The ideals of personality development presuppose the existence of freedom, the desire for which and the experience of which is an integral characteristic of the personal way of being.

You can name three global themes, touching which psychological help can exhaust almost all the variety of human problems and difficulties with which people turn to psychotherapists. This is freedom, love and the finiteness of our life. In these deepest experiences of ours lies both a huge life potential and an inexhaustible source of anxiety and tension. Here we dwell on one of the components of this triad - the topic freedom.

The most positive definition of freedom can be found in S. Kierkegaard, who understood freedom, first of all, as an opportunity(English possibility). The latter concept comes from the Latin word "posse" (to be able), which also forms the root of another important word in this context - "strength, power." So, if a person is free, he is mighty and powerful, i.e. possessing force. As R. May (1981) writes, when we talk about the possibility in connection with freedom, we first of all mean the possibility want, choose and act. All this together means opportunity to change, the realization of which is the goal of psychotherapy. It is freedom that provides the necessary strength for change.

In psychological assistance, the theme of freedom can sound at least in two main aspects. First, how component of almost all psychological difficulties, with which clients come to us, because the nature of our relationships with other people, the vision of our place and opportunities in the living space depends on a specific (by no means philosophical), individual understanding of freedom. The subjective understanding of freedom is especially manifested in those life situations where we are faced with the need to choose. Our life is woven from choices - the choice of actions in elementary situations, the choice of words to answer another, the choice of other people and the nature of relationships with them, the choice of short-term and long-term life goals, and finally, the choice of values ​​that are our spiritual guidelines in life. How free or limited we feel in such everyday situations depends on the quality of the emerging life.

Clients bring to the psychologist not only their own understanding of the issue of freedom in their lives, with all the ensuing consequences from this understanding. Clients' understanding of freedom is directly reflected in the process of psychotherapy, it colors the therapeutic relationship between therapist and client. Therefore, one can say about the freedom of the client in therapeutic contact, the nature of the construction of which on the part of the client serves as a reduced model of his difficulties. On the other hand, in psychotherapy, the freedom of the client collides with the freedom of the therapist, who has his own understanding of freedom and how to use it in therapeutic meetings. In a therapeutic relationship, the therapist represents the reality of life, the external world, and in this sense serves as a kind of reservoir of freedom for the client, providing certain opportunities and imposing certain restrictions in contact. So the theme of freedom is also important. component of the process of formation and development of therapeutic relationships.

Freedom, being the main existential value, is at the same time the source of many of our life's difficulties and problems. The essence of many of them lies in the diversity of subjective ideas about freedom.

Often people, including some of our clients, tend to think that we can experience true freedom only in the absence of any restrictions. This understanding of freedom "freedom from"(V.Frankl) can be called negative freedom. Probably everyone at some time in their experience could be convinced of what it means to choose something of their own for themselves, not taking into account the same freedom of choice of other people (including the freedom to somehow relate to my freedom), not taking into account internal and external restrictions. It is hardly possible to speak of real and concrete human freedom, and not abstract philosophical freedom, outside the world of structured relationships and mutual obligations. You can imagine what would happen on the city streets if everyone suddenly started to ignore the rules traffic. The psychotherapist has the opportunity to constantly be convinced of what the self-will, the anarchist attitude of clients to their own and others' rights, to their own and others' freedom lead to.

Negative freedom also leads to feelings of isolation and loneliness. After all, it is known that the more freedom we take away for ourselves, ignoring the real interconnectedness with others, the less attachments and healthy dependence on others remain, which means more loneliness and emptiness.

For the emergence of true freedom in life, it is necessary to accept the fact of existence fate. In this case, following R.May (1981), we call fate the integrity of limitations: physical, social, psychological, moral and ethical, which can also be called "givens" of life. Therefore, in psychological assistance, when we think and talk about freedom, we mean situational freedom when the freedom of each of our choices is determined by the possibilities and limitations imposed by a particular life situation. J.P. Sartre (1956) called this "the factuality of the human situation", M. Heidegger (1962) called it the condition of "abandonment" of a person into the world. These concepts reflect the fact that our ability to control our existence is limited, that some things in our lives are predetermined.

First of all, existence itself as a space for life-creation is limited in time. Life is finite and for any human actions and changes there is a time limit.

In the words of E. Gendlin (1965-1966), “... there is factuality, situation and conditions that we cannot give up on. We can overcome situations by interpreting and acting on them, but we cannot choose them differently. There is no such magical freedom to simply choose to be different from what we are. Without difficult, strenuous steps, we cannot become free from the limitations that have been placed on us.”

On the other hand, any life situation has a certain number of degrees of freedom. Human nature is flexible enough to be free to choose its own ways of acting in life, regardless of all kinds of limiting circumstances and conditions. We can say that freedom means a constant choice between alternatives, and more importantly, the creation of new alternatives, which is extremely important in a psychotherapeutic sense. J.-P.Sartre (1948) spoke very categorically: "We are doomed to choose ... Not to choose is also a choice - to give up freedom and responsibility."

People, including those who turn to a psychologist, often confuse open possibilities and limiting necessity. Clients who are dissatisfied with their work or family life, they often consider their situation as hopeless, irreparable, putting themselves in the position of a passive victim of circumstances. In reality, they avoid choice, and therefore freedom.

