserve the weak and controlled Ottoman Empire and through it to control the mode of operation of the Black Sea straits;
• the desire of Austria-Hungary to prevent a split in the Balkans (which would lead to unrest within the multinational Austria-Hungary) and the strengthening of Russia's positions there;
• the desire of France (or, more precisely, Napoleon III) to distract the French from internal problems and strengthen their rather shaky power.

It is clear that the main desire of all European states was to weaken the Russian Empire. The so-called Palmerston Plan (the leader of British diplomacy) provided for the actual separation of part of the lands from Russia: Finland, the Aland Islands, the Baltic states, the Crimea and the Caucasus. According to this plan, the Danubian principalities were to go to Austria. The Kingdom of Poland was to be restored, which would serve as a barrier between Prussia and Russia.

Naturally, the Russian Empire also had certain goals. Under Nicholas I, all officials and all the generals wanted to strengthen Russia's position in the Black Sea and the Balkans. The establishment of a favorable regime for the Black Sea straits was also a priority.

The reason for the war was the conflict around the Church of the Nativity in Bethlehem, the keys to which were the introduction of Orthodox monks. Formally, this gave them the right to "speak" on behalf of Christians all over the world and dispose of the greatest Christian shrines at their own discretion.

Emperor of France Napoleon III demanded that the Turkish Sultan hand over the keys to the representatives of the Vatican. This offended Nicholas I, who protested and sent His Serene Highness Prince A. S. Menshikov to the Ottoman Empire. Menshikov was unable to achieve a positive solution to the issue. Most likely, this was due to the fact that the leading European powers had already entered into a conspiracy against Russia and in every possible way pushed the Sultan to war, promising him support.

In response to the provocative actions of the Ottomans and European ambassadors, the Russian Empire breaks off diplomatic relations with Turkey and sends troops to the Danubian principalities. Nicholas I, realizing the complexity of the situation, was ready to make concessions and sign the so-called Vienna Note, which ordered the withdrawal of troops from the southern borders and the release of Wallachia and Moldova, but when Turkey tried to dictate the terms, the conflict became inevitable. After the refusal of the emperor of Russia to sign the note with the Turkish sultan's amendments made to it, the ruler of the Ottomans announced the beginning of the war with the Russian Empire. In October 1853 (when Russia was not yet fully ready for hostilities), the war began.

The course of the Crimean War: military operations

The whole war can be divided into two large stages:

• October 1953 - April 1954 - this is directly a Russian-Turkish company; theater of military operations - the Caucasus and the Danube principalities;
• April 1854 - February 1956 - military operations against the coalition (Crimean, Azov, Baltic, White Sea and Kinburn companies).

The main events of the first stage can be considered the defeat of the Turkish fleet in the Sinop Bay by PS Nakhimov (November 18 (30), 1853).

The second stage of the war was much more eventful.

It can be said that failures in the Crimean direction led to the fact that the new Russian emperor, Alexander I. I. (Nicholas I died in 1855) decided to start peace negotiations.

It cannot be said that the Russian troops were defeated because of the commanders-in-chief. On the Danube direction, the talented prince M. D. Gorchakov commanded the troops, in the Caucasus - N. N. Muravyov, the Black Sea Fleet was led by Vice Admiral P. S. Nakhimov (who also led the defense of Sevastopol later and died in 1855), the defense of Petropavlovsk was led by V S. Zavoyko, but even the enthusiasm and tactical genius of these officers did not help in the war, which was waged according to the new rules.

Treaty of Paris

The diplomatic mission was headed by Prince A. F. Orlov. After long negotiations in Paris 18 (30).03. In 1856, a peace treaty was signed between the Russian Empire, on the one hand, and the Ottoman Empire, coalition forces, Austria and Prussia, on the other. The terms of the peace treaty were as follows:

Results of the Crimean War 1853−1856

Causes of defeat in the war

Even before the conclusion of the Paris Peace the reasons for the defeat in the war were obvious to the emperor and the leading politicians of the empire:

• foreign policy isolation of the empire;
• superior enemy forces;
• the backwardness of the Russian Empire in socio-economic and military-technical terms.

Foreign and domestic consequences of the defeat

The foreign and domestic political results of the war were also deplorable, although somewhat mitigated by the efforts of Russian diplomats. It was obvious that

• the international prestige of the Russian Empire fell (for the first time since 1812);
• the geopolitical situation and the alignment of forces in Europe have changed;
• weakened Russian influence in the Balkans, the Caucasus and the Middle East;
• the safe state of the southern borders of the country has been violated;
• weakened positions in the Black Sea and the Baltic;
• disrupted the financial system of the country.

Significance of the Crimean War

But, despite the severity of the political situation inside and outside the country after the defeat in the Crimean War, it was she who became the catalyst that led to the reforms of the 60s of the XIX century, including the abolition of serfdom in Russia. you can find out from the link.