19th century gave birth a large number of Russian talented prose writers and poets. Their works quickly broke into and took their rightful place in it. The work of many authors around the world was subject to their influence. general characteristics Russian literature of the 19th century became the subject of a separate section in literary criticism. Undoubtedly, events in political and social life served as prerequisites for such a rapid cultural take-off.

History

The main trends in art and literature are formed under the influence of historical events. If in the 18th century Russia was relatively measured, then the next century included many important ups and downs that influenced not only the further development of society and politics, but also the formation of new trends and trends in literature.

bright milestones This period was the war with Turkey, the invasion of the Napoleonic army, the execution of oppositionists, the abolition of serfdom and many other events. All of them are reflected in art and culture. A general description of Russian literature of the 19th century cannot do without mentioning the creation of new stylistic norms. The genius of the art of the word was A. S. Pushkin. This great century begins with his work.

Literary language

The main merit of the brilliant Russian poet was the creation of new poetic forms, stylistic devices and unique, previously unused plots. Pushkin managed to achieve this thanks to the all-round development and excellent education. Once he set himself the goal of achieving all the heights in education. And he reached it by his thirty-seven years. Pushkin's heroes became atypical and new for that time. The image of Tatyana Larina combines beauty, intelligence and features of the Russian soul. This literary type had no analogues in our literature before.

Answering the question: “What is the general characteristic of Russian literature of the 19th century?”, A person who has at least basic philological knowledge will remember such names as Pushkin, Chekhov, Dostoevsky. But it was the author of "Eugene Onegin" who made a revolution in Russian literature.

Romanticism

This concept originates from the Western medieval epic. But to XIX century it has acquired new shades. Having originated in Germany, romanticism also penetrated the work of Russian authors. In prose, this direction is characterized by the desire for mystical motives and folk legends. In poetry, there is a desire to transform life for the better and the glorification of folk heroes. The opposition and their tragic end have become fertile ground for poetic creativity.

The general characteristic of Russian literature of the 19th century is marked by romantic moods in the lyrics, which were quite common in the poems of Pushkin and other poets of his galaxy.

As for prose, new forms of the story appeared here, among which the fantastic genre occupies an important place. Vivid examples romantic prose - the early works of Nikolai Gogol.

Sentimentalism

With the development of this direction, Russian literature of the 19th century begins. General prose is about sensuality and an emphasis on the reader's perception. Sentimentalism penetrated into Russian literature as early as late XVIII century. Karamzin became the founder of the Russian tradition in this genre. In the 19th century, he had a number of followers.

satirical prose

It was at this time that satirical and journalistic works appeared. This trend can be traced primarily in the work of Gogol. Starting his creative path with a description of his small homeland, this author later moved on to all-Russian social topics. It is difficult to imagine today what Russian literature of the 19th century would be without this master of satire. The general characterization of his prose in this genre is reduced not only to a critical look at the stupidity and parasitism of the landowners. The satirist writer "walked" through almost all sectors of society.

The masterpiece of satirical prose was the novel "God Golovlev", dedicated to the theme of the poor spiritual world landowners. Subsequently, the work of Saltykov-Shchedrin, like the books of many other satirical writers, became the starting point for the emergence

realistic novel

In the second half of the century, the development of realistic prose takes place. Romantic ideals proved untenable. There was a need to show the world as it really is. Dostoevsky's prose is an integral part of such a thing as Russian literature of the 19th century. The general characteristic is briefly a list of important features of this period and the prerequisites for the emergence of certain phenomena. As for the realistic prose of Dostoevsky, it can be characterized as follows: the stories and novels of this author were a reaction to the moods that prevailed in society in those years. Depicting in his works the prototypes of people he knew, he sought to consider and solve the most pressing issues of the society in which he moved.

In the first decades, Mikhail Kutuzov was glorified in the country, then the romantic Decembrists. This is clearly evidenced by Russian literature of the early 19th century. A general description of the end of the century fits in a couple of words. This is a revaluation of values. It was not the fate of the whole people that came to the fore, but of its individual representatives. Hence the appearance in prose of the image of the “superfluous person”.

folk poem

In the years when the realistic novel took the leading position, poetry faded into the background. A general description of the development of Russian literature in the 19th century allows us to trace long haul from dreamy poetry to true romance. In this atmosphere, Nekrasov creates his brilliant work. But his work can hardly be attributed to one of the leading genres of the mentioned period. The author combined several genres in his poem: peasant, heroic, revolutionary.

End of the century

At the end of the 19th century, Chekhov became one of the most widely read authors. Despite the fact that at the beginning of his career, critics accused the writer of coldness to current social topics, his works received undeniable public recognition. Continuing to develop the image little man”, created by Pushkin, Chekhov studied the Russian soul. various philosophical and political ideas, which were developed at the end of the 19th century, could not but affect the lives of individuals.

Revolutionary sentiments prevailed in late 19th-century literature. Among the authors whose work was at the turn of the century, one of the most prominent personalities was Maxim Gorky.

