In modern natural science, all material objects around us are conventionally divided into micro-, macro- and mega-worlds. One of the main concepts of natural science speaks of the unity of all systems of the micro-, macro- and megaworld. We can talk about a single material basis for the origin of all material systems at different stages of the evolution of the Universe.
Material objects of the micro-, macro- and megaworld differ not only in their geometric dimensions, but also in other quantitative characteristics. For example, the Sun consists of a colossal number of particles: 1,056 nuclei of hydrogen atoms and approximately the same number of nuclei of helium atoms.
The properties and features of material objects of the micro- and mega-world are described by different theories, principles, and laws.
When explaining processes in the microworld, the principles and theories of quantum mechanics, quantum statistics, etc. are used. Movement of planets solar system described by the law of universal gravitation and Kepler's laws. The origin and evolution of the Universe are explained on the basis of a complex of natural science knowledge, including particle physics, quantum field theory, relativity theory, etc.
Material objects form an integral system only if the bond energy between them is greater than the kinetic energy of each of them. Communication energy is the energy that must be expended in order to completely “pull apart” the system into its individual components. Magnitude of binding energy natural systems at various levels of organization of matter depends on the type of interaction and the nature of the forces that unite material objects into a system. For example, the existence of stars, including the Sun, for billions of years is determined by a stable balance between the energy of the mutual gravitational attraction of particles, tending to compress the matter of the star, and the energy of their thermal movement, leading to its dissipation. Electromagnetic interaction plays a unifying role in atoms and molecules.
The significant difference between the material objects of the micro- and macroworld lies in the identity of microparticles and the individuality of mega-systems. For microparticles, the principle of identity is satisfied: the states of a system of particles, obtained from each other by rearranging particles in places, cannot be distinguished in any experiment. Such states are considered as one physical state. This quantum mechanical principle characterizes one of the main differences between classical and quantum mechanics. In classical mechanics, you can follow the movement of individual particles along trajectories and thus distinguish particles from one another. IN quantum mechanics identical particles are completely devoid of individuality. However, in nature there are no two completely identical megasystems - they are all individual. Individuality can also manifest itself in molecular level. For example, molecules ethyl alcohol and dimethyl ether have the same atomic composition and molecular weight, but different chemical and physical properties. Such substances are called chemical isomers. Unstable nuclear isomers at same composition nuclei have different half-lives.
Authors:
9th grade student "A"
Afanasyeva Irina,
9th grade student "A"
Tatarintseva Anastasia
student of 11th grade “A”,
Tarazanov Artemy;
Scientific supervisors:
computer science and ICT teacher,
Abrodin Alexander Vladimirovich
Physics teacher,
Shamrina Natalya Maksimovna
Micro-, macro- and mega - worlds. 4
Microworld. 5
Macroworld. 6
Megaworld. 8
OWN RESEARCH. 10
The problem of interaction between the mega-, macro- and microworlds. 10
Big and small. 12
Big and small in other sciences. 14
PRACTICAL PART. 18
Metasubject training session"Big and Small" using interactive whiteboard. 18
Conclusion 20
References 21
Appendix 1. 22
Appendix 2. 23
Appendix 3. 25
Introduction.
Blaise Pascal
Field of study.The universe is an eternal mystery. People have long tried to find an explanation for the diversity and weirdness of the world. The natural sciences, having begun the study of the material world with the simplest material objects, move on to the study of the most complex objects of the deep structures of matter, beyond the limits of human perception and incommensurable with the objects of everyday experience.
Object of study. In the middleXXcentury, American astronomer Harlow Shapley proposed an interesting proportion:
Here man is, as it were, the geometric mean between stars and atoms. We decided to consider this issue from a physics point of view.
Subject of study. In science, there are three levels of the structure of matter: the microworld, the macroworld and the megaworld. Their specific meanings and relationships between them essentially ensure the structural stability of our Universe.
Therefore, the problem of seemingly abstract world constants has global ideological significance. This is relevance our work.
Objective of the project : explore micro-, macro- and mega worlds, find their features and connections.
Project objectives were formed as follows:
study and analyze theoretical material;
explore the laws that govern large and small objects in physics;
trace the connection between big and small in other sciences;
write a program “Big and Small” for a meta-subject lesson;
collect a collection of photographs that show the symmetry of the micro-, macro-, and mega-worlds;
compose a booklet “Micro-, macro- and mega-worlds”.
At the beginning of the study, we put forward hypothesis that there is symmetry in nature.
Mainproject methodsbegan working with popular science literature, comparative analysis information received, selection and synthesis of information, popularization of knowledge on this topic.
Experimental equipment: interactive board.
The work consists of an introduction, theoretical and practical parts, a conclusion, a list of references and three appendices. Volume project work– 20 pages (without attachments).
THEORETICAL PART.
Science begins where they begin to measure.DI. Mendeleev
Micro-, macro- and mega - worlds.
Before starting the study, we decided to study theoretical material in order to determine the features of the micro, macro and mega worlds. It is clear that the boundaries of the micro- and macrocosm are mobile, and there is no separate microcosm and a separate macrocosm. Naturally, macro-objects and mega-objects are built from micro-objects and micro-phenomena are the basis of macro- and mega-phenomena. In classical physics there was no objective criterion for distinguishing a macro from a micro object. This difference was introduced in 1897 by the German theoretical physicist M. Planck: if for the object under consideration the minimal impact on it can be neglected, then these are macroobjects, if this is not possible, these are microobjects. The basis of ideas about the structure of the material world is systems approach, according to which any object of the material world, be it an atom, planet, organism or galaxy, can be considered as a complex formation, including component parts organized into integrity.From the point of view of science, an important principle of dividing the material world into levels is the structure of division according to spatial characteristics - sizes. Science has included division by size and the scale of large and small. The observed range of sizes and distances is divided into three parts, each part representing a separate world of objects and processes. The concepts of mega-, macro- and microworld at this stage of development of natural science are relative and convenient for understanding the surrounding world. These concepts are likely to change over time, because they are still little studied. The most remarkable characteristic of the laws of nature is that they obey mathematical law precision with high precision. The deeper we understand the laws of nature, the more we feel that the physical world somehow disappears, and we remain face to face with pure mathematics, that is, we are dealing only with the world of mathematical rules.Microworld.
The microworld is molecules, atoms, elementary particles - the world of extremely small, not directly observable micro-objects, the spatial dimension of which is calculated from 10 8 to 10 16 cm, and the lifetime is from infinity to 10 24 With.
History of research. In antiquity, the ancient Greek philosopher Democritus put forward the Atomistic hypothesis of the structure of matter. Thanks to the works of the English scientist J. Dalton, they began to study physicochemical characteristics atom. In the 19th century D. I. Mendeleev built the system chemical elements based on their atomic weight. In physics, the concept of atoms as the last indivisible structural elements of matter came from chemistry. Actually, physical studies of the atom begin at the end of the 19th century, when the French physicist A. A. Becquerel discovered the phenomenon of radioactivity, which consisted in the spontaneous transformation of atoms of some elements into atoms of other elements. In 1895, J. Thomson discovered the electron. Since electrons have a negative charge, and the atom as a whole is electrically neutral, it was assumed that in addition to the electron there is a positively charged particle. There were several models of the structure of the atom.
Further, specific qualities of micro-objects were identified, expressed in the presence of both corpuscular (particles) and light (waves) properties. Elementary particles are the simplest objects of the microworld, interacting as a single whole. Main characteristics of elementary particles: mass, charge, average lifetime, quantum numbers.
The number of discovered elementary particles is rapidly increasing. By the end of the twentieth century, physics approached the creation of a harmonious theoretical system that explains the properties of elementary particles. Principles are proposed that make it possible to give a theoretical analysis of the variety of particles, their interconversions, and to build a unified theory of all types of interactions.
Macroworld.
The macroworld is the world of stable forms and quantities commensurate with humans, as well as crystalline complexes of molecules, organisms, communities of organisms; the world of macro-objects, the dimension of which is comparable to the scale of human experience: spatial quantities are expressed in millimeters, centimeters and kilometers, and time - in seconds, minutes, hours, years.History of research. In the history of the study of nature, two stages can be distinguished: pre-scientific and scientific, covering the period from antiquity to the 16th-17th centuries. Observed natural phenomena were explained on the basis of speculative philosophical principles. The scientific stage of studying nature begins with the formation of classical mechanics. The formation of scientific views on the structure of matter dates back to the 16th century, when G. Galileo laid the foundation for the first physical picture of the world in the history of science - a mechanical one. He not only substantiated the heliocentric system of N. Copernicus and discovered the law of inertia, but developed a methodology for a new way of describing nature - scientific and theoretical. I. Newton, based on the works of Galileo, developed a strict scientific theory mechanics, describing and movement celestial bodies, and the movement of earthly objects by the same laws. Nature was viewed as a complex mechanical system. Matter was considered as a material substance consisting of individual particles. Atoms are strong, indivisible, impenetrable, characterized by the presence of mass and weight. An essential characteristic of the Newtonian world was the three-dimensional space of Euclidean geometry, which is absolutely constant and always at rest. Time was presented as a quantity independent of either space or matter. Movement was considered as movement in space along continuous trajectories in accordance with the laws of mechanics. The result of this picture of the world was the image of the Universe as a gigantic and completely deterministic mechanism, where events and processes represent a chain of interdependent causes and effects.