In this regard, one of the main goals of existential therapy can be considered to be helping the client understand to what extent his freedom to change something in the present life situation extends, in which his difficulties cannot be resolved at the present time, in which he limits himself, interpreting their situation as unsolvable and putting themselves in the position of a victim. R.May (1981) called the goal of any psychotherapy the desire to help the client get rid of the restrictions and conditionings he himself created, helping to see ways to escape from himself by blocking his opportunities in life and creating extreme dependence on other people, circumstances, his ideas about them.

Thus, freedom in the context of personality psychology, psychological assistance, we can imagine as a combination of opportunities and limitations in a specific life situation for a specific person at the present time. As E. van Deurzen-Smith (1988) notes, we can talk about freedom to the extent that we recognize or realize what is impossible, what is necessary and what is possible. This understanding helps to expand the vision of one's life by analyzing the possibilities and limitations - both external and internal - in a particular life situation.

Awareness of one's freedom is accompanied by the experience anxiety. As S. Kierkegaard (1980) wrote, "anxiety is the reality of freedom - as a potentiality that precedes the materialization of freedom." Quite often people come to a psychotherapist with a “shackled slave inside” and in the process of psychotherapy they have to “grow up to freedom”. This causes great anxiety, as well as the appearance of any new, unusual sensations, experiences, situations, the meeting with which carries unpredictable consequences. Therefore, many clients of psychotherapy for a long time trample on the threshold of the desired psychological and life changes, not daring to step over it. It is difficult to imagine any changes without a certain inner emancipation, liberation. Hence, in psychological practice, a frequently encountered paradox - coexistence in one person awareness of the need for change and desire not to change anything in a suffering, but settled, life. By the way, after the effective help of a psychologist, clients often leave with more anxiety than they came, but with a qualitatively different anxiety. It becomes a source of acute experience of the passage of time, stimulating the constant renewal of life.

According to K. Jaspers (1951), “... boundaries give birth to my self. If my freedom runs into no boundaries, I become nothing. Through limitations, I pull myself out of oblivion and bring myself into existence. The world is full of conflict and violence that I must accept. We are surrounded by imperfections, failures, mistakes. We are often unlucky, and if we are lucky, then only partially. Even when doing good, I indirectly do evil, because what is good for one may be bad for another. All this I can accept only by accepting my limitations. Successfully overcoming the obstacles that stand in the way of building a free and realistic life, and resigning ourselves to insurmountable obstacles, give us a sense of personal strength and human dignity.

The concept of "freedom" is often found next to the concepts of "resistance", "rebellion" - not in the sense of destruction, but in the sense of preserving the human spirit and dignity. It can also be called the ability to say “no” and respect for your “no”.

Most often, when we talk about freedom, we mean the ability to choose ways to act in life, “freedom to do” (R.May). From a psychotherapeutic point of view, freedom is extremely important, which R. May (1981) called "essential". It is the freedom to choose your attitude towards something or someone. It is essential freedom that is the basis of human dignity, since it is preserved under any restrictions and depends not so much on external circumstances as on internal disposition. (Ex: the old woman is looking for her glasses, which she has on her nose).

But no matter what freedom we have, it is never a guarantee, but only a chance for the implementation of our life plans. This should be borne in mind not only in life, but also in psychological practice, so as not to create others instead of some illusions. It is unlikely that we and our clients can ever be completely sure that we use freedom in the best possible way. Real life always richer and more contradictory than any generalized truths, especially those obtained with the help of psychotherapeutic manipulations and techniques. After all, any of our truths are most often just one of the possible interpretations life situations. Therefore, in psychological assistance, one should help the client to accept a certain conditionality of the choices he makes - their conditional truth regarding a specific time and specific life circumstances. This is the condition of our freedom.

Subjectivity is a way of experiencing a person's freedom. Why is that?

Freedom and responsibility, the phenomenon of flight from freedom (according to E. Fromm).

Interpretation of individual freedom in various psychological theories.

1.5.3 Drivers of personality development in various concepts.

An exhaustive analysis of personality theories must, of course, begin with the conceptions of man developed by the great classics such as Hippocrates, Plato, and Aristotle. An adequate assessment is impossible without taking into account the contribution made by dozens of thinkers (for example, Aquinas, Bentham, Kant, Hobbes, Locke, Nietzsche, Machiavelli, etc.) who lived in intermediate eras and whose ideas can be traced in modern ideas. However our goal is to determine the mechanism for the formation and development of personality, the formation of professional, civil and personal qualities of a specialist, manager, leader. Accordingly, the analysis of personality theories can be brief, revealing the essential features of a particular theory.

Briefly, the problems of factors and driving forces of personality development can be represented as follows.

Factors affecting personality development:

1. Biological:

a) hereditary - human features inherent in the species;

b) congenital - the conditions of intrauterine life.

2. Social - associated with a person as a social being:

a) indirect - the environment;

b) direct - people with whom a person communicates, a social group.

