Methodology “Orientation of the personality in communication” (S.L. Bratchenko). The "UFO" technique is intended to study the direction of the personality in communication, understood by its author as a set of more or less conscious personal semantic attitudes and value orientations in the field of interpersonal communication, as an individual “communicative paradigm”, which includes ideas about the meaning of communication, its goals, means, desirable and acceptable ways of behavior in communication, etc. In other words, the technique allows you to study the value-semantic relations of the individual in the sphere of her communication with other people. It is based on the method of unfinished sentences. There are two forms of methodology: basic, which does not have a professional specification, and the second - focused on the study of orientation in professional communication. The technique makes it possible to identify the degree of severity of the types of personality orientation (in%) in non-professional and professional communication, as well as the dominant type of orientation in communication and the ratio of the severity of other types. The author of the methodology identified six types of orientation in communication: dialogical, authoritarian, manipulative, alterocentric, conformal and indifferent, the essence of which is described below. It seems that with the help of these types one can more or less fully characterize the variety of individual options for the content of orientation in communication, as well as reflect the complexity and versatility of this personal formation. Like any projective technique in its qualified application, it provides important information about the deep features of the psyche. Bratchenko S.L. six main types of UFO are identified: dialogical communicative orientation (D-UFO), authoritarian (AV-UFO); alterocentric (Al–NLO); manipulative orientation (M-UFO); conformal (K-UFO); indifferent (I-UFO). These types of communicative orientation are characterized by the following features, which simultaneously serve as the basis for evaluating projective material:
1) D-UFO - orientation towards equal communication, which is based on
mutual respect and trust, focus on mutual understanding, mutual
openness and communicative cooperation, the desire for mutual self-expression, development, cooperation.
2) AV-UFO - focus on dominance in communication, the desire to suppress the personality of the interlocutor, to subjugate him, "communicative aggression", cognitive egocentrism, "requirement" to be understood or the requirement of agreement with one's own position, unwillingness to understand the interlocutor, disrespect for someone else's point of view , orientation to the stereotypical "communication-functioning", communicative rigidity.
3) M-UFO - orientation towards using the interlocutor and all communication for one's own purposes, for obtaining various kinds of benefits, treating the interlocutor as a means, an object of one's manipulations. The desire to understand the interlocutor in order to obtain the necessary information, combined with their own secrecy, insincerity. Orientation towards development and cunning in communication, but one-sided - only for oneself at the expense of another.
4) Al-UFO - voluntary "centring" on the interlocutor, orientation to his goals, needs, etc. and selfless sacrifice of their interests and goals. The desire to understand the needs of another in order to satisfy them to the fullest, but indifference to understanding oneself on his part. The desire to contribute to the development of the interlocutor, even to the detriment of their own development and well-being.
5) K-UFO - refusal of equality in communication in favor of the interlocutor. Orientation towards submission to the power of authority, towards an “objective” position for oneself. Orientation to non-critical "consent" (avoidance of opposition), the lack of desire for real understanding and the desire to be understood. Orientation to imitation, reactive communication, readiness to "adjust" to the interlocutor.
6) And - UFO - such an attitude to communication, in which communication itself is ignored with all its problems, the dominance of orientation to "purely business" issues, "avoidance" of communication as such.
The value of the "UFO" methodology is due to the fact that the final assessment ("formula") reflects the entire spectrum of the above types of orientation and allows you to determine the prevailing communicative trend, thereby preserving the integrity, complexity and versatility of the individual as a subject of communication. The "UFO" technique underwent appropriate psychometric procedures and showed sufficient retest reliability and construct validity.
The text of the "UFO" technique
1. The topic of our conversation ...
2. So that the interlocutor understands me correctly ...
3. I would like to communicate with a person for whom my experiences ...
4. It is very important for me that the interlocutor in communication with me comes from ...
5. I expect from the interlocutor ...
6. If I think the other person is wrong...
7. I consider it right if, in communicating with me, the interlocutor sets as his goal ...
8. The interlocutor's trust in me ...
9. If the interlocutor stops listening to me ...
10. I like this kind of communication…
11. The interlocutor expects from me ...
12. If the interlocutor thinks that I am wrong ...
13. The efforts of communication partners should be directed to ...
14. So that I understand the interlocutor ...
15. What the interlocutor is experiencing ...
16. In communication, I try to proceed from ...
17. If a conflict is brewing in communication ...
18. I try to take a position in communication ...
19. For me, the main goal of communication is…
20. Trust the interlocutor ...
21. If the interlocutor does not understand me ...
22. Usually I start communication ...
23. The interlocutor in communication should never ...
24. For me, the most difficult thing in communication is ...
25. If I do not understand the interlocutor ...
26. I would like the interlocutor to take a position in communication ...
27. If the interlocutor does not answer my question ...
28. What I dislike most about communication is…
29. If the interlocutor interrupts me ...
30. In communication, I should never ...
31. At the end of the conversation…
Processing and interpretation of results For processing the projective material, the system of categories described above (types of communicative orientation) is used. Each “answer” (part of the stems - No. 1; 13; 22; 24; 28 - perform specific functions and in this context are not subject to processing) on the basis of comparison with the characteristics of UFO species, a certain category is assigned - “D” or “AB”, or “M”, etc., if it is impossible to unambiguously interpret this or that “answer”, it is allowed attribution of two categories at once, and in more obscure variants the category is not attributed. In addition to assessing the "answers" by category (qualitative assessment), each of them is also assigned a score (from 0 to 5) - depending on the degree of completeness and clarity of expression in the "answer" of this direction (quantitative assessment).