Following Newtonian mechanics, hydrodynamics, the theory of elasticity, the mechanical theory of heat, molecular kinetic theory and a number of others were created, in line with which physics has achieved enormous success. However, there were two areas - optical and electromagnetic phenomena, which could not be fully explained within the framework of a mechanistic picture of the world.
Experiments of the English naturalist M. Faraday and theoretical works English physicist J.C. Maxwell finally destroyed the ideas of Newtonian physics about discrete matter as the only form matter and laid the foundation for the electromagnetic picture of the world. The phenomenon of electromagnetism was discovered by the Danish naturalist H. K. Oersted, who first noticed magnetic action electric currents. Continuing research in this direction, M. Faraday discovered that a temporary change in magnetic fields creates electricity. M. Faraday came to the conclusion that the study of electricity and optics are interconnected and form a single field. His works became the starting point for the research of J. C. Maxwell, whose merit lies in the mathematical development of M. Faraday's ideas about magnetism and electricity. Maxwell "translated" the model power lines Faraday into a mathematical formula. The concept of “field of forces” initially developed as an auxiliary mathematical concept. J.C. Maxwell gave it physical meaning and began to consider the field as an independent physical reality.
After the experiments of G. Hertz, the concept of a field was finally established in physics, not as an auxiliary mathematical construction, but as an objectively existing physical reality. As a result of subsequent revolutionary discoveries in physics at the end of the last and beginning of this century, the ideas of classical physics about matter and field as two qualitatively unique types of matter were destroyed.
Megaworld.
Megaworld (planets, stars, galaxy) is a world of enormous cosmic scales and speeds, the distance in which is measured in light years, and the lifetime of space objects is measured in millions and billions of years.
All existing galaxies are included in the system of the highest order - the Metagalaxy. The dimensions of the Metagalaxy are very large: the radius of the cosmological horizon is 15-20 billion light years.
History of research.Modern cosmological models of the Universe are based on A. Einstein's general theory of relativity, according to which the metric of space and time is determined by the distribution of gravitational masses in the Universe. Its properties as a whole are determined by the average density of matter and other specific physical factors. The existence of the Universe is infinite, i.e. has no beginning or end, and space is limitless, but finite.
In 1929, American astronomer E.P. Hubble discovered the existence of a strange relationship between the distance and speed of galaxies: all galaxies are moving away from us, and with a speed that increases in proportion to the distance - the galaxy system is expanding. The expansion of the Universe is considered a scientifically established fact. According to theoretical calculations by J. Lemaître, the radius of the Universe in its original state was 10-12 cm, which is close in size to the radius of an electron, and its density was 1096 g/cm3.
Retrospective calculations determine the age of the Universe at 13-20 billion years. American physicist G.A. Gamow suggested that the temperature of the substance was high and fell with the expansion of the Universe. His calculations showed that the Universe in its evolution goes through certain stages, during which the formation of chemical elements and structures occurs. In modern cosmology, for clarity, the initial stage of the evolution of the Universe is divided into “eras”:
The era of hadrons. Heavy particles that enter into strong interactions;
The era of leptons. Light particles that enter into electromagnetic interaction;
Photon era. Duration 1 million years. The bulk of the mass - the energy of the Universe - comes from photons;
Star era. Coming in 1 million. years after the birth of the Universe. During the stellar era, the process of formation of protostars and protogalaxies begins.
Then a grandiose picture of the formation of the structure of the Metagalaxy unfolds.
In modern cosmology, along with the Big Bang hypothesis, the inflationary model of the Universe, which considers the creation of the Universe, is very popular. The idea of creation has a very complex justification and is associated with quantum cosmology. This model describes the evolution of the Universe, starting from time 10 45 s after the start of expansion. According to the inflation hypothesis, cosmic evolution in early universe goes through a number of stages.
The difference between the stages of the evolution of the Universe in the inflationary model and the Big Bang model concerns only the initial stage of the order of 10 30 c, further there are fundamental differences in understanding between these models. The Universe at various levels, from conventionally elementary particles to giant superclusters of galaxies, is characterized by structure. The modern structure of the Universe is the result of cosmic evolution, during which galaxies were formed from protogalaxies, stars from protostars, and planets from protoplanetary clouds.
The first theories of the origin of the solar system were put forward by the German philosopher I. Kant and the French mathematician P. S. Laplace. According to this hypothesis, the system of planets around the Sun was formed as a result of the forces of attraction and repulsion between particles of scattered matter (nebula) located in rotational movement around the Sun.
OWN RESEARCH.
The problem of interaction between the mega-, macro- and microworlds.
Wanting to study a living object,
To get a clear understanding of him,
The scientist first expels the soul,
Then the object is dismembered into parts
And he sees them, but it’s a pity: their spiritual connection
Meanwhile, she disappeared, flew away!
Goethe
Before moving on to further consideration, we should evaluate the temporal and spatial scales of the Universe and somehow relate them to the place and role of man in the overall picture of the world. Let's try to combine the scales of some famous objects and processes into a single diagram (Fig. 1), where characteristic times are presented on the left, and characteristic sizes on the right. In the lower left corner of the figure, the minimum time scale that has some physical meaning is indicated. This time interval is equal to 10 43
s is called Planck time (“chronon”). It is much shorter than the duration of all processes known to us, including the very short-lived processes of elementary particle physics (for example, the lifetime of the shortest-lived resonance particles is about 10 23
With). The diagram above shows the duration of some known processes, up to the age of the Universe.
The sizes of physical objects in the figure vary from 10 15 m (characteristic size of elementary particles) up to 10 27 m (the radius of the observable Universe, approximately corresponding to its age multiplied by the speed of light). It is interesting to evaluate the position that we humans occupy on the diagram. On the size scale we are somewhere in the middle, being extremely large relative to the Planck length (and many orders of magnitude larger than the size of elementary particles), but very small on the scale of the entire Universe. On the other hand, on the time scale of processes, the duration of a human life looks quite good, and it can be compared with the age of the Universe! People (and especially poets) love to complain about the ephemerality of human existence, but our place on the timeline is not pathetic or insignificant. Of course, we should remember that everything said refers to the “logarithmic scale”, but its use seems completely justified when considering such gigantic ranges of values. In other words, the number of human lives that fit into the age of the Universe is much less than the number of Planck times (or even the lifetimes of elementary particles) that fit into the lifespan of a person. In essence, we are fairly stable structures of the Universe. As for spatial scales, we really are somewhere in the middle of the scale, as a result of which we are not given the opportunity to perceive in direct sensations not very large, not very small objects of the physical world around us.
Protons and neutrons form the nuclei of atoms. Atoms combine to form molecules. If we move further along the scale of body sizes, then what follows are ordinary macrobodies, planets and their systems, stars, clusters of galaxies and metagalaxies, that is, we can imagine the transition from micro-, macro- and mega - both in size and in models of physical processes.
Big and small.
Perhaps these electrons -
Worlds with five continents
Arts, knowledge, wars, thrones
And the memory of forty centuries!
Still, perhaps, every atom -
A universe with a hundred planets.
Everything that is here, in a compressed volume, is there
But also what is not here.
Valery Bryusov
The main reason why we have divided physical laws into "large" and "small" parts is that the general laws of physical processes on very large and very small scales appear very different. Nothing excites a person so constantly and deeply as the secrets of time and space. The purpose and meaning of knowledge is to understand the hidden mechanisms of nature and our place in the Universe.
American astronomer Shapley proposed an interesting proportion:
x in this proportion is a person who is, as it were, the geometric mean between stars and atoms.
On both sides of us is inexhaustible infinity. We cannot understand the evolution of stars without studying the atomic nucleus. We cannot understand the role of elementary particles in the Universe without knowledge of the evolution of stars. We stand, as it were, at the crossroads of roads that go to infinity. On one road, time is commensurate with the age of the Universe, on the other it is measured in vanishing small intervals. But nowhere is it commensurate with the scale of human life. Man strives to explain the Universe in all its details, within the limits of the knowable, in techniques and ways, through observation, experience and mathematical calculation. We need concepts and research methods with the help of which scientific facts can be established. And to establish scientific facts in physics, objective quantitative characteristic properties of bodies and natural processes, independent of subjective feelings person. The introduction of such concepts is a process of creating special language– the language of the science of physics. The basis of the language of physics are concepts called physical quantities. And any physical quantity must be measured, since without measurements of physical quantities there is no physics.
And so, let's try to figure out what a physical quantity is.Physical quantity– a physical property of a material object, physical phenomenon, process that can be characterized quantitatively.Physical quantity value- number, vector characterizing this physical quantity, indicating the unit of measurement based on which these numbers or vector were defined. The size of a physical quantity is the numbers appearing in the value of a physical quantity. To measure a physical quantity means to compare it with another quantity, conventionally accepted as a unit of measurement. Russian word"magnitude" has a slightly different meaning than English word"quantity" In Ozhegov’s Dictionary (1990), the word “magnitude” is interpreted as “size, volume, length of an object.” According to the Internet dictionary, the word “magnitude” is translated into English language in physics, 11 words, of which 4 words are most suitable in meaning: quantity (physical phenomenon, property), value (value), amount (quantity), size (size, volume).