The general characteristics of the 19th century deserve closer attention. Each major representative of this period created his own artistic world, whose heroes dreamed of the unrealizable, struggled with social evil, or experienced their own little tragedy. And the main task of their authors was to reflect the realities of the century, rich in social and political events.

The 19th century is called the "Golden Age" of Russian poetry and the century of Russian literature on a global scale. It should not be forgotten that the literary leap that took place in the 19th century was prepared by the entire course of the literary process of the 17th and 18th centuries. The 19th century is the time of the formation of the Russian literary language, which took shape largely thanks to A.S. Pushkin.

A.S. Pushkin and N.V. Gogol identified the main artistic types that would be developed by writers throughout the 19th century. This is the artistic type of the “superfluous person”, an example of which is Eugene Onegin in the novel by A.S. Pushkin, and the so-called type of "little man", which is shown by N.V. Gogol in his story "The Overcoat", as well as A.S. Pushkin in the story "The Stationmaster".
Literature inherited its publicism and satirical character from the 18th century. In the prose poem N.V. Gogol " Dead Souls"The writer in a sharp satirical manner shows a swindler who buys up dead souls, various types of landowners who are the embodiment of various human vices (the influence of classicism affects). In the same plan, the comedy "The Inspector General" is sustained. The works of A. S. Pushkin are also full of satirical images. Literature continues to satirically depict Russian reality. The tendency to depict the vices and shortcomings of Russian society is a characteristic feature of all Russian classical literature. It can be traced in the works of almost all writers of the 19th century. At the same time, many writers implement the satirical trend in a grotesque form. Examples of grotesque satire are the works of N.V. Gogol "The Nose", M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin "Gentlemen Golovlevs", "History of one city".

visit web page Since the middle of the 19th century, Russian realistic literature has been developing, which is created against the backdrop of a tense socio-political situation that developed in Russia during the reign of Nicholas I. A crisis in the serf system is brewing, contradictions between the authorities and the common people are strong. There is a need to create a realistic literature that sharply reacts to the socio-political situation in the country. Literary critic V.G. Belinsky marks a new realistic trend in literature. His position is being developed by N.A. Dobrolyubov, N.G. Chernyshevsky. A dispute arises between Westernizers and Slavophiles about the paths of Russia's historical development.

visit web page Writers turn to the socio-political problems of Russian reality. The genre of the realistic novel is developing. Their works are created by I.S. Turgenev, F.M. Dostoevsky, L.N. Tolstoy, I.A. Goncharov. Socio-political and philosophical problems prevail. Literature is distinguished by a special psychologism.

The development of poetry somewhat subsides. It is worth noting the poetic works of Nekrasov, who was the first to introduce social issues into poetry. Known for his poem “Who in Russia to live well? ”, as well as many poems, where the hard and hopeless life of the people is comprehended.

http://thuexebacninh.vn/map192 The literary process of the late 19th century discovered the names of N. S. Leskov, A.N. Ostrovsky A.P. Chekhov. The latter proved to be a master of the small literary genre- a story, and also an excellent playwright. Competitor A.P. Chekhov was Maxim Gorky.

The end of the 19th century was marked by the formation of pre-revolutionary sentiments. The realist tradition was beginning to fade. It was replaced by the so-called decadent literature, the hallmarks of which were mysticism, religiosity, as well as a premonition of changes in the socio-political life of the country. Subsequently, decadence grew into symbolism. This opens a new page in the history of Russian literature.

Literature. 19th century turned out to be extremely fruitful and bright in the field of cultural development of Russia.

In a broad sense, the concept of "culture" includes all patterns of human achievement in various fields life and activity. Therefore, it is quite justified and appropriate to use such definitions as "everyday culture", "political culture", "industrial culture", "rural culture", "philosophical culture" and a number of others, denoting the level of creative accomplishments in various forms of human community. And everywhere cultural shifts in the 19th century. in Russia were great and amazing.

Second half of the 19th century became a time not only for the rapid flowering of all forms and genres of creativity, but also a period when Russian culture confidently and forever took a prominent place in the cultural area of ​​human achievements. Russian painting, Russian theater, Russian philosophy, Russian literature have established their world positions thanks to a cohort of our outstanding compatriots who worked in the second half of the 19th - early 20th centuries. It's hard to find enough anywhere in the world these days. educated person who would not know the names of F. M. Dostoevsky, L. N. Tolstoy, A. P. Chekhov, P. I. Tchaikovsky, S. V. Rakhmaninov, F. I. Chaliapin, K. S. Stanislavsky, A. P. Pavlova, N. A. Berdyaev. These are just some of the most striking figures who have forever remained iconic in the field of Russian culture. Without them, the cultural baggage of mankind would be noticeably poorer.

The same applies to the end of that century, when St. John of Kronstadt (1829-1908) was a contemporary of L. N. Tolstoy and A. P. Chekhov.