The most essential criterion for determining the type of UFO is the ratio
position of the interlocutors from the point of view of their equality (unequal rights), symmetry of requirements and expectations. For a more accurate assessment of the projective material on this issue, an important criterion in the methodology, a special technique was used, called the "inverted stem". Its essence lies in the fact that some of the stems have a "mirror" pair in the list - i.e. the same communicative situation is presented in one stem from the position of the respondent himself, and in the other (which pairs with the first) - from the position of his imaginary interlocutor, moreover, in the list dictated to the respondent, “paired” stems are not located next to each other, but are spaced apart (for example, one of the pairs consists of stems No. 5 “I expect from the interlocutor ...” and stems No. 11 “The interlocutor expects me ...”). "Answers" to paired stems are evaluated as a whole, by comparing both answers with each other, and to give a greater specific weight, the pair's score (in points) is multiplied by three. For example, couple No. 3 “I would like to communicate with a person for whom my experiences ... are close and he is not indifferent to them”, No. 15 “What the interlocutor is going through ... is indifferent to me, the main thing is that he thinks well of me” - receives an AB-15 rating as a result (the couple receives the category "AB" and the maximum score is 5, which is tripled).
In order to make the interpretation of the "answers" more accurate and justified, a "key" is used - a selection of the most characteristic and common "answers" that have previously undergone peer review. The "Key" is designed to solve two problems: firstly, to evaluate specific "answers" (by finding the closest ones to them in the "Key"), and secondly, to teach those who want to master the "UFO" technique. However, the key should not be used as a dogma, it should serve as an indicative basis for the mental dialogue of the researcher with the respondent, as a result of which only an adequate understanding of the latter can occur, a correct assessment of his communicative orientation.
Each "answer", thus, receives a certain assessment - a category and a score. Then the final score of the entire protocol is displayed, for which the scores for each category are summed up separately (both the scores of individual stems and pairs are taken into account; in the NLO-3 variant, almost all stems are paired). As a result, each protocol receives a final score in the form of a certain “formula” of communicative orientation, for example, the final score of one of the protocols looks like this: D-2, AV-40, M-4, AL-0, K-8, I-12 . Since the total score (for all categories) is different for different protocols, in order to compare the results of the respondents among themselves, the absolute values are converted into relative ones - as a percentage of the total score of this protocol. Then the final assessment of the protocol from the above example will look like this: total score - 66 (100%), by category - D - 3%, AB - 61%, M - 6%, AL - 0%, K - 12%, I - eighteen%. For the analysis and further interpretation of the results, it is the “formula” as a whole that is used, although in some cases there may be non-zero scores in the protocol only in two or three categories, or even (very rarely) in one category. As a rule, all types of communicative orientation are presented in the protocols to one degree or another. At the same time, it is usually possible to identify trends in the final assessment, the predominant type of UFO (in the example considered above, the authoritarian tendency is clearly visible), to reveal a certain logic of the distribution of points by category, etc. - this is the subject of further interpretation of the results, counseling of respondents, etc.
Methods of research and diagnosis of attitudes towards death
In psychological science, the question of a person's attitude to death for a long time remained without attention, and rather belonged to the sphere of philosophy. Only over the past forty years has there been an intensive growth of research and publications on the fear of death and tanatic anxiety in the world. The term "tanatic anxiety" is commonly understood as "unpleasant emotional condition that arises when a person thinks about his own death "(D. Templer, 1970), or "pointless and non-localized fear of death" (I. Yalom, 1980), which can manifest itself both at a conscious level and at an unconscious level and be associated both with negative as well as positive images of death. The attitude towards death, therefore, comes down to fear and anxiety, which, apparently, is due to the predominant representation of these experiences in people's attitude towards death. However, it is clear that the attitude towards death is manifested in a wider range of experiences, thoughts, intentions. The attitude to death is one of the most important life relationships of a person, correlated with her attitude to her whole life as a whole, with her understanding of her own life and manifested in the thoughts, feelings, intentions and aspirations of a person.
AT domestic psychology There are very few works devoted to the problem of a person's attitude to his own death. In foreign studies that studied in recent decades Tanatic anxiety and fear of death as a manifestation of attitude towards death, some methodological experience has been accumulated, which cannot be said about domestic research and diagnostic practice, which is experiencing a clear shortage of methodological tools that can be used for these purposes. To some extent, this gap can be filled by the following methods. foreign authors adapted by T.A. Gavrilova 22]
1. "Scale of Fear of Death" by J. Boyar. (Boyar's Fear of Death Scale - FODS).
Scale of Fear of Death" by J. Boyar. (Boyar's Fear of Death Scale - FODS)
2."Death Anxiety Scale", D. Templer. ("Death Anxiety Scale" - DAS).
In 1967, D. Templer first introduced the "Death Anxiety Scale" (DAS), which he developed and subsequently received the greatest distribution and recognition in the world. To date, there are more than 20 works devoted to both testing its psychometric characteristics and studying the correlations of tanatic anxiety with personal, religious, intellectual and other parameters. The scale is adapted to Arabic, German, Spanish, Indian, Chinese, Korean, Japanese populations. It contains 15 statements that passed the test of content and construct validity and internal consistency. Templer also conducted research on the structure of his scale. DAS has been found to cover four factors: cognitive-affective preoccupation with death, preoccupation with physical change, awareness of the passage of time, preoccupation with pain and stress. According to the author, the structure of the scale he established indicates that tanatic anxiety is a form of anxiety about two fundamental human states - separation and change. In other words, the thanatic anxiety measured by DAS appears to be a component of existential anxiety, since it is connected with the original problems of human existence.
"Death Anxiety Scale" by D. Templer“
Death Anxiety Scale – DAS
3. Methodology of “Metaphors of Personal Death” by J. McLennan. (Metaphors of Personal Death - RDFS).
This technique was developed in 1992 - 1996 by J. McLennon. He composed two series of metaphors from fantasy images of death discovered by H. Feifel and M. Negi, as well as in his own research. It turned out two subscales - negative metaphors of death and positive metaphors of death. Respondents are asked to rate each of the metaphors on a five-point scale, according to how they describe their own perception of death. The study showed the internal consistency of the scales, and their reliability, validity and relative independence from neuroticism, extraversion and social desirability. This technique has shown its usefulness in the selection of volunteers to work with terminally ill patients in clinics, as well as to study attitudes related to the problem of HIV infection. The author emphasizes that RDFS, in contrast to self-assessment questionnaires, allows one to "capture" the unconscious level of assumptions about one's own death.