Let's take a closer look at these definitions. Let's take, for example, a property such as length. It is indeed used to characterize many objects. In mechanics, this is the length of the path, in electricity, the length of the conductor, in hydraulics, the length of the pipe, in heating engineering, the thickness of the radiator wall, etc. But the length value for each of the listed objects is different. The length of the car is several meters, the length of the rail track is many kilometers, and the thickness of the radiator wall is easier to estimate in millimeters. So this property is truly individual for each object, although the nature of the length in all the listed examples is the same.
Big and small in other sciences.
See eternity in one moment,
A huge world in a grain of sand,
In a single handful - infinity
And the sky is in the cup of a flower.
W. Blake
Literature.
Small and large are used in qualitative value: small or large stature, small or large family, relatives. The small is usually opposed to the big (the principle of antithesis). Literature: small genre (short story, short story, fairy tale, fable, essay, sketch)
There are many proverbs and sayings that use the contrast or comparison of small with large. Let's remember some of them:
On small results at high costs:
From a big cloud, but a small drop.
Shoot sparrows from cannons.
This is like a shot (a needle) to an elephant.
A drop in the sea.
Needle in a haystack.
A fly in the ointment will spoil the barrel of honey.
You can't crush a mouse with a shock.
A small mistake leads to a big disaster.
A small leak can destroy a large ship.
From a small spark a big fire ignites.
Moscow burned down from a penny candle.
TOApple chisels a stone (sharpenes).
Biology.
“The human being contains everything that is in heaven and on earth, higher beings and lower beings.”
Kabbalah
During the existence of mankind, many models of the structure of the Universe have been proposed. There are various hypotheses, and each of them has both its supporters and opponents. In the modern world there is no single, generally accepted and understandable model of the Universe. IN ancient world, unlike ours, there was a single model of the surrounding world. The Universe seemed to our ancestors in the form of a huge human Body. Let's try to understand the logic that our “primitive” ancestors adhered to:
The body consists of organs
Organs are made from cells
Cells - from organelles
Organelles - made of molecules
Molecules - made from atoms
Atoms are made up of elementary particles. (Fig. 2).
There are, of course, differences – they cannot but exist. These objects are in completely different conditions. Scientists are struggling to create a Unified Theory, but they cannot connect the Macro and microworlds into a single whole.
It can be assumed that if the Solar System is an Atom, then our Galaxy is a Molecule. Compare Figures 5 and 6. Just don’t try to find complete similarities between these objects. There are not even two identical snowflakes in the world. Each atom, molecule, organelle, cell, organ and person has its own individual characteristics. All processes occurring at the molecular level organic matter our body, are similar to the processes occurring at the level of galaxies. The only difference is in the size of these objects and in the time scale. At the galaxy level, all processes occur much more slowly.
The next “detail” in this “construction” should be the Organoid. What are organelles? These are formations of different structure, size and functions located inside the cell. They consist of several tens or hundreds of different molecules. If the organoid in our cell is similar to the Organoid in the macrocosm, then we should look for clusters of various galaxies in the Cosmos. Such clusters do exist, and astronomers call them groups or families of galaxies. Our galaxy, the Milky Way, is part of the Local Family of galaxies, which includes two subgroups:
1. Subgroup of the Milky Way (right)
2. Subgroup of the Andromeda Nebula (left) (Fig. 8).
You should not pay attention to some discrepancy in the spatial arrangement of ribosomal molecules (Fig. 8) and galaxies in the Local Group (Fig. 9). Molecules, like galaxies, are constantly moving within a certain volume. The ribosome is an organelle without a shell (membrane), so we do not see in the environment around us outer space"dense" wall of galaxies. However, we do not see the shells of the Cosmic Cells.
The processes occurring in our organelles are similar to the processes occurring in groups and families of galaxies. But in Space they happen much more slowly than with us. What is perceived in space as a Second lasts for us almost ten of our years!
The next object of search was the Cosmic Cell. In our body there are many cells of different sizes, structures and functions. But almost all of them have something in common in their organization. They consist of a nucleus, cytoplasm, organelles and a membrane. Similar formations exist in space.
There are a great many clusters of galaxies similar to ours, as well as others in shape and size. But they are all grouped around an even larger cluster of galaxies centered in the Constellation Virgo. This is where the Core of the Cosmic Cell is located. Astronomers call such associations of galaxies Superclusters. Today, more than fifty such Superclusters of galaxies, which are such Cells, have been discovered. They are located around our Supercluster of galaxies - evenly in all directions.
Modern telescopes have not yet penetrated beyond these neighboring Superclusters of galaxies. But, using the Law of Analogy, widely used in ancient times, it can be assumed that all these Superclusters of galaxies (Cells) constitute some kind of Organ, and the totality of Organs constitutes the Body itself.
That is why many scientists put forward hypotheses that the Universe is not only a likeness of the human body, but that each person is a likeness of the entire Universe.
PRACTICAL PART.
Scientific and technical creativity of youth -
The path to a knowledge-based society.
Schoolchild understands physical experience
It’s only good when he does it himself.
But he understands it even better if he does it himself
device for experiment.
P.L.Kapitsa
Meta-subject training session "Big and Small" using an interactive whiteboard.
Tell me and I will forget.Show me and I will remember.
Let me act on my own and I will learn.
Chinese folk wisdom
Often low performance is explained by inattention, the reason for which is the student's disinterest. Usinginteractive whiteboard,teachers have the opportunity to attract and successfully use the attention of the class. When text or an image appears on the board, several types of memory are simultaneously stimulated in the student. We can organize as efficiently as possible permanent job student in electronic form. This significantly saves time, stimulates the development of mental and creative activity, and involves all students in the class in their work.
The program interface is very simple, so understanding it will not be difficult.
The program consists of two parts: auxiliary material and a collection of tasks for students.
In the program section
"Supporting Materials"
you can find tables of values; scales that can help children understand the topic “exponent”; photographs and diagrams of physical bodies that are similar in shape but very different in size.
INcollection of tasksYou can test students' knowledge of the topic "Big and Small." There are 3 types of tasks here: creating a table (moving rows into cells); questions related to the masses of bodies (in what position the scales will be installed), ordering quantities. The program itself can check whether tasks are completed correctly and display a corresponding message on the screen.
Conclusion
How the world is changing! And how I myself am changing!I am called by only one name.
In fact, what they call me is -
I'm not alone. There are a lot of us. I'm alive...
Link to link and shape to shape...
N. Zabolotsky
Results obtained during the work, showed that the dominance of symmetry in nature is, first of all, explained by the force of gravity acting throughout the Universe. The action of gravity or the absence thereof explains the fact that both Cosmic bodies floating in the Universe and Microorganisms suspended in water have the highest Form of symmetry - spherical (with any rotation relative to the center, the figure coincides with itself). All organisms that grow in an attached state or live on the ocean floor, that is, organisms for which the direction of gravity is decisive, have an axis of symmetry (the set of all possible rotations around the center narrows to the set of all rotations around the vertical axis). Moreover, since this force operates everywhere in the Universe, the supposed space aliens cannot be rampant monsters, as they are sometimes portrayed, but must necessarily be symmetrical.
The practical part of our work was the “Big and Small” program for a meta-subject educational lesson using an interactive whiteboard. Using an interactive whiteboard, we can organize the student’s ongoing work electronically as efficiently as possible. This significantly saves time, stimulates the development of mental and creative activity, and involves all students in the class in their work.
The work contains three applications : 1) A program for a meta-subject educational lesson in physics using an interactive whiteboard; 2) Booklet “Training lessons in physics “Big and Small”; 3) Booklet with unique photographs"Micro-, macro- and mega-worlds".
Bibliography
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Annex 1.
Worksheet for a meta-subject lesson on the topic “Big and Small”
using an interactive whiteboard
It is not the vastness of the world of stars that causes admiration,
and the man who measured it.
Blaise Pascal
Physical quantity - _____________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
Measure a physical quantity - _____________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
Appendix 2.
|
m |
distance |
|
10 27 |
boundaries of the universe |
|
10 24 |
nearest Galaxy |
|
10 18 |
nearest star |
|
10 13 |
distance Earth - Sun |
|
10 9 |
distance Earth - Moon |
|
1 |
man's height |
|
10 -3 |
grain of salt |
|
10 -10 |
hydrogen atom radius |
|
10 -15 |
radius of the atomic nucleus |
Range of time intervals in the Universe
|
With |
time |
|
10 18 |
age of the universe |
|
10 12 |
age of egyptian pyramids |
|
10 9 |
average human lifespan |
|
10 7 |
one year |
|
10 3 |
light comes from the sun to the earth |
|
1 |
interval between two heartbeats |
|
10 -6 |
period of oscillation of radio waves |
|
10 -15 |
atomic vibration period |
|
10 -24 |
light travels a distance equal to the size of the atomic nucleus |
Range of masses in the Universe
|
kg |
weight |
|
10 50 |
Universe |
|
10 30 |
Sun |
|
10 25 |
Earth |
|
10 7 |
ocean ship |
|
10 2 |
Human |
|
10 -13 |
a drop of oil |
|
10 -23 |
uranium atom |
|
10 -26 |
proton |
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10 -30 |
electron |
Rice. 1. Characteristic time and dimensions of some objects and processes of the Universe.
Appendix 3.