Despite the spread among the nobility of various forms of freethinking, skepticism and even atheism, the bulk of the population of the Russian Empire remained faithful to Orthodoxy. This faith, to which the Russian people had been committed for many centuries, was not at all reflected in the fashionable ideological passions that existed in high society. Orthodoxy was the essence of what modern political science defines with the borrowed term "mentality", but which in Russian lexical circulation corresponds to the concept of "life understanding".

The Orthodoxy of the people's environment in one way or another influenced all aspects of the creative activity of the most remarkable domestic masters of culture, and without taking into account the Christian impulse, it is impossible to understand why in Russia, unlike other bourgeois countries, there was never any reverent attitude towards themselves. entrepreneurs, nor to their occupation. Although by the beginning of the 20th century the triumph of capitalist relations in the country was not in doubt, no one created literary or dramatic works where the merits and merits of characters from the world of capital would be glorified and extolled. Even domestic periodicals, a considerable number of which were directly or indirectly financed by the "kings of business", did not dare to publish enthusiastic praises addressed to them. Such newspapers or magazines would immediately turn into an object of angry reproach, inevitably begin to lose readers, and their days would be very quickly numbered.

In a conversation about the Russian cultural process, consideration of the above is extremely important in two main respects.

Firstly, to understand the spiritual structure of the Russian people as a whole, its fundamental difference from the social environment of modern Russia.

Secondly, to understand why pity for the poor, sympathy for the "humiliated and offended" was the core motive of the entire Russian artistic and intellectual culture - from the paintings of the Wanderers to the works of Russian writers and philosophers.

This non-bourgeois public consciousness further contributed to the establishment of communist power in the country, the ideology of which was the denial of private property and private interests.

This motive manifested itself in the clearest way in the works of the two most famous representatives of the national culture of this period - the prophetic writers F. M. Dostoevsky and L. N. Tolstoy.

The life paths and creative methods of Dostoevsky and Tolstoy are completely dissimilar. They were not like-minded people, they never had not only close, but even friendly relations, and although at various periods they briefly belonged to certain literary and social groups (parties), the very scale of their personalities did not fit into the framework of narrow worldview currents. In the turning points of their biographies, in their literary works, time was focused, spiritual quests were reflected, even the throwing of people of the 19th century, who lived in an era of incessant social innovations and forebodings of the coming fateful eve.

F. M. Dostoevsky and L. N. Tolstoy were not only "masters of belles-lettres", brilliant chroniclers of times and customs. Their thought extended far beyond the ordinary, deeper than the obvious. Their desire to unravel the mysteries of being, the essence of man, to comprehend the true fate of mortals reflected in its, perhaps, the highest manifestation of disharmony between the mind and heart of a person, the quivering sensations of his soul and the cold-pragmatic hopelessness of reason. Their sincere desire to resolve the "cursed Russian questions" - what is a person and what is his earthly destiny - turned both writers into spiritual guides of restless natures, of which there have always been many in Russia. Dostoevsky and Tolstoy, expressing the Russian understanding of life, became not only the voices of the time, but also its creators.

F. M. Dostoevsky (1821-1881) was born into a poor family of a military doctor in Moscow. He graduated from the boarding school, and in 1843 - the Main Engineering School in St. Petersburg, for some time served as a field engineer in the engineering team of St. Petersburg. He retired in 1844, deciding to devote himself entirely to literature. He meets V. G. Belinsky and I. S. Turgenev, begins to rotate in the metropolitan literary environment. His first major work, The Poor People (1846), was a huge success.

In the spring of 1847, Dostoevsky became a regular at the meetings of V. M. Petrashevsky's circle, where acute social issues were discussed, including the need to overthrow the existing system. Among others, the aspiring writer was arrested in the case of the Petrashevites. First he was sentenced to death penalty, and already on the scaffold, Dostoevsky and the other defendants were given royal favor to replace the execution with hard labor. F. M. Dostoevsky spent about four years in hard labor (1850-1854). He described his stay in Siberia in the book of essays Notes from the House of the Dead, published in 1861.

In the 1860-1870s. the largest literary works appeared - novels that brought Dostoevsky world fame: The Humiliated and Insulted, The Gambler, Crime and Punishment, The Idiot, Demons, The Brothers Karamazov.

The writer completely broke with the revolutionary hobbies of youth, realized the falsity and danger of the theories of the violent reorganization of the world. His works are permeated with reflections on the meaning of life, on the search for life paths. Dostoevsky saw the possibility of comprehending the truth of being only through faith in Christ. The moral developed from Christian socialism to Slavophilism. However, one can call him a Slavophile only with a big stretch. He was one of the founders of the ideological trend called pochvenism. It declared itself in the 1860s-1870s, just at the time when the work of F. M. Dostoevsky reached its peak.

The program of the Vremya magazine, which F. M. Dostoevsky began publishing in 1861, said: We are finally convinced that we, too, are a separate nationality, in the highest degree original, and that our task is to create a form for ourselves, our own, native, taken from our soil. This position fully corresponded to the original Slavophile postulate. However, the universal universalism of Dostoevsky's thinking manifested itself already at this time: We foresee that the Russian idea, perhaps, will be a synthesis of all those ideas that Europe is developing.