Methodology of “Metaphor of Personal Death” by J. McLennan
(Metaphors of Personal Death - RDFS)
Instruction: The following are some of the metaphors (or imagery) people use to describe their understanding of their own death. We ask you to evaluate how each of these metaphors can describe your perspective on your own death. Please rate each metaphor or image below on a five-point scale.
And now, regardless of how you assessed the images proposed above, please describe in your own words metaphor or image that best describes how you might think about your own death.
Subscale of positive death metaphors: 1, 4, 5, 7, 12, 13, 14, 16, 17
Subscale of negative death metaphors: 2, 3, 6, 8, 9, 10, 11, 15, 18
Control questions and tasks for module 3
1. Methodology for studying the system of life meanings (Kotlyakov V.S.): its capabilities and limitations.
2. Features of the construction and use of the methodology of M. Rokeach and its modifications in Russian psychology (D.A. Leontieva, E.B. Fantalova).
3. Possibilities and limitations of the methodology of M. Rokeach and its modifications in Russian psychology (D.A. Leontieva, E.B. Fantalova).
4. Questionnaire of terminal values (N.G. Senin) and its modified version: its capabilities and limitations.
5. Features of the construction and use of the methodology for the study and diagnosis of meaningful life orientations (D.A. Leontiev).
6. Questionnaire "On the meaning of life" (Chudnovsky V.E., Vaiser G.A.): features of processing and interpretation of the data obtained with its help.
7. Methodology “Orientation of the personality in communication” (S.L. Bratchenko): its theoretical basis, opportunities and limitations.
8. Under the orientation of the personality in communication, S.L. Bratchenko understands, first of all, (value-semantic criteria of communication).
9. Techniques for studying attitudes towards death. Features of their construction and use.
10. The basis for the allocation of terminal and instrumental values by M. Rokeach is (their functional significance)
Project assignments for module 3
Exercise 1.
With the help of Life-Line techniques and methodological techniques mastered by students, it is proposed to study, describe and analyze the subjective picture of the life of one or two people; determine the goal, objectives and directions of practical psychological work with them in case they apply for practical psychological help.
1. Life-Line and other new methods of psychology life path// Ed. A.A. Kronika.- M. Progress, 1993.
2. Golovakha E.I., Kronik A.A. Psychological time of personality. - Kyiv; Naukova Dumka, 1984.
3. Kronik A.A., Golovakha E.I. Psychological age personality // Psychological journal. - 1983.- T.4.- No. 5.- P.57-63.
4. Muzdybaev K. Measuring hope // Psychological journal. - 1999. - Volume 20. - No. 3, No. 4.
Task 2
Acquaintance with some methods of studying the perception and experience of a person's own life: "Index of life satisfaction" (I.V. Panina); methodology for diagnosing the level of subjective feeling of loneliness (D. Russell, M. Fergusson); methodology for diagnosing a mid-life crisis (A.A. Kronik, R.A. Akhmerov). Familiarization with the methods is carried out in the process of self-diagnosis and analysis of its results.
1. Abulkhanova-Slavskaya K.A. Life strategy. Moscow: Thought, 1991.
2. Eysenck G., Eysenk M. Happiness factor // Study of the human psyche. M.: EKSMO-Press, 2001. S. 255-288.
3. Argyle M. Psychology of happiness. M., 1990.
4. Gabdulina L.I. Life satisfaction, happiness and their conditionality by value and meaningful life orientations // North Caucasian Psychological Bulletin. Appendix 1. Rostov n / D. 2003. S. 59-65.
5. Dzhidaryan I.A. The concept of happiness in the Russian mentality. St. Petersburg, 2001.
6. Kronik A.A., Kronik E.A. Starring: You, We, He, You, Me: The Psychology of Meaningful Relationships. M., 2001.
7. Kronik A.A., Akhmerov Causometry: Methods of self-knowledge, psychodiagnostics and psychotherapy in the psychology of the life path. M., 2003.
8. Panina N.V. Life satisfaction index // Life-line and other new methods of life path psychology. M.: Progress, 1993. S. 107-114.
9. Shukshin N.A. Psychology of happiness: Simple Solutions difficult questions. Ural L.T.D. Arkaim, 2004.
Task 3
Using the methods of research and diagnosis of attitudes towards death mastered by students, it is proposed to study, describe and analyze the attitude to death of one or two people; determine the goal, objectives and directions of practical psychological work with them in case they apply for practical psychological help.
The report on the performance of the task is submitted in writing
1. Aries F. Man in the face of death. Per. from French Moscow: Progress. 1992.– 528 p.
2. Gabdulina L. I. Meaningfulness of life and attitude to death at different stages of the life path of a person. // North Caucasian Psychological Bulletin 2004, No. 2. Rostov n / a. 2004. - S. 13 - 19.
3. Gavrilova T. A. Existential fear of death and tanatical anxiety: research and diagnostic methods. // Applied psychology, 2001 No. 6. - P. 1 - 8.
4. Karandashev VN Live without fear of death./ V. Karandashev. - 2nd ed., Rev. and additional – M.: Meaning: Acad. Project., 1999. - 335 p. – (Psychological culture)
6. Moody Raymond A. Life before life: Exploring past life regressions; Life after life: A study of the phenomenon of "contact with death" / Per. from English: O. Lebedeva, Ya. Senkevich. - Kyiv: Sofia, 1994. - 351 p.
7. Popogrebsky A.P. The meaning of life and attitude to death. // Psychology with a human face: a humanistic perspective in post-Soviet psychology. Ed. D. A. Leontieva, V. G. Shchur: Meaning, 1997 . pp. 177 - 200.
8. Feifel G. Death is a relevant variable in psychology. / Existential psychology. Existence. // Per. from English. M. Zanadvorova, Yu. Ovchinnikova. - M.: April Press, Publishing house EKSMO-Press, 2001. - 624 p. (Series "Psychological collection"). pp. 48 - 58.