. Human. . Organs. . Cells. . . . Organoids. Molecules. . Atom. . . Atom particles
Fig 2. Structure of the human body
As they say, “find the differences.” The point is not even in the external similarity of these objects, although it is obvious. Previously, we compared electrons with planets, but we should have compared them with comets.
Fig 7. Structure of the Universe.
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Rice. 12 Nervous tissue |
Rice. 13 Early Solar System |
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Rice. 14 Photos of the Universe from a telescope Hubble |
Rice. 15 Stages of protozoan cell development |
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Rice. 16 Schematic representation of a cell |
Rice. 17 Structure of the Earth |
Fig.18 Earth |
Appendix 4.
Meta-subject lesson in physics
Physics and Chemistry Week
Physics and Chemistry Week
Meta-subject lesson in physics, 8B
Meta-subject lesson in physics
PHOTO REPORT
PHOTO REPORT
NTTM ZAO 2012
All-Russian Science Festival 2011
Stand “Micro-, macro- and mega-worlds”
"Great Space Journey"
Stand "Great Space Journey"
Our booklets.
Academy
Test
in the discipline "KSE"
on the topic of: " Fundamental Interactions and diversity of structures in the micro-, macro- and mega-world"
Introduction. 3
Chapter I. Matter. 5
Chapter II. Structural levels of organization of matter. 7
Micro, macro, mega worlds... 7
2.1 Microworld. 8
2.2 Macroworld. 10
2.3 Megaworld. 13
Conclusion. 21
List of used literature... 22
Introduction
Natural sciences, having begun the study of the material world with the simplest material objects directly perceived by humans, move on to the study of the most complex objects of the deep structures of matter, beyond the limits of human perception and incommensurable with the objects of everyday experience. Using a systems approach, natural science does not simply identify types of material systems, but reveals their connections and relationships.
In science, there are three levels of the structure of matter:
Microworld (elementary particles, nuclei, atoms, molecules) is a world of extremely small, not directly observable micro-objects, the spatial diversity of which is calculated from ten to the minus eighth power to ten to the minus sixteenth power cm, and their lifetime is from infinity to ten to minus twenty fourth degree sec.
The macroworld (macromolecules, living organisms, humans, technical objects, etc.) is the world of macroobjects, the dimension of which is comparable to the scale of human experience: spatial quantities are expressed in millimeters, centimeters and kilometers, and time - in seconds, minutes, hours, years .
Megaworld (planets, stars, galaxy) is a world of enormous cosmic scales and speeds, the distance in which is measured in light years, and the lifetime of space objects is measured in millions and billions of years.
Fundamental world constants determine the scale of the hierarchical structure of matter in our world. It is obvious that a relatively small change in them should lead to the formation of a qualitatively different world, in which the formation of currently existing micro-, macro- and megastructures and, in general, highly organized forms of living matter would become impossible. Their certain meanings and relationships between them, in essence, ensure the structural stability of our Universe. Therefore, the problem of seemingly abstract world constants has global ideological significance.
Chapter I. Matter
Matter is infinite set all objects and systems existing in the world, the substrate of any properties, connections, relationships and forms of movement. Matter includes not only all directly observable objects and bodies of nature, but also all those that, in principle, can be known in the future on the basis of improving the means of observation and experiment.
The basis for ideas about the structure of the material world is a systems approach, according to which any object of the material world, be it an atom, planet, organism or galaxy, can be considered as a complex formation, including component parts organized into integrity. To denote the integrity of objects in science, the concept of a system was developed.
Matter as an objective reality includes not only matter in its four states of aggregation(solid, liquid, gaseous, plasma), but also physical fields (electromagnetic, gravitational, nuclear, etc.), as well as their properties, relationships, interaction products. It also includes antimatter (a set of antiparticles: positron, or antielectron, antiproton, antineutron), recently discovered by science. Antimatter is by no means antimatter. Antimatter cannot exist at all.
Movement and matter are organically and inextricably linked with each other: there is no movement without matter, just as there is no matter without movement. In other words, there are no unchanging things, properties and relationships in the world. Some forms or types are replaced by others, transform into others - movement is constant. Peace is a dialectically disappearing moment in the continuous process of change and becoming. Absolute peace is tantamount to death, or rather, non-existence. Both motion and rest are definitely fixed only in relation to some frame of reference.
Moving matter exists in two main forms - in space and in time. The concept of space serves to express the properties of extension and order of coexistence of material systems and their states. It is objective, universal and necessary. The concept of time fixes the duration and sequence of changes in the states of material systems. Time is objective, inevitable and irreversible
The founder of the view of matter as consisting of discrete particles was Democritus.
Democritus denied the infinite divisibility of matter. Atoms differ from each other only in shape, order of mutual succession, and position in empty space, as well as in size and gravity, which depends on the size. They have infinitely varied shapes with depressions or bulges. There has been much debate in modern science about whether the atoms of Democritus are physical or geometric bodies, however, Democritus himself had not yet reached the distinction between physics and geometry. Of these atoms moving in various directions, from their “vortex”, by natural necessity, through the bringing together of mutually similar atoms, both individual whole bodies and the whole world are formed; the movement of atoms is eternal, and the number of emerging worlds is infinite.
A world accessible to man objective reality is constantly expanding. The conceptual forms of expressing the idea of structural levels of matter are diverse.
Modern science identifies three structural levels in the world.
Chapter II. Structural levels of organization of matter.
Micro, macro, mega worlds
The microworld is molecules, atoms, elementary particles - the world of extremely small, not directly observable micro-objects, the spatial diversity of which is calculated from 10-8 to 10-16 cm, and the lifetime is from infinity to 10-24 s.
The macroworld is the world of stable forms and quantities commensurate with humans, as well as crystalline complexes of molecules, organisms, communities of organisms; the world of macro-objects, the dimension of which is comparable to the scale of human experience: spatial quantities are expressed in millimeters, centimeters and kilometers, and time - in seconds, minutes, hours, years.
The megaworld is planets, star complexes, galaxies, metagalaxies - a world of enormous cosmic scales and speeds, the distance in which is measured in light years, and the lifetime of space objects is measured in millions and billions of years.
And although these levels have their own specific laws, the micro-, macro- and mega-worlds are closely interconnected.
It is clear that the boundaries of the micro- and macrocosm are mobile, and there is no separate microcosm and a separate macrocosm. Naturally, macro-objects and mega-objects are built from micro-objects, and macro- and mega-phenomena are based on micro-phenomena. This is clearly seen in the example of the construction of the Universe from interacting elementary particles within the framework of cosmic microphysics. In fact, we must understand that we're talking about only about different levels of consideration of matter. Micro-, macro- and mega-sizes of objects correlate with each other as macro/micro ~ mega/macro.
In classical physics there was no objective criterion for distinguishing a macro from a micro object. This difference was introduced by M. Planck: if for the object under consideration the minimal impact on it can be neglected, then these are macroobjects, if this is not possible, these are microobjects. Protons and neutrons form the nuclei of atoms. Atoms combine to form molecules. If we move further along the scale of body sizes, then what follows are ordinary macrobodies, planets and their systems, stars, clusters of galaxies and metagalaxies, that is, we can imagine the transition from micro-, macro- and mega-both in size and in models of physical processes.
2.1 Microworld
Democritus in antiquity put forward the Atomistic hypothesis of the structure of matter, later, in the 18th century. was revived by the chemist J. Dalton, who took the atomic weight of hydrogen as one and compared the atomic weights of other gases with it. Thanks to the works of J. Dalton, the physical and chemical properties of the atom began to be studied. In the 19th century D.I. Mendeleev constructed a system of chemical elements based on their atomic weight.
The history of research into the structure of the atom began in 1895 thanks to the discovery by J. Thomson of the electron, a negatively charged particle that is part of all atoms. Since electrons have a negative charge, and the atom as a whole is electrically neutral, it was assumed that in addition to the electron there is a positively charged particle. The mass of the electron was calculated to be 1/1836 of the mass of a positively charged particle.
The nucleus has a positive charge and the electrons have a negative charge. Instead of the gravitational forces acting in the solar system, in the atom there are electrical forces. Electric charge atomic nucleus, numerically equal serial number in the periodic table of Mendeleev, is balanced by the sum of the charges of the electrons - the atom is electrically neutral.
Both of these models turned out to be contradictory.
In 1913, the great Danish physicist N. Bohr applied the principle of quantization to solve the problem of the structure of the atom and the characteristics of atomic spectra.
N. Bohr's model of the atom was based on the planetary model of E. Rutherford and on the quantum theory of atomic structure developed by him. N. Bohr put forward a hypothesis about the structure of the atom, based on two postulates that are completely incompatible with classical physics:
1) in each atom there are several stationary states (in the language of the planetary model, several stationary orbits) of electrons, moving along which an electron can exist without emitting;
2) when an electron transitions from one stationary state to another, the atom emits or absorbs a portion of energy.
Ultimately, it is fundamentally impossible to accurately describe the structure of an atom based on the idea of the orbits of point electrons, since such orbits do not actually exist.
N. Bohr's theory represents, as it were, the borderline of the first stage in the development of modern physics. This is the latest effort to describe the structure of the atom based on classical physics, supplemented with only a small number of new assumptions.