Such a view found its highest embodiment in the famous speech of the writer at the celebrations in 1880 on the occasion of the opening of the monument to A. S. Pushkin in Moscow. It was in his Pushkin speech, which aroused the delight of the audience, and then became the subject of fierce controversy in the press, that F. M. Dostoevsky formulated his vision of the future world. He derived his well-being from the fulfillment of the historical mission of Russia - to unite the people of the world in a fraternal union according to the precepts of Christian love and humility:

Yes, the destination of a Russian person is undeniably pan-European and worldwide. To become a real Russian, to become completely Russian, perhaps, means only to become a brother of all people, an all-man, if you like. Oh, all this Slavophilism and our Westernism is nothing but a great misunderstanding among us, although it is historically necessary. For a real Russian, Europe and the lot of the entire great Aryan tribe are as dear as Russia itself, like the lot of its own. native land because our inheritance is universality, and not acquired by the sword, but by the power of brotherhood and our fraternal striving for the reunification of people.

Dostoevsky was not a philosopher in the exact sense of the word, he thought like an artist, his ideas were embodied in the thoughts and actions of the heroes of literary works. The worldview of the writer has always remained religious. Even in his youth, when he was fascinated by the ideas of socialism, he remained in the bosom of the Church. One of the most important reasons for his break with V. G. Belinsky, as F. M. Dostoevsky later admitted, was that he scolded Christ. Elder Zosima ("The Brothers Karamazov") expressed the idea found in many literary and journalistic works of F. M. Dostoevsky: its beauty." The unwillingness and inability to see the surrounding beauty stems from the inability of a person to master these gifts - “read F. M. Dostoevsky.

Throughout his life, the writer was worried about the riddle of personality, he was possessed by a painful interest in a person, in the reserved side of his nature, in the depths of his soul. Reflections on this topic are found in almost all his works of art. Dostoevsky, with unsurpassed skill, revealed the dark sides of the human soul, the forces of destruction lurking in him, the boundless egoism, the denial of moral principles that are rooted in man. However, despite negative sides, in each individual the writer saw a riddle, he considered everyone, even in the image of the most insignificant, an absolute value. Not only the demonic element in man was revealed by Dostoevsky with unprecedented force; no less deeply and expressively shows the movements of truth and goodness in the human soul, the angelic principle in it. Faith in man, triumphantly affirmed in all the works of the writer, makes F. M. Dostoevsky the greatest humanist thinker.

Dostoevsky already during his lifetime was awarded the title of a great writer among the reading public. However, his public position, his rejection of all forms revolutionary movement, his preaching of Christian humility caused attacks not only in the radical, but also in the liberal environment.

The heyday of Dostoevsky's work came at the time of the "violence of intolerance." All those who did not share the enthusiasm for the fashionable theories of the radical reorganization of society were branded as reactionaries. It was in the 1860s. the word "conservative" has become almost abusive, and the concept of "liberal" has become a synonym for a social progressive. If earlier any ideological dispute in Russia almost always had an emotional character, now intolerance towards everything and everyone that did not correspond to flat schemes “about the main path of development of progress” has become its indispensable attribute. They did not want to hear the voices of opponents. As the famous philosopher B.C. Solovyov about another outstanding Russian thinker K. N. Leontiev, he dared to "express his reactionary thoughts" at a time "when it could bring him nothing but ridicule." Opponents were treated, they were not objected to in essence, they served only as an object of ridicule.

Dostoevsky fully experienced the moral terror of liberal public opinion. The attacks on him, in fact, never stopped. They were initiated by V. G. Belinsky, who called the writer’s early literary and psychological experiments “nervous nonsense.” There was only one short period when the name of Dostoevsky enjoyed reverence among the "priests of social progress" - the end of the 1850s, when Dostoevsky became close to the circle of M.V. Petrashevsky and became a "victim of the regime."

However, as it turned out that in his works the writer did not follow the theory of acute sociality, the attitude of liberal-radical criticism towards him changed. After the appearance in print in 1871-1872. In the novel "Demons", where the author showed the spiritual poverty and complete immorality of the bearers of revolutionary ideas, Dostoevsky became the target of systematic attacks. The capital's newspapers and magazines regularly presented the public with critical attacks against "Dostoevsky's public delusions and his caricature of the humanist movement of the sixties." However, the creative monumentality of the writer's works, their unprecedented psychological depth were so obvious that the attacks were accompanied by many on-duty confessions of the master's artistic talents.

Such an endless treatment of the name had a depressing effect on the writer, and although he did not change his views and his creative manner, he tried, as far as possible, not to give new reasons for attacks. A noteworthy episode in this regard dates back to the early 1880s, when populist terror was spreading in the country. It happened somehow that, together with the journalist and publisher A.S. Suvorin, the writer reflected on the topic: would he tell the police if he suddenly found out that Winter Palace mined and soon there will be an explosion and all its inhabitants will die. To this question Dostoevsky answered: No. And, explaining his position, he remarked: The liberals would not forgive me. They would torture me, drive me to despair.