3. Own activity - a reaction to a stimulus, simple movements, imitation of adults, independent activity, a way to self-control, internalization - the transition of an action to an internal plan.

driving forces– resolution of contradictions, striving for harmony:

1. Between new and existing needs.

2. Between the increased opportunities and the attitude of adults towards them.

3. Between the available skills and the requirements of adults.

4. Between growing needs and real opportunities, due to cultural equipment, the level of mastery of activities.

Personality development is a process of natural change of personality as a systemic quality of an individual as a result of his socialization. Possessing anatomical and physiological prerequisites for personality development, in the process of socialization, the child interacts with the outside world, masters the achievements of mankind (cultural tools, ways of using them), which rebuild internal activities child, change his psychological life, experiences. Mastering reality in a child is carried out in activity (controlled by a system of motives inherent in a given personality) with the help of adults.

Representation in psychoanalytic theories(the homeostatic model of Z. Freud, the desire to overcome the inferiority complex in the individual psychology of A. Adler, the idea of ​​the social sources of personality development in the neo-Freudianism of K. Horney, E. Fromm).

Representation in cognitive theories(Gestalt psychological theory of the field by K. Levin about the system of intrapersonal tension as a source of motivation, the concept of cognitive dissonance by L. Festinger).

The idea of ​​a self-actualizing personality A. Maslow as the development of a hierarchy of needs.

Representation of personalistic psychology G. Allport (man as an open system, the tendency to self-actualization as an internal source of personality development).

Representation in archetypal psychology C. G. Jung. Personal development as a process of individuation.

The principle of self-development of personality in domestic theories. The theory of activity of A. N. Leontiev, the theory of activity of S. L. Rubinshtein and the subject-activity approach of A. V. Brushlinsky, K. A. Abulkhanova, complex and systems approach B. G. Ananiev and B. F. Lomov. Arbitrary and involuntary mechanisms of personality development.

6.1 Psychoanalytic personality theory of Z. Freud.

Freud was the first to characterize the psyche as a battlefield between irreconcilable instincts, reason and consciousness. His psychoanalytic theory exemplifies the psychodynamic approach. The concept of dynamics in his theory implies that human behavior is completely determined, and unconscious mental processes have great importance in the regulation of human behavior.

The term "psychoanalysis" has three meanings:

Theory of personality and psychopathology;

Method of therapy of personality disorders;

A method of studying the unconscious thoughts and feelings of an individual.

This connection of theory with therapy and personality assessment links all ideas about human behavior, but behind it lies a small number of original concepts and principles. Consider first Freud's views on the organization of the psyche, on the so-called "topographical model".

Topographic model of levels of consciousness.

According to this model, three levels can be distinguished in mental life: consciousness, preconscious and unconscious.

The level of "consciousness" consists of sensations and experiences that we are aware of at a given moment in time. According to Freud, consciousness contains only a small percentage of all information stored in the brain, and quickly descends into the preconscious and unconscious as a person switches to other signals.

The area of ​​the preconscious, the area of ​​"accessible memory", includes experiences that are not currently in demand, but which can return to consciousness spontaneously or with a minimum of effort. The preconscious is the bridge between the conscious and unconscious areas of the psyche.

the deepest and significant area mind is the unconscious. It is a repository of primitive instinctive urges, plus emotions and memories, which, as a result of a number of reasons, have been forced out of consciousness. The area of ​​the unconscious largely determines our daily functioning.

Personality structure

However, in the early 1920s, Freud revised his conceptual model of mental life and introduced three main structures into the anatomy of the personality: the id (it), the ego, and the superego. This has been called the structural model of personality, although Freud himself tended to regard them as processes rather than structures.

Let's take a closer look at all three components.

ID.“The division of the psyche into the conscious and the unconscious is the basic premise of psychoanalysis, and only this makes it possible for him to understand and introduce to science the frequently observed and very important pathological processes in mental life. Freud gave great importance to this division: "here begins psychoanalytic theory."

The word "ID" comes from the Latin "IT", in Freud's theory it means primitive, instinctive and innate aspects of the personality, such as sleep, food, defecation, copulation and fills our behavior with energy. The id has its central meaning for the individual throughout life, it has no limits, it is chaotic. Being the initial structure of the psyche, the id expresses the primary principle of all human life - the immediate discharge of psychic energy produced by primary biological impulses, the containment of which leads to tension in personal functioning. This release is called the pleasure principle. Obeying this principle and not knowing fear or anxiety, the id, in its purest manifestation, can be a danger to the individual and society. It also plays the role of an intermediary between somatic and mental processes. Freud also described two processes by which the id relieves tension in the personality: reflex actions and primary processes. An example of a reflex action is a cough to irritate the airways. But these actions do not always lead to stress relief. Then the primary processes come into play, which form mental images directly related to the satisfaction of the basic need.

Primary processes are an illogical, irrational form of human ideas. It is characterized by an inability to suppress impulses and to distinguish between the real and the unreal. The manifestation of behavior as a primary process can lead to the death of the individual, if there are no external sources satisfaction of needs. So babies, according to Freud, cannot postpone the satisfaction of their primary needs. And only after realizing their existence outside world, there is the ability to delay the satisfaction of these needs. From the moment this knowledge appears, the next structure arises - the ego.

EGO.(Latin "ego" - "I") A component of the mental apparatus responsible for making decisions. The ego, being separated from the id, draws part of its energy from it to transform and fulfill needs in a socially acceptable context, thus ensuring the safety and self-preservation of the body. It uses cognitive and perceptual strategies in its quest to satisfy the desires and needs of the ID.