It seemed that N. Bohr's postulates reflected some new, unknown properties of matter, but only partially. Answers to these questions were obtained as a result of the development of quantum mechanics. It turned out that N. Bohr's atomic model should not be taken literally, as it was at the beginning. Processes in the atom, in principle, cannot be visually represented in the form of mechanical models by analogy with events in the macrocosm. Even the concepts of space and time in the form existing in the macroworld turned out to be unsuitable for describing microphysical phenomena. The theoretical physicists' atom increasingly became an abstract, unobservable sum of equations.
2.2 Macroworld
In the history of the study of nature, two stages can be distinguished: pre-scientific and scientific.
Pre-scientific, or natural-philosophical, covers the period from antiquity to the formation of experimental natural science in the 16th-17th centuries. Observed natural phenomena were explained on the basis of speculative philosophical principles.
Most significant for subsequent development natural sciences There was a concept of the discrete structure of matter, atomism, according to which all bodies consist of atoms - the smallest particles in the world.
The scientific stage of studying nature begins with the formation of classical mechanics.
Since modern scientific ideas about the structural levels of the organization of matter were developed in the course of a critical rethinking of the ideas of classical science, applicable only to macro-level objects, we need to start with the concepts of classical physics.
The formation of scientific views on the structure of matter dates back to the 16th century, when G. Galileo laid the foundation for the first physical picture of the world in the history of science - a mechanical one. He discovered the law of inertia, and developed a methodology for a new way of describing nature - scientific-theoretical. Its essence was that only certain physical and geometric characteristics were identified and became the subject of scientific research.
I. Newton, relying on the works of Galileo, developed a strict scientific theory of mechanics, which describes both the movement of celestial bodies and the movement of earthly objects by the same laws. Nature was viewed as a complex mechanical system.
Within the framework of the mechanical picture of the world developed by I. Newton and his followers, a discrete (corpuscular) model of reality emerged. Matter was considered as a material substance consisting of individual particles - atoms or corpuscles. Atoms are absolutely strong, indivisible, impenetrable, characterized by the presence of mass and weight.
An essential characteristic of the Newtonian world was the three-dimensional space of Euclidean geometry, which is absolutely constant and always at rest. Time was presented as a quantity independent of either space or matter.
Movement was considered as movement in space along continuous trajectories in accordance with the laws of mechanics.
The result of Newton's picture of the world was the image of the Universe as a gigantic and completely determined mechanism, where events and processes are a chain of interdependent causes and effects.
The mechanistic approach to describing nature has proven to be extremely fruitful. Following Newtonian mechanics, hydrodynamics, the theory of elasticity, the mechanical theory of heat, molecular kinetic theory and a number of others were created, in line with which physics has achieved enormous success. However, there were two areas - optical and electromagnetic phenomena that could not be fully explained within the framework of a mechanistic picture of the world.
Along with the mechanical corpuscular theory, attempts were made to explain optical phenomena in a fundamentally different way, namely, on the basis wave theory. The wave theory established an analogy between the propagation of light and the movement of waves on the surface of water or sound waves in the air. It assumed the presence of an elastic medium filling all space - a luminiferous ether. Based on the wave theory of X. Huygens successfully explained the reflection and refraction of light.
Another area of physics where mechanical models proved inadequate was the area of electromagnetic phenomena. The experiments of the English naturalist M. Faraday and the theoretical works of the English physicist J. C. Maxwell finally destroyed the ideas of Newtonian physics about discrete matter as the only type of matter and laid the foundation for the electromagnetic picture of the world.
The phenomenon of electromagnetism was discovered by the Danish naturalist H.K. Oersted, who first noticed the magnetic effect of electric currents. Continuing research in this direction, M. Faraday discovered that a temporary change in magnetic fields creates an electric current.
M. Faraday came to the conclusion that the study of electricity and optics are interconnected and form a single field. Maxwell “translated” Faraday's model of field lines into a mathematical formula. The concept of “field of forces” was originally developed as an auxiliary mathematical concept. J.C. Maxwell gave it a physical meaning and began to consider the field as an independent physical reality: “An electromagnetic field is that part of space that contains and surrounds bodies that are in an electric or magnetic state.”
Based on his research, Maxwell was able to conclude that light waves are electromagnetic waves. The single essence of light and electricity, which M. Faraday proposed in 1845, and J.K. Maxwell theoretically substantiated it in 1862 and was experimentally confirmed by the German physicist G. Hertz in 1888.
After the experiments of G. Hertz, the concept of a field was finally established in physics, not as an auxiliary mathematical construction, but as an objectively existing physical reality. A qualitatively new, unique type of matter was discovered.
So, by the end of the 19th century. physics has come to the conclusion that matter exists in two forms: discrete matter and continuous field.
As a result of subsequent revolutionary discoveries in physics at the end of the last and beginning of this century, the ideas of classical physics about matter and field as two qualitatively unique types of matter were destroyed.
2.3 Megaworld
Modern science views the megaworld or space as an interacting and developing system of all celestial bodies.
All existing galaxies are included in the system of the highest order - the Metagalaxy. The dimensions of the Metagalaxy are very large: the radius of the cosmological horizon is 15 - 20 billion light years.
The concepts “Universe” and “Metagalaxy” are very close concepts: they characterize the same object, but in different aspects. The concept “Universe” means the entire existing material world; the concept of “Metagalaxy” is the same world, but from the point of view of its structure - as an ordered system of galaxies.
The structure and evolution of the Universe are studied by cosmology. Cosmology as a branch of natural science is located at a unique intersection of science, religion and philosophy. Cosmological models of the Universe are based on certain ideological premises, and these models themselves have great ideological significance.
In classical science there was the so-called steady state theory of the Universe, according to which the Universe has always been almost the same as it is now. Astronomy was static: the movements of planets and comets were studied, stars were described, their classifications were created, which was, of course, very important. But the question of the evolution of the Universe was not raised.
Modern cosmological models of the Universe are based on A. Einstein's general theory of relativity, according to which the metric of space and time is determined by the distribution of gravitational masses in the Universe. Its properties as a whole are determined by the average density of matter and other specific physical factors.
Einstein's equation of gravity has not one, but many solutions, which explains the existence of many cosmological models of the Universe.
The first model was developed by A. Einstein himself in 1917. He rejected the postulates of Newtonian cosmology about the absoluteness and infinity of space and time. In accordance with A. Einstein’s cosmological model of the Universe world space homogeneous and isotropic, matter is on average distributed evenly in it, the gravitational attraction of masses is compensated by the universal cosmological repulsion.
The existence of the Universe is infinite, i.e. has no beginning or end, and space is limitless, but finite.
Universe in cosmological model A. Einstein is stationary, infinite in time and limitless in space.
In 1922 Russian mathematician and geophysicist A. A Friedman rejected the postulate of classical cosmology about the stationary nature of the Universe and obtained a solution to the Einstein equation, which describes the Universe with “expanding” space.
Since the average density of matter in the Universe is unknown, today we do not know in which of these spaces of the Universe we live.
In 1927, the Belgian abbot and scientist J. Lemaitre linked the “expansion” of space with data astronomical observations. Lemaitre introduced the concept of the beginning of the Universe as a singularity (i.e., a superdense state) and the birth of the Universe as the Big Bang.
The expansion of the Universe is considered a scientifically established fact. According to theoretical calculations by J. Lemaître, the radius of the Universe in its original state was 10-12 cm, which is close in size to the radius of an electron, and its density was 1096 g/cm3. In a singular state, the Universe was a micro-object of negligible size. From the initial singular state, the Universe moved to expansion as a result of the Big Bang.
Retrospective calculations determine the age of the Universe at 13-20 billion years. In modern cosmology, for clarity, the initial stage of the evolution of the Universe is divided into “eras”
The era of hadrons. Heavy particles that enter into strong interactions.
The era of leptons. Light particles entering into electromagnetic interaction.
Photon era. Duration 1 million years. The bulk of the mass - the energy of the Universe - comes from photons.
Star era. Occurs 1 million years after the birth of the Universe. During the stellar era, the process of formation of protostars and protogalaxies begins. Then a grandiose picture of the formation of the structure of the Metagalaxy unfolds.
In modern cosmology, along with the Big Bang hypothesis, the inflationary model of the Universe, which considers the creation of the Universe, is very popular.
Proponents of the inflationary model see a correspondence between the stages of cosmic evolution and the stages of the creation of the world described in the book of Genesis in the Bible.
In accordance with the inflation hypothesis, cosmic evolution in the early Universe goes through a number of stages.
Inflation stage. As a result of a quantum leap, the Universe passed into a state of excited vacuum and, in the absence of matter and radiation in it, intensively expanded according to an exponential law. During this period, the space and time of the Universe itself was created. The Universe inflated from an unimaginably small quantum size of 10-33 to an unimaginably large 101000000 cm, which is many orders of magnitude greater than the size of the observable Universe - 1028 cm. During this entire initial period there was neither matter nor radiation in the Universe.
Transition from the inflationary stage to the photon stage. The state of false vacuum disintegrated, the released energy went to the birth of heavy particles and antiparticles, which, having annihilated, gave a powerful flash of radiation (light) that illuminated space.
Subsequently, the development of the Universe went in the direction from the simplest homogeneous state to the creation of increasingly complex structures - atoms (initially hydrogen atoms), galaxies, stars, planets, synthesis heavy elements in the depths of the stars, including those necessary for the creation of life, the emergence of life and, as the crown of creation, man.