Dostoevsky considered this state of public opinion in the country to be abnormal, but to change the established methods social behavior was unable to. The great writer, an old, sick man, was afraid of accusations of collaborating with the authorities, was unable to hear the roar of the educated mob.

Count LN Tolstoy (1828-1910) was born into a wealthy noble family. He received his primary education at home, then for some time studied at the oriental and law faculties of Kazan University. He did not finish the course, he was not carried away by science.

He left the university and went to the active army in the Caucasus, where the decisive phase of hostilities with Shamil was unfolding. Here he spent two years (1851-1853). Service in the Caucasus enriched Tolstoy with many impressions, which he later displayed in his novels and stories.

When did it start Crimean War, Tolstoy volunteered to go to the front and took part in the defense of Sevastopol. After the end of the war, he retired, traveled abroad, then served in the administration of the Tula province. In 1861 he interrupted his service and settled on his estate Yasnaya Polyana near Tula.

There Tolstoy wrote the largest literary works - the novels War and Peace, Anna Karenina, Resurrection. In addition, he wrote many novels, short stories, dramatic and journalistic works. The writer created a diverse panorama of Russian life, depicted the customs and life of people of dissimilar social status, showed the complex struggle between good and evil in the human soul. The novel "War and Peace" is still the most outstanding literary composition about the war of 1812

Many political and social problems attracted the attention of the writer, he responded to them with his articles. Gradually, their tone became more and more intolerant, and Tolstoy turned into a merciless critic of generally accepted norms of morality and social principles. It seemed to him that in Russia the authorities were not the same, and the Church was not the same. The Church in general turned out to be the object of his reproach. The writer does not accept the church understanding of Christianity. He is repelled by religious dogmas and the fact that the Church has become part of the social world. Tolstoy broke with the Russian Orthodox Church. In response to this, in 1901 the Holy Synod excommunicated Tolstoy from the Church, but expressed the hope that he would repent and return to her fold. There was no repentance, and the writer died without a church ceremony.

From his youth, Tolstoy was strongly influenced by the views of Rousseau and, as he later wrote, at the age of 16 he destroyed traditional views in himself and began to wear a medallion with a portrait of Rousseau around his neck instead of a cross. The writer passionately accepted Rousseau's idea of ​​natural life, which determined a lot in Tolstoy's subsequent searches and reassessments. Like many other Russian thinkers, Tolstoy subjected all phenomena of the world and culture to harsh criticism from the standpoint of subjective morality.

In the 1870s the writer went through a long spiritual crisis. His consciousness is fascinated by the mystery of death, before the inevitability of which everything around him takes on the character of an insignificant. Wishing to overcome oppressive doubts and fears, Tolstoy tries to break his ties with the familiar environment and strives for close communication with ordinary people. It seems to him that with them, beggars, wanderers, monks, peasants, schismatics and prisoners, he will gain true faith, knowledge of what is the true meaning of human life and death.

The Yasnaya Polyana count begins a period of simplification. He rejects all manifestations of modern civilization. His merciless and uncompromising rejection concerns not only the institutions of the state, the Church, the courts, the army, and bourgeois economic relations.

In his boundless and passionate nihilism, the writer has reached maximalist limits. He rejects art, poetry, theater, science. According to him, goodness has nothing to do with beauty, aesthetic pleasure is pleasure of a lower order. Art in general is just fun.

Tolstoy considered it blasphemy to put art and science on the same level as good. Science and philosophy, he wrote, treat about whatever you want, but not about that. how a person himself can be better and how he can live better. Modern science has a mass of knowledge that we do not need. But to the question of the meaning of life, it cannot say anything and even considers this question to be outside its competence.

Tolstoy tried to give his own answers to these burning questions. The world order of people, according to Tolstoy, should be based on love for one's neighbor, on non-resistance to evil by violence, on mercy and material unselfishness. Tolstoy considered the abolition of private property in general and private property in land in particular to be the most important condition for the reign of the light of Christ on earth. Addressing Nicholas II in 1902, Tolstoy wrote: The abolition of the right to land ownership is, in my opinion, the immediate goal, the achievement of which should be made the task of the Russian government in our time.

The sermons of Leo Tolstoy did not go unanswered. Among the so-called enlightened public, where critical assessments and a skeptical attitude towards reality dominated, the graphanihilist had many admirers and followers who intended to bring Tolstoy's social ideas to life. They created small colonies, which were called cultural sketes, tried to change the moral self-improvement and honest work the world. The Tolstoyans refused to pay taxes, to serve in the army, did not consider it necessary to consecrate the church marriage, did not baptize their children, did not send them to schools. The authorities persecuted such communities, some active Tolstoyans were even brought to trial. At the beginning of the XX century. Tolstoy's movement in Russia almost came to naught. However, it gradually spread outside of Russia. Tolstoy farms originated in Canada, South Africa, USA, UK.