The ego in its manifestations is guided by the reality principle, the purpose of which is to preserve the integrity of the organism by delaying satisfaction until finding the possibility of its discharge and / or appropriate environmental conditions. The ego was called by Freud a secondary process, the "executive organ" of the personality, the area of ​​intellectual problem-solving processes. The release of a certain amount of ego energy to solve problems at a higher level of the psyche is one of the main goals of psychoanalytic therapy.

Thus, we come to the last component of personality.

SUPEREGO.“We want to make the subject of this study the Self, our very own Self. But is this possible? Since the Self is the most authentic subject, how can it become an object? And yet, of course, it is possible. I can take myself as an object, treat myself like other objects, observe myself, criticize and God knows what else to do with myself. At the same time, one part of the I opposes itself to the rest of the I. So, the I is dissected, it is dissected in some of its functions, at least for a while ... I could simply say that the special instance that I begin to distinguish in the I is conscience, but it would be more cautious to consider this instance independent and to assume that conscience is one of its functions, and self-observation, necessary as a prerequisite for the judicial activity of conscience, is its other function. And since, recognizing the independent existence of any thing, it is necessary to give it a name, I will henceforth call this instance in the I "Super-I".

This is how Freud imagined the superego - the last component of the developing personality, functionally meaning a system of values, norms and ethics, reasonably compatible with those accepted in the environment of the individual.

Being the moral and ethical force of the individual, the superego is the result of prolonged dependence on parents. “The role that the Superego later assumes is first played by an external force, the parental authority... The Superego, which thus takes over the power, work, and even the methods of the parental authority, is not only its successor, but actually rightful direct heir.

Further, the function of development is taken by the society (school, peers, etc.). One can also consider the superego as an individual reflection of the "collective conscience" of society, although the values ​​of society can be distorted by the perception of the child.

The superego is subdivided into two subsystems: conscience and the ego-ideal. Conscience is acquired through parental discipline. It includes the ability for critical self-assessment, the presence of moral prohibitions and the emergence of feelings of guilt in the child. The rewarding aspect of the superego is the ego-ideal. It is formed from the positive assessments of parents and leads the individual to establish high standards. The superego is considered fully formed when parental control is replaced by self-control. However, the principle of self-control does not serve the principle of reality. The superego directs a person to absolute perfection in thoughts, words and deeds. It tries to convince the ego of the superiority of idealistic ideas over realistic ones.

Psychological defense mechanisms

Psychological protection- a system of stabilization of the personality, aimed at eliminating or minimizing the feeling of anxiety associated with the awareness of the conflict.

Z. Freud identified eight basic defense mechanisms.

one). Suppression (repression, repression) is the selective removal from consciousness of painful experiences that took place in the past. This is a form of censorship that blocks the traumatic experience. Suppression is not final, it is often the source of bodily diseases of a psychogenic nature (headaches, arthritis, ulcers, asthma, heart disease, hypertension, etc.). The psychic energy of repressed desires exists in a person's body, regardless of his consciousness, and finds its painful bodily expression.

2). Denial - an attempt not to accept as reality an event that worries the "I" (some unacceptable event did not happen). It is an escape into a fantasy that seems absurd to objective observation. “This cannot be” - a person shows indifference to logic, does not notice contradictions in his judgments. Unlike repression, denial operates on a preconscious rather than an unconscious level.

3). Rationalization is the construction of a logically incorrect conclusion, carried out for the purpose of self-justification. (“It doesn’t matter if I pass this exam or not, I will get out of the university anyway”); (“Why study diligently, all the same, this knowledge in practical work won't fit"). Rationalization hides true motives, makes actions morally acceptable.

4). Inversion (reaction formation) - replacement of an unacceptable reaction with another, opposite to it in meaning; substitution of thoughts, feelings that meet a genuine desire with diametrically opposite behavior, thoughts, feelings (for example, a child initially wants to receive the love and attention of the mother, but, not receiving this love, begins to experience the exact opposite desire to annoy, anger the mother, cause a quarrel and hatred of the mother to yourself). The most common variants of inversion: guilt can be replaced by a feeling of indignation, hatred - devotion, resentment - overprotection.

5). Projection is the attribution of one's own qualities, thoughts, feelings to another person. When something is condemned in others, it is precisely this that a person does not accept in himself, but he cannot recognize it, he does not want to understand that these same qualities are inherent in him. For example, a person claims that "some people are deceivers", although this may actually mean "I sometimes deceive." A person, feeling a sense of anger, accuses another of being angry.

6). Isolation is the separation of the threatening part of the situation from the rest of the mental sphere, which can lead to separation, a split personality. A person can go more and more into the ideal, less and less in contact with his own feelings. (There is no internal dialogism when various internal positions of a person get the right to vote).

7). Regression is a return to an earlier, more primitive way of responding. Departure from realistic thinking into behavior that reduces anxiety, fear, as in childhood. The source of anxiety remains unresolved due to the primitiveness of the method. Any departure from reasonable, responsible behavior can be considered a regression.

eight). Sublimation is the process of transforming sexual energy into socially acceptable forms of activity (creativity, social contacts). (In a work devoted to the psychoanalysis of L. da Vinci, Freud considers his work as sublimation).