9. Freud Z. We and death. Beyond the pleasure principle. - Ryazantsev - Thanatology - the science of death. - St. Petersburg, East-Europe. Institute of Psychoanalysis, 1994, 380 p.
10. Shor G.V. On the death of a person. (Introduction to thanatology) / [G. V. Shor]. - St. Petersburg; Publishing House of St. Petersburg State Medical University, 2002. - 271 p.: ill.
11. Yalom I. existential psychotherapy. M.: Independent firm "Class", 1999.
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very necessary
I found that... the concept of self-actualization
elk is very similar to Rorschach inkblots.
Most often, the use of the ϶ᴛᴏth concept is more
breathed to me about the person who uses it, than about the
my reality behind the concept.
In domestic psychology and pedagogy today, the words “self-realization of the personality”, “self-actualization”, “have become very common, even fashionable. personal growth”, etc. At the same time, in our opinion, these “new formulas” have not yet received a full-fledged content content and either can be used in a metaphorical sense, very vaguely, more like slogans, or serve as an exclusively new beautiful label, which they easily change to old “clothes” (instead of, for example, the outdated “all-round development of the personality”, “formation of a new person”, etc.) on our psychological and pedagogical theoretical “soil” are obviously doomed to at least some neϲᴏᴏᴛʙᴇᴛϲᴛʙ (and more often it is the “soil” that decides the matter, and the sprouts of the new simply do not take root) Therefore, it is important to understand that the ideas of self-realization, personal growth and many others did not arise on their own on their own, but will be the result of deeper attitudes that set a completely definite approach to a person and his development.
At that time, Max Otto stated: “The deepest source of human philosophy, the source that nourishes and shapes it, will be faith or lack of faith in humanity. If a person has confidence in people and believes that with their help he is able to achieve something significant, then he will adopt such views on life and the world that will be in harmony with his trust. The lack of trust will give rise to ϲᴏᴏᴛʙᴇᴛϲᴛʙexperiencing ideas” (cited in Horney K., 1993, p. 235) ) one more value component. It is the ϶ᴛᴏ axiomatic creed that will be the real foundation of conceptual constructions.
If you apply the criterion of faith-disbelief in a person. At that time, Max Otto argued: “The deepest source of human philosophy, the source that nourishes and shapes it, will be faith or lack of faith in humanity (emphasized by us - S. B., M. to the main psychological theories, they are quite clearly divided into two groups (alas - unequal): "trusting" human nature(i.e. humanistically oriented) and “distrustful”. At the same time, within each group, in turn, very significant differences can be found, so it makes sense to introduce another subdivision:
a) in the group of “distrustful” (pessimists) there is a tougher position, stating that the nature of a person is negative - asocial and destructive, and that a person himself cannot cope with this; and there is a softer one, in ϲᴏᴏᴛʙᴇᴛϲᴛʙii with which a person has no natural essence in general, and initially he is a neutral object of formative external influences, on which the “essence” acquired by a person depends;
b) in the group of “trusting” (optimists) there is also a more radical point of view, affirming the unconditionally positive, kind and constructive essence of a person, laid down in the form of a potential, which is revealed under ϲᴏᴏᴛʙᴇᴛϲᴛʙ conditions; and there is a more cautious view of a person, which proceeds from the fact that initially a person does not have an essence, but acquires it as a result of self-creation, and positive actualization is not guaranteed, but will be the result of a person’s own free and responsible choice, this position can be called conditionally positive .
In ϲᴏᴏᴛʙᴇᴛϲᴛʙii with the basic installation and solution of the problem of the essence of a person, the question of “what to do” with the ϶ᴛᴏth essence is also solved, so that a person becomes “better”, how to properly develop, educate him (this, of course, all psychologists are concerned about, although ϶ itself ᴛᴏ “better” is understood very differently) This question about the meaning of education is fundamentally resolved as follows: if the essence of a person is negative, then it must be corrected; if it does not exist, it must be created, constructed and “invested” in a person (with ϶ᴛᴏm in both cases, the main guideline is the so-called interests of society); if she is positive, she needs help to open up; if the essence is acquired through a free choice, then it should be helped to make a choice (in the last two cases, the interests of the person himself are put at the forefront)
More schematically, the typology of basic implicit attitudes in the world of psychological concepts can be presented in the form of a table. Although this scheme (like any attempt to classify in psychology) certainly simplifies the real variety of approaches, it, in our opinion, captures very fundamental differences and quite clearly outlines the space of professional self-determination of a psychologist and teacher, options for choice and the deep foundations of this choice. .
Basic settings of psychological concepts
Basic setting
human nature
The meaning of education
Main Representatives
disbelief in man
Negative
Correction,
compensation
Classical Freudianism
Neutral
formation,
correction
Behaviorism,
It is important to know that most of the approaches in Soviet psychology
faith in man
Undoubtedly-
positive
Help with updating
Concepts of K. Rogers,
A. Maslow
positive
Help in choosing
Existential approach of V. Frankl, J. Bugental
Based on all of the above, we come to the conclusion that it is obvious that the concept of personal growth and self-realization will be a logical continuation of the view of a person in humanistic psychology and essentially ϲʙᴏey is incompatible with approaches that do not trust the person, correcting, shaping, etc.
The understanding of personality and personal growth presented here is based on the concept of one of the leaders of the "movement for the humanization of psychology" Carl Rogers - his person-centered approach. (When ϶ᴛᴏm, it is important to keep in mind that one of distinctive features϶ᴛᴏth direction in psychology - the absence of a rigid conceptual scheme, strict definitions and unambiguous interpretations; its representatives recognize the inexhaustibility of the mystery of man, the relativity and a priori incompleteness of our ideas about him and do not claim to complete the theory.)