I. S. Turgenev (1818-1883) is credited with creating socio-psychological novels in which the personal fate of the characters was inextricably linked with the fate of the country. He was an unsurpassed master in uncovering inner world man in all his complexity. Creativity Turgenev had a huge impact on the development of Russian and world literature.

I. S. Turgenev came from a rich and old noble family. In 1837 he graduated from the philological faculty of St. Petersburg University. He continued his education abroad. Turgenev later recalled: I studied philosophy, ancient languages, history, and studied Hegel with particular zeal. For two years (1842-1844) Turgenev served as an official in the Ministry of Internal Affairs, but did not show any interest in a service career. He was fascinated by literature. He wrote his first work, the dramatic poem Steno, in 1834.

At the end of the 1830s. young Turgenev's poems began to appear in the journals Sovremennik and Otechestvennye zapiski. These are elegiac thoughts about love, permeated with motives of sadness and longing. Most of these poems received high audience recognition (Ballad, Again one, one ..., Foggy morning, gray morning ...). Later, some of Turgenev's poems were set to music and became popular romances.

In the 1840s the first dramas and poems of Turgenev appeared in print, and he himself became an employee of the social and literary magazine Sovremennik.

In the mid 1840s. Turgenev became close to a group of writers, leaders of the so-called "natural school" - N. A. Nekrasov, I. A. Goncharov, D. V. Grigorovich and others, who tried to give literature a democratic character. The heroes of their works, these writers made primarily serfs.

The first issue of the updated Sovremennik was published in January 1847. Turgenev's short story "Khor and Kalinich", which opened a whole cycle of works under the general title "Notes of a Hunter.

After their publication in 1847-1852. All-Russian glory came to the writer. The Russian people, Russian peasants are shown in the book with such love and respect as never before in Russian literature.

In subsequent years, the writer created several novels and short stories of outstanding artistic merit - Rudin, The Noble Nest, On the Eve, Fathers and Sons, Smoke. They skillfully depict the way of life of the nobility, show the emergence of new social phenomena and figures, in particular populists. Turgenev's name has become one of the most revered names in Russian literature. His works were distinguished by sharp polemics, they raised the most important issues of human existence, they outlined the writer's deep look at the essence of ongoing events, the desire to understand the character and aspirations of new people (nihilists) who entered the arena of the country's socio-political life.

The breadth of thinking, the ability to comprehend the life and historical perspective, the belief that a person’s life should be filled with higher meaning marked the work of one of the most remarkable Russian writers and playwrights - A.P. Chekhov (1860-1904), this subtlest psychologist and master subtext, which so peculiarly combined humor and lyricism in his works.

A.P. Chekhov was born in the city of Taganrog into a merchant family. He studied at the Taganrog gymnasium. He continued his studies at the medical faculty of Moscow University, from which he graduated in 1884. He worked as a doctor in the Moscow province. He began his literary activity with feuilletons and short stories published in humor magazines.

Chekhov's major and most famous works began to appear in the late 1880s. These are the stories and stories Steppe, "Lights", House with a Mezzanine, Boring Story, Chamber of MB, Muzhiks, In the ravine, About love, Ionych, Lady with a dog, Jumper, Duel, books of essays From Siberia and Sharp Sakhalin.

Chekhov is the author of remarkable dramatic works. His plays Ivanov, Uncle Vanya, The Seagull, Three Sisters, The Cherry Orchard are staged all over the world. In the writer's stories about the fate of individuals, a deep philosophical subtext is hidden. Chekhov's ability to sympathize, his love for people, his ability to penetrate into the spiritual nature of man, his interest in the pressing problems of the development of human society made creative legacy the writer is still relevant today. Art. In 1870, an event occurred in Russia that had powerful impact on the development of fine arts: the Association of Traveling Art Exhibitions arose, which played an important role in the development of democratic painting and its opposition to salon-academic art. It was public organization which the government did not fund. The partnership was organized by young artists, mostly graduates of the St. Petersburg Academy of Arts, who did not share the aesthetic principles of the leadership of the Academy. They no longer wanted to portray "eternal beauty", focus on the "classical examples" of European art. Reflecting the general societal upsurge of the 1860s, artists sought to express the complexity modern world, to bring art closer to life, to convey the aspirations and moods of wide public circles, to show living people, their concerns and aspirations. Almost all the outstanding artists of Russia were creatively associated with the Association of the Wanderers.

Over the next decades, the Association of the Wanderers (usually they were simply called the Wanderers) organized many exhibitions, which were not only shown in some place, but also transported (moved) to different cities. The first such exhibition took place in 1872.

The central figure of Russian art of the 1860s. became one of the organizers of the Association of Wanderers teacher, writer V. G. Perov (1833-1882). He studied painting at the Arzamas Drawing School, then at the Moscow School of Painting, Sculpture and Architecture and at the St. Petersburg Academy of Arts. At the end of the course in 1869 he received a scholarship and improved his skills in Paris. Already in the 1860s. Perov declared himself as a great realist artist, his paintings were distinguished by a sharp social content. These are the Sermon in the village

Tea drinking in Mytishchi, near Moscow Seeing off the deceased, “Troika. Apprentice craftsmen carry water, “The last tavern at the outpost, etc. The artist’s painting subtly conveyed his compassion for people crushed by need, who survived grief.