Personal development

One of the premises of psychoanalytic theory is that a person is born with a certain amount of libido, which then goes through several stages in its development, referred to as the psychosexual stages of development. Psychosexual development is a biologically determined sequence that unfolds in an unchanging order and is inherent in all people, regardless of cultural level.

Freud proposed a hypothesis of four stages: oral, anal, phallic and genital. In considering these stages, several other factors introduced by Freud must be taken into account.

Frustration. In the case of frustration, the psychosexual needs of the child are suppressed by parents or caregivers, and therefore do not find optimal satisfaction.

Overcare. With over-care, the child does not have the opportunity to control his own internal functions.

In any case, there is an accumulation of libido, which in adulthood can lead to "residual" behavior associated with the stage at which the frustration or regression occurred.

Also important concepts in psychoanalytic theory are regression and fixation. Regression i.e. return to the earliest stage and the manifestation of childish behavior characteristic of this period. Although regression is considered a special case of fixation - a delay or halt in development at a certain stage. Freud's followers consider regression and fixation to be complementary.

ORAL STAGE. The oral stage lasts from birth to about 18 months of age. During this period, he is completely dependent on his parents, and the area of ​​\u200b\u200bthe mouth is associated with the concentration of pleasant sensations and the satisfaction of biological needs. According to Freud, the mouth remains an important erogenous zone throughout a person's life. The oral stage ends when breastfeeding stops. Freud described two types of personality during fixation at this stage: oral-passive and oral-aggressive.

ANAL STAGE. The anal stage begins at the age of 18 months and continues until the third year of life. During the period, young children derive considerable pleasure from the retention of expulsion of feces. In this stage of toilet training, the child learns to distinguish between the demands of the id (the pleasure of immediate defecation) and the social constraints of the parents (self-control of needs). Freud believed that all future forms of self-control and self-regulation originate in this stage.

Phallic stage. Between the ages of three and six, libido-driven interests shift to the genital area. During the phallic phase of psychosexual development, children may explore the genitals, masturbate, and show interest in matters related to birth and sexual relations. Children, according to Freud, have at least a vague idea of ​​​​sexual relations and, for the most part, understand sexual intercourse as aggressive actions of the father towards the mother.

The dominant conflict of this stage in boys is called the oedipal complex, and the analogous conflict in girls is the Electra complex.

The essence of these complexes lies in the unconscious desire of each child to have a parent of the opposite sex and the elimination of a parent of the same sex with him.

LATENT PERIOD. In the interval from 6-7 years to the onset of adolescence, there is a phase of sexual lull, a latent period.

Freud paid little attention to the processes during this period, since, in his opinion, the sexual instinct is supposedly dormant at this time.

GENITAL STAGE. Initial phase The genital stage (the period lasting from maturity to death) is characterized by biochemical and physiological changes in the body. The result of these changes is the increase in excitability and increased sexual activity characteristic of adolescents.
In other words, the entry into the genital stage is marked by the most complete satisfaction of the sexual instinct. Development normally leads to the choice of a marriage partner and the creation of a family.

The genital character is the ideal personality type in psychoanalytic theory. Discharge of libido in sexual intercourse provides the possibility of physiological control over the impulses coming from the genitals. Freud said that in order to form a normal genital type of character, a person must abandon the passivity inherent in childhood, when all forms of satisfaction were given easily.

Freud's psychoanalytic theory is an example of a psychodynamic approach to the study of human behavior. The theory considers human behavior to be completely determined, dependent on internal psychological conflicts. Also, this theory considers a person as a whole, i.e. in terms of holism, as it was based on a clinical method. It follows from the analysis of the theory that Freud, more than other psychologists, was committed to the idea of ​​immutability. He was convinced that the personality of an adult is formed from the experience of early childhood. From his point of view, the ongoing changes in the behavior of an adult are shallow and do not affect changes in the structure of the personality.

Considering that the sensation and perception of the surrounding world by a person is purely individual subjective, Freud suggested that human behavior is regulated by the desire to reduce unpleasant excitation that occurs at the level of the organism when an external stimulus occurs. Human motivation, according to Freud, is based on homeostasis. And since he believed that human behavior is completely determined, this makes it possible to fully explore it with the help of science.

Freud's theory of personality provided the basis for the psychoanalytic therapy that is being successfully used today.

6.2 Analytical psychology of C. G. Jung.

As a result of Jung's reworking of psychoanalysis, a whole complex of complex ideas emerged from such different areas knowledge like psychology, philosophy, astrology, archaeology, mythology, theology and literature.

This breadth of intellectual inquiry, combined with Jung's complex and enigmatic writing style, is the reason why his psychological theory is the most difficult to understand. While understanding these difficulties, we nevertheless hope that brief acquaintance with Jung's views will serve as a starting point for further reading of his writings.

Personality structure

Jung argued that the soul (in Jung's theory, a term analogous to personality) is made up of three separate but interacting structures: consciousness, the personal unconscious, and the collective unconscious.

The center of the sphere of consciousness is the ego. It is a component of the psyche, which includes all those thoughts, feelings, memories and sensations, thanks to which we feel our integrity, constancy and perceive ourselves as people. The ego is the basis of our self-consciousness, and thanks to it we are able to see the results of our ordinary conscious activities.