The difference between the stages of the evolution of the Universe in the inflationary model and the Big Bang model concerns only the initial stage of the order of 10-30 s, then there are no fundamental differences between these models in understanding the stages of cosmic evolution.
The Universe at various levels, from conventionally elementary particles to giant superclusters of galaxies, is characterized by structure. The modern structure of the Universe is the result of cosmic evolution, during which galaxies were formed from protogalaxies, stars from protostars, and planets from protoplanetary clouds.
A metagalaxy is a collection of star systems - galaxies, and its structure is determined by their distribution in space filled with extremely rarefied intergalactic gas and penetrated by intergalactic rays.
According to modern concepts, a metagalaxy is characterized by a cellular (mesh, porous) structure. There are huge volumes of space (on the order of a million cubic megaparsecs) in which galaxies have not yet been discovered.
The age of the Metagalaxy is close to the age of the Universe, since the formation of the structure occurs in the period following the separation of matter and radiation. According to modern data, the age of the Metagalaxy is estimated at 15 billion years.
A galaxy is a giant system consisting of clusters of stars and nebulae, forming a rather complex configuration in space.
Based on their shape, galaxies are conventionally divided into three types: elliptical, spiral, and irregular.
Elliptical galaxies - have the spatial shape of an ellipsoid with to varying degrees compression, they are the simplest in structure: the distribution of stars uniformly decreases from the center.
Spiral galaxies– presented in a spiral shape, including spiral branches. This is the most numerous type of galaxy, which includes our Galaxy - Milky Way.
Irregular galaxies do not have a distinct shape; they lack a central core.
The oldest stars, whose age approaches the age of the galaxy, are concentrated in the core of the galaxy. Middle-aged and young stars are located in the galactic disk.
Stars and nebulae within the galaxy move in a rather complex way, together with the galaxy they take part in the expansion of the Universe, in addition, they participate in the rotation of the galaxy around its axis.
Stars. On modern stage During the evolution of the Universe, the matter in it is predominantly in a stellar state. 97% of the matter in our Galaxy is concentrated in stars, which are giant plasma formations of various sizes, temperatures, and with different characteristics of motion. Many, if not most, other galaxies have "stellar matter" that makes up more than 99.9% of their mass.
The age of stars varies over a fairly wide range of values: from 15 billion years, corresponding to the age of the Universe, to hundreds of thousands - the youngest.
The birth of stars occurs in gas-dust nebulae under the influence of gravitational, magnetic and other forces, due to which unstable homogeneities are formed and diffuse matter breaks up into a series of condensations. If such condensations persist long enough, then over time they turn into stars.
At the final stage of evolution, stars turn into inert (“dead”) stars.
Stars do not exist in isolation, but form systems. The simplest star systems - the so-called multiple systems - consist of two, three, four, five or more stars revolving around a common center of gravity.
Stars are also united into even larger groups - star clusters, which can have a “scattered” or “spherical” structure. Open star clusters number several hundred individual stars, globular clusters number many hundreds of thousands.
The solar system is a group of celestial bodies, very different in size and physical structure. This group includes: the Sun, nine major planets, dozens of planetary satellites, thousands of small planets (asteroids), hundreds of comets and countless meteorite bodies, moving both in swarms and in the form of individual particles.
By 1979, 34 satellites and 2000 asteroids were known. All these bodies are united into one system due to the gravitational force of the central body - the Sun. The solar system is an ordered system that has its own structural laws. The unified nature of the solar system is manifested in the fact that all the planets revolve around the sun in the same direction and in almost the same plane. Most of the planets' satellites rotate in the same direction and in most cases in the equatorial plane of their planet. The sun, planets, satellites of planets rotate around their axes in the same direction in which they move along their trajectories. The structure of the solar system is also natural: each subsequent planet is approximately twice as far from the Sun as the previous one.
The solar system was formed approximately 5 billion years ago, and the Sun is a second generation star. Thus, the Solar System arose from the waste products of stars of previous generations, which accumulated in gas and dust clouds. This circumstance gives grounds to call the solar system a small part of stardust. Science knows less about the origin of the Solar System and its historical evolution than is necessary to build a theory of planet formation.
Modern concepts the origin of the planets of the solar system are based on the fact that it is necessary to take into account not only mechanical forces, but also others, in particular electromagnetic ones. This idea was put forward by the Swedish physicist and astrophysicist H. Alfvén and the English astrophysicist F. Hoyle. According to modern ideas, the original gas cloud from which the Sun and the planets were formed consisted of ionized gas subject to the influence of electromagnetic forces. After the Sun was formed from a huge gas cloud through concentration, small parts of this cloud remained at a very large distance from it. Gravitational force began to attract the remaining gas to the resulting star - the Sun, but its magnetic field stopped the falling gas at various distances - exactly where the planets are located. Gravitational and magnetic forces influenced the concentration and condensation of the falling gas, and as a result, planets were formed. When did the most major planets, the same process was repeated on a smaller scale, thus creating satellite systems.
Theories of the origin of the Solar system are hypothetical in nature, and it is impossible to unambiguously resolve the issue of their reliability at the present stage of scientific development. All existing theories have contradictions and unclear areas.
Currently, in the field of fundamental theoretical physics, concepts are being developed according to which objectively existing world is not limited to the material world perceived by our senses or physical devices. The authors of these concepts came to the following conclusion: along with the material world, there is reality higher order, which has a fundamentally different nature compared to the reality of the material world.
Conclusion
People have long tried to find an explanation for the diversity and weirdness of the world.
The study of matter and its structural levels is a necessary condition for the formation of a worldview, regardless of whether it ultimately turns out to be materialistic or idealistic.
It is quite obvious that the role of defining the concept of matter, understanding the latter as inexhaustible for constructing a scientific picture of the world, solving the problem of reality and knowability of objects and phenomena of the micro, macro and mega worlds is very important.
All of the above revolutionary discoveries in physics overturned previously existing views of the world. The conviction in the universality of the laws of classical mechanics disappeared, because the previous ideas about the indivisibility of the atom, the constancy of mass, the immutability of chemical elements, etc., were destroyed. Now it is hardly possible to find a physicist who would believe that all the problems of his science can be solved with the help of mechanical concepts and equations.
The birth and development of atomic physics thus finally crushed the previous mechanistic picture of the world. But Newton's classical mechanics did not disappear. To this day, it occupies a place of honor among other natural sciences. With its help, for example, movement is calculated artificial satellites Earth, other space objects, etc. But it is now interpreted as a special case of quantum mechanics, applicable to slow movements and large masses of objects in the macroworld.
List of used literature
1. Gorelov A.A. Concepts of modern natural science. – M.: Center, 1998. – 208 p.
2. Gorbachev V.V. Concepts of modern natural science: Textbook. allowance for university students. – M., 2005. – 672 p.
3. Karpenkov S.Kh. Concepts of modern natural science - M.: 1997.
4. Kvasova I.I. Textbook for the course “Introduction to Philosophy”. M., 1990.
5. Lavrienko V.N. Concepts of modern natural science - M.: UNITI. 1997
Topic 3. Structural levels of organization of matter in the micro, macro and mega worlds.
Lecture 3.
1. Structural levels of organization of matter; micro-, macro- and mega-worlds.
1. Structural levels of organization of matter are micro, macro and mega worlds.
The entire variety of objects known to mankind and the phenomena characteristic of them are usually divided into three qualitatively different areas - micro-, macro- and megaworlds. It was proposed (by K.Kh. Rakhmatullin) to distinguish two more levels - the hypoworld (microworld within the microworld) and the hyperworld (supermegaworld). However, the last two levels should be considered hypothetical for now, only predicted by theory, but not yet experimentally observed or reliably established.
Back at the beginning of the 20th century. German physicist M. Planck determined the fundamental constants - length (10 -33 cm) and time (10 -44 s), called the “Planck length” and “Planck time”. This is more than a billion billion times smaller than the size of atomic nuclei (10 -13 cm), which themselves are five orders of magnitude (10 5, i.e. one hundred thousand times) smaller than atoms, characterized by sizes of 10 -8 cm. It is believed that which is not applicable in the area of Planck scales general theory relativity and to describe physical processes here it is necessary to create a quantum theory of gravity. This indicates not only a quantitative, but also a qualitative difference between the supposed hypoworld and the reliably established microworld - the world of atoms and a large family (about four hundred) of so-called elementary particles - electrons, protons, neutrons, etc. In the area of the actually, experimentally studied world, physicists record dimensions are about 10 -16 cm (a thousand times smaller than the size of atomic nuclei).
The specifics of the microworld are most clearly reflected in the sections of physics based on quantum mechanics, including relativistic mechanics, which takes into account both the quantization and relativity (relativity) of processes in the microworld, their structural, space-time and energy characteristics.
Along with deepening knowledge in the field of the microworld (knowledge of the world “in depth”) for the science of the 20th century. The rapid movement of cognition along the line of increasing the size of the objects being studied is very characteristic, i.e. knowledge of the world “in breadth”. Along this line, science complements the knowledge of the terrestrial macrocosm familiar to people, characterized by moderate speeds and energies of interaction, with the knowledge of the megaworld - giant star clusters and superclusters compared to the terrestrial scale. This is the world of galaxies.