Personality
In the very general view personality - ϶ᴛᴏ a person as a subject of his own life, responsible for interaction both with the outside world, including other people, and with the inner world, with himself. Personality - ϶ᴛᴏ internal system of self-regulation of a person. It is worth noting that it is influenced by two other determining forces, which can be conditionally designated as an organism, an inner world (i.e., a person as creature in general), and the environment, the outside world in a broad sense, including primarily other people. The ratio between these three driving forces determines the line of a person's life; it can be represented as a ϲʙᴏ-shaped triangle of development:
/images/6/230_image001.gif">/images/6/981_image002.gif"> PERSONALITY
INTERNAL EXTERNAL
/images/6/865_image003.gif"> WORLD WORLD
Do not forget that the most important characteristics of a mature personality will be: intentionality, autonomy, dynamism, integrity, constructiveness, individuality. At the same time, these attributes of the personality are not given, but rather set, and the degree of their actualization depends on certain conditions - first of all, on what kind of relationship the personality has with the other two forces. Moreover, in ϲᴏᴏᴛʙᴇᴛϲᴛʙii with the initial position of faith in human nature, the actualizing, creative principle is recognized primarily for the body, the inner world, in which a powerful potential was initially laid down, “the main driving force of life” and human development - the desire for growth, for the disclosure of abilities and strengthening opportunities, to greater efficiency, maturity and constructiveness, called by K. Rogers “the trend towards actualization”. And therefore, for the personality, the initial, defining relations are precisely with the inner world, with oneself.
This is one of the central ideas of the person-centered approach: if a person (personality) is bosom and has the opportunity to listen to himself and rely on himself as an integral natural being, accurately and fully reflecting what is happening in him, then the “trend to actualization” is fully effective. strength and ensures the movement of a person - despite possible mistakes and difficulties - towards greater maturity, towards more full life. It is very important that this tendency is recognized as inherent in human nature as a potential that is actualized under certain conditions, but is not formed and controlled by external forces: “϶ᴛᴏ is an internal tendency, it is not motivated from the outside, and it is impossible to teach ϶ᴛᴏ it” (Landreth G. , 1994, p. 63)
The relationship of the individual with the outside world - especially with the world of other people - is much more complex, ambiguous and dramatic. On the part of the individual, there is a strong interest in contact with other people - a person, according to K. Rogers, “is incurably social; he has a deep need for relationships ”(P. Tillich, K. Rogers ..., 1994, p. 136) Moreover, the central component of the personality - “I” - has a very strong need for self-esteem, which at first (in childhood) is satisfied primarily through receiving respect, recognition and love from other people (primarily significant adults). In other words, the child's personality is not just focused on relationships with the social world, but is significantly dependent on them.
Personal growth
First of all, it is possible to define what, based on humanistic ideas, will not be the actual development of the personality, but with which it is often confused. That is, personal growth (LR) - ϶ᴛᴏ: not gaining any knowledge (including data); not approving any activity, and even more so - “socially useful”; not forming a stable “system of value orientations”; not “acceptance by a child of a social human essence”; not forming an “active life position”; not developing “the ability to create new forms of social life”; not the definition of the “image of the ideal adult”.
It is worth saying that each of the listed directions of human change has a certain positive meaning. But in the context of the problem under discussion, it is important that all of them, to one degree or another, increase the turn of the personality “from oneself” and therefore do not contribute to HR, but rather hinder it, trying to replace the development of the personality with the formation of important and necessary qualities, but from the point of view of some or external, impersonal criteria. Moreover, in all these cases, the formative efforts are applied only along one line of the “development triangle” - along the line of interaction “the outside world - the personality”.
Main psychological meaning LR - liberation, finding oneself and his life path, self-actualization and development of all basic personal attributes (see above) And the interaction of a person with his own inner world as a whole is no less (and in many respects more) significant than with the outside world. It is also fundamentally important for a person to recognize and respect his inner world other people. That is, a full-fledged LR is possible only if intrapersonality is not suppressed by interpersonality and if there is no struggle or neglect between all three peaks of the “development triangle”, but constructive cooperation, dialogue.
Personal growth is not identical with the advancement of a person along the “ladder of ages”; ϶ᴛᴏ a complex multi-aspect process that follows its internal logic and always has an individually-ϲʙᴏ-shaped trajectory. There is reason to speak exclusively about the most general “basic law of personal growth”, which, based on the well-known formula of C. Rogers “if - then” (Rogers S., 1959), can be formulated as follows: if there are necessary conditions, then the process is actualized in a person self-development, the natural consequence of which will be changes in the direction of his personal maturity. In other words, it is these changes - their content, direction, dynamics - that testify to the process of LR and can act as criteria for LR.
With a full-fledged LR, these changes affect the relationship of the individual both with the inner world (intrapersonality) and with the outside world (interpersonality). Accordingly, the LR criteria are composed of intrapersonal and interpersonal. Do not forget that the most important of them will be the following:
Intrapersonal LR criteria:
Self acceptance. This means self-recognition and unconditional love for myself as I am, attitude towards myself as “a person worthy of respect, capable of independent choice” (Rogers K., 1993, p. 69), faith in myself and ϲʙᴏ and opportunities, trust own nature, the body. The latter should be emphasized especially, since in this case self-confidence does not mean exclusively faith in the possibilities of the conscious “I” (all the more - solely due to its intellect), but also the understanding that “the whole organism can be - and often is - wiser than his mind” (Rogers K., 1994, p. 242)
Openness to inner experience. "Experience" - one of the central concepts in humanistic psychology, | | used to denote a complex continuous process (“stream”) of the subjective experience of the events of the inner world (including the reflection of the events of the outer world) her as trustworthy and “living in the present”.
Understanding yourself. As accurate, complete and deep as possible about yourself and your current state (including real feelings, desires, thoughts, etc.); the ability to see and hear one's true self, through layers of masks, roles and defenses; an adequate and flexible “I”-concept, sensitive to current changes and assimilating new experience, convergence of the “I”-real and “I”-ideal - these are the main trends of the LR according to the ϶ᴛᴏth criterion.