The personal unconscious contains conflicts and memories that were once conscious but are now repressed or forgotten. It also includes those sensory impressions that lack brightness in order to be noted in consciousness. Thus Jung's conception of the personal unconscious is somewhat similar to Freud's.

However, Jung went further than Freud, emphasizing that the personal unconscious contains complexes, or accumulations of emotionally charged thoughts, feelings and memories, taken by the individual from his past personal experience or from ancestral, hereditary experience.

According to Jung, these complexes, arranged around the most common topics, can have a fairly strong influence on the behavior of the individual. For example, a person with a power complex can expend a significant amount of mental energy on activities that are directly or symbolically related to the theme of power. The same may be true of a person who is heavily influenced by his mother, father, or dominated by money, sex, or some other kind of complex. Once formed, the complex begins to influence the behavior of a person and his attitude. Jung argued that the material of the personal unconscious in each of us is unique and, as a rule, accessible to awareness. As a result, the components of the complex, or even the entire complex, can become conscious and have an excessively strong influence on the life of the individual.

And finally, Jung suggested the existence of a deeper layer in the structure of the personality, which he called the collective unconscious. The collective unconscious is a repository of latent memory traces of humanity and even our anthropoid ancestors. It reflects the thoughts and feelings that are common to all human beings and are the result of our common emotional past. As Jung himself said, "the collective unconscious contains the entire spiritual heritage of human evolution, reborn in the structure of the brain of each individual." Thus, the content of the collective unconscious is formed due to heredity and is the same for all mankind. It is important to note that the concept of the collective unconscious was the main reason for the disagreement between Jung and Freud.

archetypes.

Jung hypothesized that the collective unconscious consists of powerful primary mental images, the so-called archetypes (literally, "primary models"). Archetypes are innate ideas or memories that predispose people to perceive, experience, and respond to events in a particular way.

In reality, these are not memories or images as such, but rather predisposing factors, under the influence of which people implement in their behavior universal models of perception, thinking and action in response to some object or event. What is innate here is precisely the tendency to respond emotionally, cognitively, and behaviorally to specific situations - for example, in an unexpected encounter with parents, a loved one, a stranger, a snake, or death.

Among the many archetypes described by Jung are mother, child, hero, sage, sun deity, rogue, God, and death (Table 4-2).

Jung believed that each archetype is associated with a tendency to express a certain type of feeling and thought in relation to the corresponding object or situation. For example, in a child's perception of his mother, there are aspects of her actual characteristics, colored by unconscious ideas about such archetypal maternal attributes as upbringing, fertility, and dependence. Further, Jung suggested that archetypal images and ideas are often reflected in dreams, and also often found in culture in the form of symbols used in painting, literature and religion. In particular, he emphasized that the symbols characteristic of different cultures often show a striking similarity, because they go back to archetypes common to all mankind. For example, in many cultures he came across mandala images, which are symbolic embodiments of the unity and integrity of the “I”. Jung believed that understanding the archetypal symbols helped him in the analysis of a patient's dreams.

The number of archetypes in the collective unconscious can be unlimited. However, special attention in Jung's theoretical system is given to the person, anime and animus, shadow and self.

Persona (from the Latin word for "mask") is our public face, that is, how we manifest ourselves in relationships with other people. The persona refers to the many roles that we play in accordance with social requirements. In Jung's understanding, a persona serves the purpose of impressing others, or hiding one's true identity from others. The persona as an archetype is necessary for us to get along with other people in everyday life.

However, Jung warned that if this archetype becomes too important, then the person can become shallow, superficial, reduced to a single role, and alienated from true emotional experience.

In contrast to the role that the person plays in our adaptation to the world around us, the shadow archetype represents the repressed dark, evil and animal side of the person. The shadow contains our socially unacceptable sexual and aggressive impulses, immoral thoughts and passions. But the shadow also has positive properties.

Jung viewed the shadow as a source of vitality, spontaneity and creativity in the life of the individual. According to Jung, the function of the ego is to channel the energy of the shadow, to curb the evil side of our nature to such an extent that we can live in harmony with others, but at the same time openly express our impulses and enjoy a healthy and creative life. .

In the archetypes of the anima and animus, Jung's recognition of the innate androgynous nature of people finds expression. The anima represents the inner image of the woman in the man, his unconscious feminine side, while the animus is the inner image of the man in the woman, her unconscious masculine side. These archetypes are based, at least in part, on the biological fact that men and women produce both male and female hormones in their bodies. This archetype, according to Jung, evolved over many centuries in the collective unconscious as a result of experience of interaction with the opposite sex. Many men, at least to some extent, have been “feminized” as a result of many years of living together with women, and for women the opposite is true. Jung insisted that the anima and animus, like all other archetypes, must be expressed harmoniously, without disturbing the overall balance, so that the development of the personality in the direction of self-realization is not hindered. In other words, a man must express his feminine qualities along with his masculine ones, and a woman must show her masculine qualities as well as her feminine ones. If these necessary attributes remain undeveloped, the result will be one-sided growth and functioning of the personality.