Perov is a master of lyrical paintings (Bird-catchers and Hunters at rest) and fairy-tale images (Snow Maiden). The golden fund of Russian art includes portraits of the playwright A. N. Ostrovsky, writer F. M. Dostoevsky, executed by the artist commissioned by P. M. Tretyakov for the portrait gallery conceived by him, representing “people dear to the nation”. Perov also turned to historical themes, his most famous such painting being SudPugacheva.

IN Kramskoy (1837-1887) was born into a poor family. From 1857 he studied at the St. Petersburg Academy of Arts. In 1863, he became a troublemaker at the Academy, leading a group of 14 graduate students who refused to participate in a competition that required paintings only on mythological themes. The protesters left the Academy and created the Artel of Mutual Aid, which later became the basis of the Association of the Wanderers.

Kramskoy was a wonderful portrait master and captured on his canvases many famous people Russia, those who are usually called the rulers of the thoughts of their era.

These are portraits of M. E. Saltykov-Shchedrin, L. N. Tolstoy, N. A. Nekrasov. P. M. Tretyakov, S. P. Botkin, I. I. Shishkin and others. Kramskoy also painted portraits of ordinary peasants.

In 1872, Kramskoy's painting Christ in the Desert appeared at the First Traveling Exhibition, which became a program not only for the artist himself, but for all the Wanderers. The canvas depicts Jesus Christ, who is in deep thought. The enlightened, calm look of Christ attracts the attention of the viewer.

A close interest in the gospel theme runs through all the work of another of the founders of Russian wandering - N.N.Ge (1831-1894). In the painting The Last Supper, a striking play of light and shadow achieves the opposition of a group of apostles and the figure of Judas, located in a dense shadow. The gospel story allowed the artist to portray the conflict of different worldviews. This painting was followed by What is Truth?. Christ and Pilate, Judgment of the Sanhedrin, Guilty of death!, Golgotha, Crucifixion, etc.

In the portrait of L.N. Tolstoy, the artist managed to convey the work of thought of a brilliant writer.

At the First Traveling Exhibition, Ge exhibited the painting “Peter I Interrogates Tsarevich Alexei Petrovich in Peterhof. The viewer feels the tense silence of father and son. Peter is sure of the fault of the prince. The conflict between the king and the heir to the throne is depicted at the moment of the highest intensity.

Famous BJB battle painter. Vereshchagin (1842-1904) took part in the hostilities of that time more than once. Based on his impressions of the events in the Turkestan region, he created a picture of the Apotheosis of War. The pyramid of skulls cut with sabers looks like an allegory of war. On the frame of the picture - the text: Dedicated to all the great conquerors, past, present and future.

Vereshchagin owns a series of large battle paintings in which he acted as a true reformer of this genre.

Vereshchagin turned out to be a participant in the Russian-Turkish campaign of 1877-1878. Based on sketches and studies performed on the scene, his famous "Balkan Series" was created. In one of the paintings in this series ("Shipka - Sheinovo. Skobelev near Shipka") the scene of Skobelev's solemn greeting of the victorious Russian regiments is relegated to the background. In the foreground of the canvas, the viewer sees a snow-covered field dotted with the dead. This mournful image was intended to remind people of the bloody cost of victory.

One of the most popular Russian landscape painters can be called I. I. Shishkin (1832-1898). A painter and a remarkable connoisseur of nature, he approved the forest landscape in Russian art - luxurious mighty oak forests and pine forests, forest distances, deaf wilds. The artist's canvases are characterized by monumentality and majesty. Expanse, space, land, rye. God's grace, Russian wealth - this is how the artist described his canvas Rye, in which the scale of Shishkin's spatial solutions was especially clearly manifested. Pines illuminated by the sun, Forest distances, Morning in a pine forest, Oaks, etc. became parade portraits of Russian nature. The well-known art historian V.V. Stasov Ya.E. Repin (1844-1930) called Samson of Russian painting.

This is one of the most versatile artists who succeeded with equal brilliance in portraits, genre scenes, landscapes and large canvases on historical themes.

I. B. Repin was born into a poor family of a military settler in the city of Chuguev, Kharkov province, and received his first drawing skills from local Ukrainian icon painters. In 1863, he moved to St. Petersburg and entered the Academy of Arts, where I.N. Kramskoy turned out to be Repin's first mentor, V.I. Surik. Repin graduated from the Academy in 1871 and, as a capable graduate, received an execution scholarship for a creative trip to France and Italy.