Responsible ϲʙᴏboda. In a relationship with oneself, ϶ᴛᴏ means, first of all, the responsibility for the implementation of ϲʙᴏ her life exactly as ϲʙᴏ her, the awareness and acceptance of ϲʙᴏ her ϲʙᴏ body and the subjective (ϲʙᴏ of it, as M. M. Bakhtin said, “not-alibi-in-being”) This also means “internal locus of assessment” - responsibility for choosing values and making assessments, independence from pressure external evaluations. And, finally, ϶ᴛᴏ the responsibility for actualizing ϲʙᴏ her individuality and originality, for ɥᴛᴏ to remain true to herself.
Integrity. Do not forget that the most important direction of the LR is the strengthening and expansion of the integration and interconnectedness of all aspects of human life, and especially the integrity of the inner world and the personality itself. It would be more accurate to talk about the preservation and protection of the integrity that a person has from the very beginning. As K. Rogers emphasized, from the very beginning “the baby ... will be an integrated and holistic organism, gradually individualizing” (P. Tillich, K. Rogers., 1994, p. 140) led to the loss of the inner unity of a person, to the loss of congruence, to gaps or disproportions, for example, between the intellect and feelings, the real “I” and the ideal “I”, and in general between the personality and the organism. Integrity and congruence will be a sine qua non for the effective regulation of human life.
Dynamism. Intrapersonal unity and coherence do not mean rigidity and completeness. On the contrary, the personality exists in a constant, continuous process of change. In the context of this, a mature personality is a necessarily becoming personality, i.e., the growth of a personality is a way of its existence. Therefore, the key criterion of LR is dynamism, flexibility, openness to change and the ability, while maintaining its identity, to develop through the resolution of actual contradictions and problems and constantly “be in the process” - “rather be a process of emerging opportunities than turn into some kind of frozen goal” (Rogers K., 1994, p. 221)
Interpersonal LR criteria:
Acceptance of others. In the interpersonal direction, the LR will be primarily in the dynamics of relations with other people. The more mature the personality, the more it is capable of accepting other people as they are, respecting their transformation and the right to be themselves, recognizing them as unconditional value and trust them. And ϶ᴛᴏ, in turn, is associated with “fundamental trust in human nature” and a sense of deep essential community between people.
Understanding others. A mature personality is distinguished by its ability to avoid prejudices and stereotypes, the ability to adequately, fully and differentiated perception of the surrounding reality in general and, in particular, other people. Do not forget that the most important criterion of LR is the readiness to enter into interpersonal contact on the basis of deep and subtle understanding and empathy, empathy.
Socialization. LR leads to an increasingly effective manifestation of the fundamental desire of man - to constructive social relationships. A person in contacts with others becomes more and more open and natural, but with ϶ᴛᴏm - more realistic, flexible, able to competently resolve interpersonal contradictions and “live with others in the greatest possible harmony”: (The Carl Rogers..., 1989, p. 251);
creative adaptability. It should not be forgotten that the most important quality of a mature personality is the readiness to boldly and openly face life's problems and cope with them, not simplifying, but showing “creative adaptation to the novelty of a particular moment” (ibid.) and “the ability to express and use all potential internal possibilities” (Rogers K., 1994.1 p. 81) \
Naturally, changes in each of these directions of the LR occur (if they occur) in ϲᴏᴏᴛʙᴇᴛϲᴛʙ and with ϲʙᴏ their specific patterns. With all this, the ϶ᴛᴏ process is holistic, interconnected, and growth in one “personal dimension” contributes to advancement in others. Therefore, the most important thing is the very fact of movement in these directions, inclusion in the process of discovering and finding oneself, which enables a person to become more free and responsible, authentic and unique, friendly and open, strong and creative and, ultimately, - more mature and capable of perceiving the world (external and internal) not as a threat, but as a CHALLENGE TO LIFE and at the same time a CALL TO LIFE...
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We invite psychologists, students, as well as all those who are interested in the author's course of lectures by Sergei Leonidovich Bratchenko.
Legendary personality. He learned the existential-humanist approach from James Bugenthal himself. His lectures and trainings invariably leave a deep impression and inspiration on the audience. His course of lectures is a special form of education. We will not only listen, but we will be able to live the history of psychology of the twentieth century in all its drama.
The course is designed for 72 academic hours. These are 18 lectures of 4 academic hours / 2 pairs.
Classes once a week, on Tuesdays (except for the 1st lecture on Mon. 29.11), from 19:00 to 22:00, with breaks for business trips S.L. Bratchenko.
You can enroll in the entire course or attend selective seminars.
Those who complete the course will receive a certificate of advanced training from the Institute of Applied Psychology, St. Petersburg branch GU-Higher School Economics in the amount of 72 academic hours.
The cost of each lecture is 700 - 1000 rubles. The cost of the first lecture November 29, 2010. 100 rubles.
Venue: St. Petersburg, st. Union Pechatnikov, 16. Metro station: Sennaya Square.
Start: November 29, 2010 at 19.00
Short description course:
The course "Basic Psychological Concepts" is devoted to describing both the general logic of the development of psychology over the past 150 years, and a detailed examination of the four basic psychological directions:
- psychoanalytic,
- behavioral
- cognitive,
- humanistic.
Each concept is considered as a special view of a person, including, first of all, ideas about the essence of the mental, the main patterns of the functioning of the psyche, the most important conditions and mechanisms of mental development, adequate ways to study the mental, strategies and tactics of influencing the psyche, as well as approaches to practical work psychologist.
Themes:
- Introduction: four basic directions of modern psychology and their relationship.
- The concept of Z. Freud.
- K.Jung's concept.
- A. Adler's concept.
- Neo-Freudianism and other areas of development of psychoanalysis (A. Freud, K. Horney, E. Fromm, E. Erickson).
- classical behaviorism.
- Neobehaviorism and other modifications of objective psychology.
- B. Skinner's concept.
- cognitive orientation.
- Neuro-Linguistic Programming.
- Background and origin of humanistic psychology.
- A.Maslow's concept.
- Person-centered approach of K. Rogers.
- Existential-humanistic approach.
- Dynamic theory of personality K. Levin.