The self is the most important archetype in Jung's theory. The self is the core of the personality around which all other elements are organized and united. When the integration of all aspects of the soul is achieved, a person feels unity, harmony and integrity. Thus, in Jung's understanding, the development of the self is the main goal of human life. We will return to the process of self-realization later when we consider Jung's concept of individuation.

ego orientation

Jung's most famous contribution to psychology is considered to be the two main orientations, or life attitudes, he described: extraversion and introversion. According to Jung's theory, both orientations coexist in a person at the same time, but one of them usually becomes dominant. In an extraverted setting, the direction of interest in the outside world is manifested - other people and objects. The extrovert is mobile, talkative, quickly establishes relationships and attachments, external factors are the driving force for him. An introvert, on the contrary, is immersed in the inner world of his thoughts, feelings and experiences. He is contemplative, reserved, seeks solitude, tends to move away from objects, his interest is focused on himself. According to Jung, the extraverted and introverted attitudes do not exist in isolation. Usually they are both present and in opposition to each other: if one appears as leading and rational, the other acts as auxiliary and irrational. The combination of leading and supporting ego orientations results in individuals whose behavior patterns are definite and predictable.

Psychological functions

Shortly after Jung formulated the concept of extraversion and introversion, he came to the conclusion that this pair of opposing orientations cannot adequately explain all the differences in people's attitudes to the world. Therefore, he expanded his typology to include psychological functions. The four main functions he singled out are thinking, feeling, feeling and intuition.

Thinking and feeling Jung referred to the category of rational functions, since they allow the formation of judgments about life experience.

The thinking type judges the value of certain things using logic and arguments. The opposite function of thinking - feeling - informs us about reality in the language of positive or negative emotions.

The Feeling Type focuses on the emotional side of life experience and judges the value of things in terms of good or bad, pleasant or unpleasant, encouraging or boring. According to Jung, when thinking acts as a leading function, a person is focused on building rational judgments, the purpose of which is to determine whether the evaluated experience is true or false. And when the leading function is feeling, the personality is oriented towards making judgments about whether this experience is primarily pleasant or unpleasant.

The second pair of opposite functions - sensation and intuition - Jung called irrational, because they simply passively "grasp", register events in the external (sensation) or in the internal (intuition) world, without evaluating them and without explaining their meaning. Sensation is a direct, nonjudgmental, realistic perception of the outside world. The sensing type is particularly perceptive to taste, smell, and other sensations from environmental stimuli. On the contrary, intuition is characterized by subliminal and unconscious perception of current experience. The intuitive type relies on premonitions and guesses, grasping the essence of life events. Jung argued that when the leading function is sensation, a person comprehends reality in the language of phenomena, as if he were photographing it. On the other hand, when intuition is the leading function, a person reacts to unconscious images, symbols, and the hidden meaning of what is being experienced.

Each person is endowed with all four psychological functions.

However, as soon as one personal orientation (extravsion or introversion) is usually dominant, conscious, in the same way only one function from a rational or irrational pair usually prevails and is realized. Other functions are immersed in the unconscious and play an auxiliary role in the regulation of human behavior. Any function can be leading. Accordingly, there are thinking, feeling, sensing and intuitive types of individuals. According to Jung's theory, an integrated or "individual" personality uses all the opposite functions to cope with life circumstances.

Two ego orientations and four psychological functions, interacting, form eight different personality types. For example, the extraverted thinking type focuses on the objective, practical facts of the surrounding world. He usually gives the impression of a cold and dogmatic person who lives according to established rules. It is quite possible that Freud was the prototype of the extraverted thinking type. The introverted intuitive type, on the other hand, focuses on the reality of their own inner peace. This type is usually eccentric, keeps aloof from others and is indifferent to them. In this case, Jung probably had himself in mind as a prototype.

Personal development

Unlike Freud, who attached particular importance to the early years of life as a decisive stage in the formation of personality behavior patterns, Jung considered personality development as a dynamic process, as evolution throughout life. He said almost nothing about socialization in childhood and did not share Freud's views that only past events (especially psychosexual conflicts) are decisive for human behavior. From Jung's point of view, a person constantly acquires new skills, achieves new goals and realizes himself more and more fully. He attached great importance to such a life goal of the individual as "acquisition of selfhood", which is the result of the desire of various components of the personality for unity. This theme of striving for integration, harmony and wholeness was later repeated in existential and humanistic theories of personality.

According to Jung, the final life goal- this is the complete realization of the "I", that is, the formation of a single, unique and integral individual.

The development of each person in this direction is unique, it continues throughout life and includes a process called individuation. Simply put, individuation is a dynamic and evolving process of integrating many opposing intrapersonal forces and tendencies. In its final expression, individuation involves the conscious realization by a person of his unique psychic reality, the full development and expression of all elements of personality. Thus, the archetype of the self becomes the center of the personality and balances the many opposite qualities that make up the personality as a single main whole. This releases the energy needed for continued personal growth. The result of the implementation of individuation, which is very difficult to achieve, Jung called self-realization. He believed that this final stage of personality development is accessible only to capable and highly educated people, who, moreover, have sufficient leisure for this. Because of these limitations, self-realization is not available to the vast majority of people.