Already in the 1870s. Repin's name becomes one of the largest, most popular Russian painters. Each of his new paintings arouses the liveliest interest of the public and heated debate. Among the most famous paintings of the artist are barge haulers on the Volga, the procession in the Kursk province, Ivan the Terrible and his son Ivan on November 16, 1581, the Cossacks write a letter to the Turkish sultan, Portrait of M. P. Mussorgsky, “The solemn meeting State Council”, Portrait of K. P. Pobedonostsev, They didn’t wait, etc. Repin on his canvases captured a panorama of the life of the country, showed bright folk characters, the mighty forces of Russia.

VI Surikov (1848-1916) showed himself to be a born historical painter. A Siberian by origin, Surikov studied in St. Petersburg at the Academy of Arts, and after graduating from the Academy he settled in Moscow. His first large canvas was the Morning execution. This was followed by Menshikov in Verezov, Boyarynya Morozova, Yermak's Conquest of Siberia Suvorov's Crossing the Alps in 1799, and others. The artist drew the plots and images of these paintings from the depths of Russian history.

Russian national culture in the 19th century reached in art, literature, in many areas of knowledge the heights defined by the word "classic". Russian literature of the 19th century is deservedly called the "golden age". Even an ignoramus of literature cannot object. It became the trendsetter of literary fashion, rapidly bursting into world literature. The "Golden Age" gave us many famous masters. The 19th century is the time of the development of Russian literary language, which took shape for the most part thanks to A. S. Pushkin. It began with the flourishing of sentimentalism and the gradual formation of romanticism, especially in poetry. During this period, there are many poets, but the main figure of that time was Alexander Pushkin. As now he would be dubbed a "star" .

His ascent to the Olympus of Literature began in 1820 with the poem Ruslan and Lyudmila. And "Eugene Onegin" - a novel in verse was called an encyclopedia of Russian life. The era of Russian romanticism was opened by him romantic poems"Bronze Horseman", " Bakhchisarai fountain"," Gypsies. For most poets and writers, A. S. Pushkin was a teacher. The traditions laid down by him in the creation of literary works were continued by many of them. Among them was M. Lermontov. Russian poetry of that time was closely connected with the socio-political life of the country. In the works, the authors tried to comprehend and develop the idea of ​​their special purpose. They urged the authorities to listen to their words. The poet of that time was considered a prophet, a conductor of divine truth. This can be traced in Pushkin's poem "The Prophet", in the ode "Liberty", "The Poet and the Crowd", in Lermontov's "On the Death of a Poet" and many others. In the 19th century, English historical novels had a huge influence on all world literature. Under their influence, A.S. Pushkin writes the story "The Captain's Daughter".

During the 19th century, the main artistic types there was the "little man" type and the "superfluous man" type.

From the 19th century, literature inherited a satirical character and publicism. This can be traced in Gogol's "Dead Souls", "The Nose", in the comedy "The Government Inspector", in M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin "History of one city", "Gentlemen Golovlev".

The formation of Russian realistic literature has been going on since the middle of the 19th century. She reacted sharply to the socio-political situation in Russia. A dispute arises between the Slavophiles and the Westernizers about the paths of the country's historical development.

The genre of the realistic novel begins to develop. A special psychologism can be traced in the literature, philosophical, socio-political problems prevail. The development of poetry somewhat subsides, but, despite the general silence, the voice of Nekrasov is not silent, which in the poem “Who is living well in Russia?” illuminates the hard and hopeless life of the people. -

The end of the century gave us A.P. Chekhov, A.N. Ostrovsky, N. S. Leskov, M. Gorky. Pre-revolutionary moods run like a red thread in literature. The realistic tradition began to fade, replaced by decadent literature, with mysticism, religiosity, as well as a premonition of changes in the socio-political life of Russia. Then everything grew into symbolism. And a new page has been opened in the history of Russian literature.

On the works of writers of that time, we learn humanity, patriotism, we study our history. More than one generation of people - Humans - has grown up on this "classic".

Introduction

The first lesson of literature in the 10th grade is introductory. The teacher has two tasks to solve:

• to identify the level of literary development of students in grade 10, their reading circle, reader interests, literary outlook;
• describe in the introductory lecture historical development Russia in the first and second half of the 19th century, give a general description of the literature of the century, identify the main stages in the development of Russian classical literature, the evolution of literary trends and genres, artistic methods, Russian literary criticism.

To solve the first problem, the teacher can conduct a frontal conversation, revealing the general level of development of the class. To determine the level of literary development of each student, you can invite them to answer the teacher’s questions in writing at home, and then process the results of the survey:

• answer the teacher's questions, and then process the results of the survey:
• What works of Russian literature of the 19th century did you read in the summer? Rate them on a five-point system.
• What questions posed in Russian classical literature are still relevant today?
• Which characters in 19th century literature do you like or dislike? Argument your point of view.

When preparing for a review lecture, the teacher should take into account that in order to assimilate its content, it is necessary to develop in schoolchildren the ability to draw up a plan (summary) of the teacher’s story, fix its main provisions, prepare various types of comparative tables, select quotes, etc.

During the lecture, the teacher dwells on the most significant features of each stage in the development of literature and can compile a reference table with the students.