- Psychosynthesis R. Assagioli.
- Interactionism.
- The concept of F. Perls.
- Transactional analysis by E.Bern.
- Conclusion. Orientation in the world of psychological approaches and personal professional choice.
Bratchenko L. S. BRATCHENKO Leonid Sergeevich (b. 3.8.1923, Odessa), owl. artist. Nar. thin Ukrainian SSR (1976). Member CPSU since 1962. In 1951 he graduated from Kharkov Arts. in-t. Since 1952 production designer, since 1966 chief. artist T-ra them. Lysenko. Decorator author. ballet designs: Prisoner of the Caucasus (1957), La Bayadère (1958); "Lileya" by Dankevich (1958, 1968), "Spartacus" (1966), "Romeo and Juliet" (1967), etc.
A. M. Drak.
Ballet. Encyclopedia. - M.:. Chief Editor Yu.N. Grigorovich. 1981 .
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Bratchenko- Ukrainian surname. Known speakers Bratchenko, Boris Fedorovich (1912 2004) Soviet statesman and party leader. Bratchenko, Sergey Leonidovich Candidate of Psychological Sciences, Associate Professor ... Wikipedia
Bratchenko B.F.- Bratchenko B. F. Boris Fedorovich owl. state activist, organizer of the coal industry in the USSR, Hero of Socialist. Labor (1982). Member CPSU since 1940. Member. Central Committee of the CPSU since 1971. Dep. Top. Council of the USSR since 1962. After graduating from MGI (1935), he worked at the mines of Perm and ... ... Geological Encyclopedia
Bratchenko- Boris Fedorovich [b.26.9 (9.10).1912, Armavir], Soviet statesman and economic figure. Member of the CPSU since 1940. Born in the family of an employee. In 1935 he graduated from the Moscow Mining Institute. In 1935 42 at the engineering and technical and managerial ... ... Great Soviet Encyclopedia
Bratchenko Boris Fedorovich- [b.26.9 (9.10).1912, Armavir], Soviet state and economic figure. Member of the CPSU since 1940. Born in the family of an employee. In 1935 he graduated from the Moscow Mining Institute. In 1935 42 in engineering and technical and managerial economic work in ... ... Great Soviet Encyclopedia
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PSYCHOLOGICAL BASES
TOLERANCE STUDIES IN EDUCATION
One of the key competencies is tolerance - readiness and
the ability of a person to live and act constructively in a diverse world. Her
development is turning for domestic education into a strategically important
purpose and therefore this problem in last years became extremely popular in
psychology and pedagogy. There are a huge number of works on tolerance and their
The topics are very diverse, but most of them can be attributed to two
large groups: on the one hand, these are theoretical developments, on the other hand,
applied. At the same time, among the "theoretical" philosophical,
culturological and sociological texts of a sufficiently high level
abstractness (and often completely speculative publicistic and even
speculative), and among the applied - pedagogical developments are purely
technological methodological nature. This in itself is quite natural and even
healthy; the problem, however, is that a certain “gap” has formed and it is obvious
lack of "middle-level" theories. As a result, many authors try
practice-oriented approaches "deduce" directly from the philosophical, ethical,
culturological, etc. constructions. Most of the teaching work
tolerances come (explicitly or implicitly) from the "enlightenment position": such
the correct idea of tolerance and non-violence need only be clear, detailed and
persistently state - and this will ensure the success of this idea, it will begin
"to work" ... At the same time, a very important psychological link falls out,
intrapersonal content of the phenomenon of tolerance, without understanding which, and
as well as the relevant conditions and mechanisms for its development, at least in the most general
it is difficult to expect the creation of adequate and effective pedagogical strategies.
In this case, the risk of reducing everything to edification and declarations on the topic of the importance and necessity of tolerance increases ... Without pretending to be complete and unambiguous and realizing the preliminary and open for further development nature of the proposed provisions, I would venture to attempt to formulate the initial ideas for building the PSYCHOLOGY OF TOLERANCE (more precisely, interpersonal tolerance).
Tolerance is not the mechanical result of any "factors" (internal or external) as such; true tolerance is a manifestation of a conscious, meaningful and responsible choice of a person, his own position and activity to build certain relationships (EXISTENTIAL-HUMANISTIC APPROACH).
The psychological content of tolerance cannot be reduced to a single property, a characteristic is a complex, multidimensional and multicomponent phenomenon that has several “basic dimensions” (DIVERSIFICATION APPROACH).
In the complex "anatomy" of tolerance, its psychological basis and key dimension are the personal dimension of tolerance - values, meanings, personal attitudes (PERSONAL APPROACH).
Among all the various types and forms of tolerance for us, the basis of a person's general tolerance is interpersonal tolerance: tolerance as a special way of relationships and interpersonal interaction ... communication with the Other, as an interpersonal dialogue (DIALOGICAL APPROACH).
Full-fledged tolerance - and above all in its personal basis - cannot be the result of only external influences: tolerance is not so much formed as it develops; assistance in the formation of tolerance is the creation of conditions for development ... (FACILITATIVE APPROACH).
Let's take a look at each of these theses.
EXISTENTIAL-HUMANISTIC APPROACH TO TOLERANCE.
Tolerance is considered in various philosophical and psychological approaches - today the literature is dominated by behavioral (in which tolerance is considered primarily as a special human behavior) and cognitive (when tolerance is based on knowledge and rational arguments…) approaches… From an existential humanistic point of view, full-fledged, mature tolerance is certainly conscious, meaningful and responsible.
Such tolerance does not come down to automatisms, to simple stereotyped actions - it is a value and a life position, the implementation of which in each specific situation has a certain meaning and requires the subject of tolerance to search for this meaning and make a responsible decision.