The largest object established by science is the Metagalaxy, which includes all known galaxy clusters. Its dimensions are about 10 28 cm. Light travels this distance at a speed of 300,000 km/s in 20 billion years. Some scientists identify the Metagalaxy with the Universe as a whole, but more and more scientists are inclined to believe that there are many worlds similar to the Metagalaxy in the Universe. The idea of a multitude of megaworlds leads to the identification of a new level in the structure of the Universe - the hyperworld.
Thus, now there are 5 levels of the material world:
Hypoworld;
Microworld;
Macroworld;
Megaworld;
Hyperworld.
They correspond to distances from 10 -33 cm to 10 28 cm.
As we see, the subject modern science the world spans distances in the range of more than 60 orders of magnitude.
Within this framework, the microworld stands out primarily as an object of quantum mechanics, the macroworld - as an object of classical mechanics, and the megaworld - as an object of relativistic mechanics.
The region of the macrocosm includes those processes for which Planck’s constant (ħ = 6.62 10 -27 erg s) can be considered an infinitesimal value that can be neglected, and the speed of light With= 300,000 km/s - an infinitely large value that allows one to ignore the time duration of signal transmission and consider the interactions of systems to be instantaneous, as if timeless.
When describing the megaworld, it is necessary to take into account relativistic effects - the dependence of the sizes of objects, the duration of processes, the simultaneity or multi-temporality of events on the reference system, the curvature of space-time, changes in its geometry and topology, and dimension.
Macroworld.
The macrocosm is described by Newton-Galtley mechanics. Newton-Galileo mechanics is a synthesis of various methodological approaches of his predecessors.
Newtonian mechanics deals with absolute space and absolute time. Any thing is considered to consist of atoms and can be decomposed into its components. The atom is considered as the primary “brick” of matter, which is indivisible, unchangeable, eternal. The atomistic (corpuscular) concept contains the idea of the discrete structure of matter, because along with atoms it accepts the presence of emptiness between them.
In the mechanics of Newton -_Galileo, three main points of the mechanistic concept of the whole and the part were highlighted:
The whole is considered as a simple combination of elements. It is possible to decompose, to divide the whole into its elements, that is, to reduce the complex to the simple;
The elements of the whole are considered as unchanging, simple, indivisible;
The element inside and outside the whole is the same. This forms the idea of the object of knowledge as an independent entity, with its inherent characteristics and properties that do not depend on the conditions of knowledge, and even more so on the subject cognizing it.
Undoubtedly, under the influence of other elements of the system influencing an element, the element can change a number of its characteristics. But at the same time, in classical physics it is assumed that this impact is controlled and can be assessed from the standpoint of strict cause-and-effect conditionality of the results of the impact.
Newton introduces the concept of force as an absolute element. True absolute motion, in contrast to relative motion, “can neither occur nor change except from the action of forces applied directly to the moving body.” Newton also gives a dynamic interpretation of body mass as an individual characteristic of a body in relation to empty space, which is not identical to it. That is, Newton’s concepts of “force” and “mass” are, as it were, “supradimensional” concepts.
Newton's Mechanics is based on Galileo's principle of relativity. Galileo's principle of relativity distinguishes a certain class of reference systems, which are called inertial. Inertial are reference systems in which the principle of inertia is satisfied (First, Newton's law). The generally accepted formulation of Newton’s first law is as follows: “There are frames of reference relative to which any body maintains its state of motion (state of rest or uniform linear motion) while the action of all bodies and fields on it is compensated.” If we have at least one such inertial reference system, then any other reference system that moves relative to the first uniformly and rectilinearly is also inertial. All other reference systems are called non-inertial.
In accordance with Galileo's principle of relativity: “In all inertial frames of reference, all physical phenomena happen the same way."
The fact that the accelerations of bodies relative to both inertial reference systems are the same allows us to conclude that the laws of mechanics that determine the cause-and-effect relationships of the motion of bodies are the same in all inertial reference systems. And this is the essence of Galileo's principle of relativity.
Taking time derivatives of kinematic parameters, we can consider changes in these quantities over infinitely small periods of time. At the same time, it seemed self-evident that these infinitesimal time intervals, as well as any time intervals, are the same in both reference systems.
Galileo's transformations reflect our everyday understanding of the invariance (constancy) of spatial and temporal scales when moving from one inertial system counting to another.
In the mechanics of Newton -_Galileo, the concept of the state of a physical system is a central element, as well as in any physical theory. The concept of the state of a physical system is the main task of classical mechanics. It implies a set of data characterizing the peculiarity of the object or system under consideration in this moment time. It turns out that to describe the behavior of an object, the laws of nature alone are not enough; it is also important to know the initial conditions that describe the state of this object at the initial moment of time. According to the great mathematician J. Wigner, “it is precisely in the clear separation of the laws of nature and the initial conditions that the amazing discovery of the Newtonian age lies.”
The state of a physical system is a specific definiteness of the system that uniquely determines its evolution over time. To set the state of the system, it is necessary: 1) to determine the set of physical quantities that describe this phenomenon and characterize the state of the system - the parameters of the system state; 2) identify the initial conditions of the system under consideration (fix the values of the state parameters at the initial moment of time); 3) apply the laws of motion that describe the evolution of the system.
The parameters characterizing the states of a mechanistic system are the totality of all coordinates and momenta of the material points that make up this system. Set state mechanical system, which means indicating all the coordinates and momenta of all material points. The main task of dynamics is to, knowing the initial state of the system and the laws of motion (Newton’s laws), to unambiguously determine the state of the system at all subsequent moments of time, that is, to unambiguously determine the trajectories of particle motion. The motion trajectories are obtained by integrating the differential equations of motion and give Full description behavior of particles in the past, present and future, that is, they are characterized by the properties of determinism and reversibility. Here the element of chance is completely excluded, everything is strictly determined in advance by cause and effect. It is believed that it is possible to set the initial conditions absolutely precisely. Accurate knowledge of the initial state of the system and its laws of motion predetermines the system’s entry into a pre-selected, “needed” state.
The concept of causality in classical physics is associated with strict determinism in the Laplace spirit - a fundamental principle proclaimed by Laplace, and an image that entered science in connection with this principle, called the “demon of Laplace”: “We must consider the existing state of the Universe as a consequence of the previous state and as a cause subsequent. A mind which at a given moment knew all the forces operating in nature, and the relative positions of all its constituent entities, if it were still so vast as to take into account all these data, would embrace in one and the same formula the movements of the largest bodies of the Universe and the lightest atoms. Nothing would be uncertain for him, and the future, like the past, would stand before his eyes.” Thus, the transdisciplinary concept of natural science in the classical period of its development becomes the idea that only dynamic laws fully reflect causality in nature. From a philosophical point of view, we can say that in dynamic theories there is no place for the mutual transformation of necessity and chance. Chance is understood as some kind of annoying obstacle in obtaining a true result, and not as a necessity manifested in reality.
In Newtonian mechanics, bodies interact at a distance, and the interaction occurs instantly. It is this instantaneous transfer of interactions that determines the uselessness of any medium and affirms the principle of long-range action.
Newton's Mechanic -_Galilee uses mathematics as the language of physical science.
Microworld.
Atoms. An atom is an integral nuclear-electronic system. The nucleus is the basis of the atom, determining both the numerical composition of electrons in the atom and its entire internal structure. If at the stage of atom formation main role Since the individual properties of the nucleus and electrons play a role, the behavior of electrons within an atom is primarily determined by the characteristics of their quantum states, the distribution of electrons across energy levels, sublevels and individual “cells” or “orbits”, each of which can contain no more than two electrons.
Molecules. Molecules are the next high-quality element after atoms.the structure and evolution of matter. Emphasizing the integrity of molecules, the organic unity of their constituent parts, modern natural science characterizes the movement of molecules as the movement of independent and integral systems, and not as a simple sum of disparate movements of the individual particles that form them (atoms, nuclei and electrons). Those interactions of molecules that are not accompanied by a change in their structure (i.e. of a certain order chemical bonds between atoms inside molecules) are studied by physics and are called physical. The interactions of molecules, leading to their qualitative mutual transformations and rearrangement of their internal bonds, are called chemical and are studied by chemistry.
Just as in the case of atoms, the chemical behavior of molecules is their individual characteristic, specifically determined by their composition and structure.
Megaworld.
Stars. Stars in a normal stationary state are hot gaseous spherical celestial bodies that are in both hydrodynamic and thermal equilibrium. Hydrodynamic equilibrium is ensured by the equality of gravitational forces and internal pressure forces acting on each element of the star’s mass. Thermal equilibrium corresponds to the equality of the energy released from the interior of the star and the energy emitted from its surface. 3veda, except for the nearest one - the Sun, are at such great distances from the Earth that even in the most powerful telescopes they are visible as luminous points of varying brightness and color. The main visible characteristic of stars is their brightness, which is determined by the power of the star’s radiation and the distance to it. The main parameters of the state of stars are luminosity, mass and radius. Their numerical values It is customary to express it in solar units.
Based on the state of matter in their interiors, stars are divided into three main groups: 1) normal, the hydrostatic equilibrium of which is maintained by the pressure of classical ideal plasma, which exists due to the thermal ionization of atoms, 2) white dwarfs, 3) neutron
The main source of radiation from stars is the thermonuclear fusion reaction. After the burning of hydrogen in the center, compression of the core and increase in its temperature, it becomes possible, with a sufficiently large mass of the star, the combustion of increasingly heavier elements. For most of its life, a star is in a stationary state. The equilibrium of stars with continuous loss of energy is due to the strong difference in the time of the processes occurring in them. A disruption of mechanical equilibrium, for example a decrease in pressure in a star, leads to its compression and the conversion of part of the gravitational energy into heat.