The existential-humanistic approach proceeds from the recognition of the irremovable role of the individual in any activity performed by him. Despite the obvious and very significant role social norms, social ideals, ideological and professional requirements, etc. it is impossible to deny the desire and ability of each individual person in their actions to be guided also (and sometimes - first of all) on their own goals, values, priorities. This means that no matter how rigid the "external framework" of the teacher's work may be, in its implementation he always introduces a personal beginning, starting from an individual, often very subjective, interpretation of these external requirements and ending with the realization of his personal goals contrary to the "general line". Even with the complete uniformity of official requirements for schools, their life will always be very different precisely because they work there different people, which inevitably self-determine with respect to the situation in which they are, and especially - in which they act.
From these positions, tolerance is understood not as an unshakable rule or a ready-to-use recipe, and even more so not as a coercive requirement under the threat of punishment, but as a free and responsible choice of a person of a “value-based tolerant attitude to life” (Asmolov, 2000, p. 7). In particular, for the teacher, this means that tolerance is a special quality of his "way of being", and not just a requirement of a professional role or a communication skill.
The main questions are not “why am I being tolerant?” but “in the name of what, for what reason do I act tolerantly, what values do I uphold and what is the meaning of this for me?!”. The true essence of certain human actions depends on the answers to these existential questions. From this point of view, “forced” tolerance (as well as “learned”, “copied”, etc.)
types of tolerance "in the passive voice") - i.e. not meaningful, not accepted as a value and not responsible - should be considered as pseudo-tolerance (and possibly intolerance disguised as socially desirable forms ...). That is why tolerance cannot be guaranteed either by knowledge of skills and abilities, or by a set of certain “mental traits,” or by external conditions as such. Tolerant relations are not given to a person, but are given in the same way as in the humanistic interpretation of a person he is given the opportunity, the potential for the realization of a healthy and constructive beginning, which is actualized not only under certain conditions, but also with the corresponding efforts of the person himself. The external conditions and internal prerequisites must be followed by the semantic and other activity of a person, his free and responsible self-determination in each specific life situation.
This leads to another important consequence for understanding tolerance:
tolerance is a special principle of the existence of the World that a person builds on the basis of understanding and accepting the plurality and diversity of being and recognizing the inevitability of the coexistence of differences. Awareness of the richness and power of diversity makes the very life of a person richer and more diverse, he strives to build his World and his being so strong and flexible as to be open to coexistence and interaction with Others.
DIVERSIFICATION APPROACH TO TOLERANCE.
Reviews of foreign and domestic works on tolerance testify: it is not possible not only to give an unambiguous definition to tolerance, to reduce it to some one characteristic, but even to localize it in a certain topic. Only the "most important prerequisites for tolerance" - each of which can open up a whole direction fundamental research- some authors number five or more, among which are: ontological premises, epistemological, axiological, sociological, psychological, etc. But even if we try to confine ourselves to psychological aspects, then here the phenomenon of tolerance does not lie only in one plane - its content is heterogeneous, does not obey "linear determinism" and cannot be reduced to a separate property, indicator, characteristic ... Tolerance is a complex, multifaceted and multicomponent a phenomenon that has several lines of manifestation and development, which, by analogy with the “basic dimensions of communication” proposed by J. Bugental (Bugental, 1987), can be called the basic dimensions of tolerance.
If we affirm the values of pluralism, variability, if we ourselves are tolerant enough to recognize the “multidimensionality of a person” and his life world, in which tolerance plays the role of one of the key principles, then we will consider tolerance itself as comparable in complexity and isomorphic in structure. this multifaceted and diverse World... The complexity and multidimensionality of the phenomenon of tolerance manifests itself in several directions.
First of all, in the variety of types and forms of tolerance. This aspect of diversification is the most obvious, although in many philosophical and theological treatises they try to present tolerance as something unambiguously understood, clearly defined and indivisible. But in modern psychology, just the opposite is true - tolerance "as such" simply disappears, crumbling into a huge variety of options, types, types, forms, levels. Attempts to systematize psychological research on tolerance are very difficult - the term "tolerance" turned out to be applicable to almost any psychological phenomenon.
Tolerance permeates all areas of a person's social and individual life, is an important dimension of almost any psychological process and state, one of the key "existentials" of human life.
From the awareness of the variety of types and forms of tolerance, it becomes clear that it is hardly correct to talk about a “tolerant (intolerant) personality” as such - it would be more accurate to talk about the level or degree of manifestation of tolerance (intolerance), about options and forms, about certain accents and aspects of applying the principles of tolerance in specific situations... You can also talk about certain dynamics in the development of tolerance and identify several phases of the formation of tolerance (Pettai, 2000). Moreover, it cannot be unequivocally stated that a higher level of tolerance is always preferable. It makes sense to listen to those who raise the problem of the limits of tolerance (see for more details, for example /Wolzer, 2000/). An excessive increase in tolerance, inadequate to the circumstances (as some sociologists put it - "tolerance without shores") can lead to a weakening of resistance and an increase in a person's vulnerability, a decrease in his differential sensitivity (in the broad sense), and even more - to the emergence of threats to individuality, identity etc. All this requires a more cautious, differentiated attitude to the issues of practical application of the principles of tolerance in direct interpersonal communication– or, in other words, poses the problem of the measure of tolerance. One of the possible ways of solving this problem is the rejection of the binary opposition "tolerance-tolerance" and the transition to the construction of a continuum of degrees of tolerance (with the same "tolerance" and "intolerance" at conditional asymptotic poles).
Another aspect of diversification is the multidimensionality and heterogeneity of the psychological content of tolerance. This means that it is impossible to describe tolerance with sufficient completeness based on only one concept, only in one dimension. At the same time, the fascination with various typologies, classifications and analytical "preparation" increases the danger of a "collector's" approach, piling up "lists of traits", etc. Therefore, it makes sense to highlight not all, but only the main, most important psychological dimensions of interpersonal tolerance, which can be considered as priority areas for its research and development.
Traditionally, to describe complex psychological processes and phenomena (for example, communication), a triad of components is used - cognitive, emotional and behavioral. There have been attempts to apply this scheme to tolerance as well (see, for example, Skryabina, 2000 and others). In the most general form, the main content of these components, or, more precisely, the "dimensions" of tolerance, can be described as follows.