Stars vary greatly in their apparent glare. This feature became fundamental in dividing stars into classes.
Stars arise from the condensation of interstellar dust and gas rich in hydrogen. Then follows a long stage of star evolution.
Stars emerging from a single cloud of gas and dust form star clusters. There are globular star clusters, consisting of old stars, and open clusters, consisting of young stars (with an age of less than 60 million years). Globular clusters are located in the centers of galaxies, and scattered ones are on the periphery.
Since the stars are vast distances from the Earth, they appear as stationary objects in the sky. Therefore, they can be used as a way of orientation in space. For ease of memorization and use, the stars are combined into 88 constellations. Among them, 12 constellations are called zodiacal. Zodiac - belt of animals. From Earth, it appears that the Sun, moving against the backdrop of stars, passes through these constellations throughout the year.
All stars in the constellations are named by letters Greek alphabet and the name of the constellation. The brightest is called alpha, the second brightest is beta, the third is gamma, etc. Sometimes stars receive personal names, first of all this applies to the brightest stars - Sirius, Canopus, Arcturus, Rigel, Betelgeuse, Antares, etc.
Galaxies. Galaxies are giant star systems. The star system in which our Sun is located as an ordinary star is called the Galaxy.
The appearance of galaxies is extremely varied, and some of them are very picturesque. E. Hubble chose the simplest method of classifying galaxies by appearance, and it must be said that although reasonable suggestions for classification were subsequently made by other eminent researchers, the original system derived by Hubble still remains the basis for the classification of galaxies.
Hubble proposed dividing all galaxies into three main types:
1. Elliptical (E - elliptical).
2. Spiral (S - spiral).
3.Irregular (I - irregular).
Elliptical galaxies. Elliptical galaxies are the most insignificant type of galaxy in appearance. They look like smooth ellipses or circles with a general decrease in brightness as they move away from the center to the periphery. The drop in brightness is described by a simple mathematical law discovered by Hubble. In the language of astronomers it sounds like this: elliptical galaxies have concentric elliptical isophotes, i.e. if you connect with one line all the points of the galaxy image with the same brightness and construct such lines for different meanings brightness (similar to lines of constant height on topographic maps), then we get a series of nested ellipses of approximately the same shape and with a common center.
Elliptical galaxies consist of red and yellow giant stars, red and yellow dwarfs, and a number of white stars of not very high brightness. They lack blue-white supergiants and giants, groups of which can be observed in the form of bright clumps that give structure to the system; there is no dust matter, which, in those galaxies where it is present, creates dark stripes that shade the shape of the star system. Therefore, externally, elliptical galaxies differ from each other mainly in one feature - greater or lesser compression.
Spiral galaxies. Spiral galaxies may be the most picturesque objects in the Universe and, unlike elliptical galaxies, they are an example of dynamic form. Their beautiful branches, emerging from the central core and seemingly losing their outline outside the galaxy, indicate powerful, rapid movement.
Irregular galaxies. The types of galaxies discussed above were characterized by symmetry of shape and a certain character of the pattern. But there are a large number of galaxies of irregular shape, without any general pattern of structural structure. These are the so-called irregular galaxies, designated Irr.
The irregular shape of a galaxy may be due to the fact that it did not have time to take on the correct shape due to the low density of matter in it or due to its young age, and it is also possible that the distortion of the shape of the galaxy is caused by its interaction with another galaxy.
Metagalaxy. In 1981, the discovery of a huge region of space the size of a supercluster was reported, almost devoid of either individual galaxies or their clusters. The astronomers who discovered this region called it “emptiness” and drew attention to the fact that cosmologists should be able to explain the absence of galaxies in the same way as their presence. Several more voids are now known, the largest of which has a size of 2 billion by 1 billion light years. With these discoveries came the understanding that galaxies are not just objects that sometimes gather in clusters. Instead, it turns out that, at least in some parts of the Universe, galaxies form a network with large voids in between.
A metagalaxy is a union (cluster) of galaxies of approximately the same order as the Galaxy is for the stars of our system. We should assume the existence of other metagalaxies.
Evolution of the Metagalaxy, galaxies and individual stars. Throughout the 20th century, through the works of A. Friedman, A. Einstein, E. Hubble, J. Lemaitre, GA. Gamow and other researchers developed a concept according to which the Metagalaxy is in the process of expansion, the scattering of galaxies from some primary center in which our Universe originated. It is difficult to say what preceded it. It is assumed that the modern Universe originated from matter that was in a special extremely hot, super-dense state. About 15-20 billion years ago, this clot of matter, this “prime atom”, due to still unclear reasons, seemed to explode and began to expand rapidly with a sharp drop in temperature.During this process of expansion of the Metagalaxy, which continues to this day, its structure that is currently observed took shape.
The theory of the expanding Universe is based on the interpretation of the experimentally detected red shift of the spectral lines of galaxies as a consequence of the Doppler effect, which explains the red shift by the recession of galaxies. However, this interpretation is not the only one; over the past decades, doubts about the reality of the expansion of the Universe have increasingly accumulated. Evolution space systems is undoubted, but one must distinguish between the objective laws of evolution and their theoretical expressions using various models. In particular, the phenomenon of red shift of spectral lines can be explained as a consequence of a decrease in the energy and natural frequency of photons as a result of interaction with gravitational fields when light travels for many millions of years in intergalactic space.
All space objects - stars, planets, galaxies - undergo evolution. It is now known that ordinary stars, in the course of undergoing changes, turn into the so-called “white dwarfs”, “neutron stars” and “black holes” discussed above.
Star formation has the following stages:
1. At the first stage, there is a gas and dust cloud in which particles of gas and dust begin to attract each other.
2.During the process of this attraction, the cloud begins to warm up.
3. When the temperature in the star’s core reaches 10 million degrees Celsius, a thermonuclear reaction begins. Hydrogen turns into helium, which is accompanied by radiation in all parts of the spectrum. Thanks to this radiation, the star becomes a star, that is, a visible cosmic object.
After the start thermonuclear reaction a star goes through the following stages of existence:
normal, or yellow, stars. They are at the stage of hydrogen burnout. As hydrogen burns out, a helium core is formed, which is separated from the hydrogen shell by a zone of convection and radiation;
supergiant, or red giant. The helium core of the star contracts, and the size of the star increases significantly due to the fact that the hydrogen shell moves away from the core. The mass of the red giant begins to decrease not only due to the burning of hydrogen, but also due to the loss of matter on the outer shell of the star;
white dwarf. Outer layer is depleted, dissipates in outer space, and only the hot helium core remains from the star. The gravitational compression of the core continues. Initially, the surface of a white dwarf has a very high temperature (up to tens of thousands of degrees), but then quickly cools down. The diameter of the white dwarf is only 5-10 thousand km, i.e. comparable to the diameter of the Earth;
neutron star. Continued compression of the nucleus and acceleration of rotation around its axis lead to compaction and collapse of atoms. Electrons combine with protons to form neutrons. A white dwarf turns into a neutron star. The size of such a star is only a few tens of kilometers (the diameter of Moscow), the speed of rotation around its axis is several hundred revolutions per minute. The colossal density of a neutron star leads to such a curvature of space around it that the star’s matter tends to be compressed into a point;
black hole. The concentration of mass in space reaches such a degree that one teaspoon would contain 100 million metric tons of substance. All objects and radiation located in the zone of gravitational action of a black hole tend to it. The size of the black hole is 2-3 km; The final stage of the existence of black holes is the explosion and dispersion of matter. At this stage, the existence of the star can be considered completely completed. The speed at which a star passes through the listed stages of existence depends on its size. Big stars go through all of the above stages faster.
Megaworld concepts.
The principle of the uncreatability and indestructibility of matter.
It has been known since ancient times that nothing comes from nothing. Any object can arise only from other objects. Absolute emptiness as the complete absence of matter does not exist. If there is no substance, then there is a field; if there is no field, then its physical vacuum exists. By vacuum, modern physics understands a special state of matter, and not absolute “nothing”. For example, a vacuum of an electromagnetic field is a state in which there are no photons. Therefore, when physicists talk about the possibility of matter emerging from a vacuum, this does not mean that we are talking about the emergence of matter from emptiness. The arguments that occur that in the Universe at some unit of time a certain amount of matter supposedly appears from “nothing” can only mean that we are talking about the emergence of a known substance from some other, not yet established type of matter.
The principle of non-creation and indestructibility of matter and its attributes finds its comprehensive expression in the physical laws of conservation. The number of private laws of conservation of individual characteristics of physical forms of movement is growing. At the beginning of the 20th century. the laws of conservation of mass, energy, electric charge, momentum, and angular momentum were known. Now they have been supplemented by the laws of conservation of parity, strangeness, baryon and lepton charges, and others. The discovery of each conservation law is inextricably linked with the emergence of a new fundamental property of matter. A characteristic feature of conservation laws is that they can be expressed in the form of restrictions or even categorical prohibitions, meaning the impossibility of certain processes occurring under certain conditions.