Final comments

Moving away from Freud's theory, Jung enriched our understanding of the content and structure of personality. Although his concepts of the collective unconscious and archetypes are difficult to understand and not empirically testable, they continue to captivate very many. His understanding of the unconscious as a rich and vital source of wisdom has generated a new wave of interest in his theory among the current generation of students and professional psychologists. In addition, Jung was one of the first to recognize the positive contribution of religious, spiritual and even mystical experience to the development of personality. This is his special role as a forerunner of the humanistic trend in personology. We hasten to add that last years among the intellectual community in the United States there has been an increase in the popularity of analytical psychology and acceptance of many of its provisions. Theologians, philosophers, historians, and representatives of many other disciplines find Jung's creative insights extremely useful in their work.

6.3 Individual psychology of A. Adler.

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Freedom and the concept of “freedom” is an age-old question that is relevant at all times. Freedom is a very controversial aspect of life that causes a lot of judgments and disputes, because the realities of life are such that the concept of “freedom” is different for everyone.

At the same time, individual freedom is a multifaceted concept. Freedom is expressed in the economic aspect, in freedom of action. There are other types of freedoms - political, spiritual freedom and others.

Thinkers and philosophers have tried to understand freedom, giving different interpretations to the concept.

T. Hobbes believed that the meaning of freedom is that a free person has no obstacles to action. I. Bentham believed that laws destroy freedom. Existentialists argued that man is free from birth. N. Berdyaev - that a person initially abides in freedom and it is impossible to withdraw it. J.P. Satre saw the meaning of freedom in the preservation of human essence.

Freedom or responsibility

Another aspect of individual freedom is in necessity and possibility. A person is not free to choose the conditions, but at the same time, a person and the means for its implementation.

Freedom is an attribute of personality development, but if a person does not have responsibility for freedom of choice, this is called arbitrariness.

A person lives in society, his freedom is compared with the freedoms of other citizens, which means that it characterizes a particular individual. Between the concepts of "freedom" and the concept of "responsibility" we can safely put an equal sign. The freer a person feels in society, the higher his responsibility for using it in society.

Foundation theory

The philological definition of freedom says that its origins go back to Sanskrit roots, which sounds in translation - beloved. They also talk about freedom in the following way: if a person is independently able to choose, think, and act at his own discretion, he is free.

To understand freedom, one should get acquainted with two types of this definition - voluntarism and fatalism.

The origins of voluntaristic freedom say that man is free from necessity, from duty. Fatalism defines freedom as tribute. A person does not change anything, but accepts everything as a tribute.

Fatalism determines that freedom is involuntary and not allowed to everyone, because human actions are limited by limits - natural, cultural, socio-historical, political, the level of development of the individual or the country in which he was born. It is limited by the objective laws of the development of nature and society, laws that man cannot cancel.

Other definitions - the legal concept of freedom is that a person is at the legislative level with clear justifications for action. This includes freedom of speech, etc. The legal concept of freedom is interpreted as human actions that do not harm others, when a person obeys the law and established rules.

The economic aspect of freedom defines it as engaging in any kind of activity, taking responsibility and taking risks for one's choice, for one's activity.

Is there unconditional freedom?

From birth, a person is free and this right is inalienable from him. A person grows, develops, contacts with environment, society. Internally, the feeling of freedom gradually fades away, becomes dependent on circumstances and other factors.

Unfortunately or fortunately for the person himself, there is no absolute freedom. Because, even living as a hermit, a person is forced to take care of shelter, food and clothing. Those who live in civilization, all the more obey the norms adopted by the laws.

How to become a free person?

Individual freedom begins with oneself. It is not necessary to free oneself from beloved people, things, the course of events and other life objects, on the contrary: one must clearly understand that freedom comes, as it were, from within a person. It is important to give an internal setting.

Internal liberation begins with the removal of restrictions, which gives the mind and subconscious. The most important criterion for removing restrictions is the rationality of actions.
Liberation from one's own instincts and reflexes allows a person to control them, to take power over them. Moreover, by controlling his own reflexes and instincts, a person receives "bonuses" - control and correctness of his own behavior in society, prevention of ambiguous actions.
A free person knows no regime. She is sensitive to her body and listens to it. There is no need to adhere to the regime of sleep and nutrition, rest and other things. There is freedom of secondary reflexes, as well as their control. By taking this position, the individual gets more energy from food, his rest becomes better, and his productivity becomes much better.
It is important for a person to be free from complexes, especially from. After all, in fact, this is the main freedom, the acquisition of which many people spend a lot of time. The inferiority complex is energy-consuming, it “devours” the individual from the inside. An inferiority complex is born from a negative experience that a person hides in himself.

Freedom of the individual is defined in getting rid of the power of emotions. True freedom is when a person does not act under the influence of his own emotions. After all, falling under their influence, a person acts unconsciously, sometimes badly, often as a consequence, regretting what happened. After that, another complex is certainly generated. In the case of freedom from emotions, it is important not to overdo it. Feelings are beautiful in themselves, the irrational principle moves a person to create. But if emotions take the reins of control over the mind, then there is a danger to the person himself and his environment.
It is not easy to control, but it is necessary, systematically and slowly. To begin with, as in the case of complexes, it is important to identify the problem and accept it. To better understand the nature of your emotions, you need to move away from the problem and look at yourself from the outside, as if from the outside. Then the observer will be able to see his actions, as well as the excessive manifestation of feelings as a spectator. They can be judged logically, give an explanation and assessment of their own actions. At some point, your own actions will become ridiculous and funny.
Another freedom - freedom from the logical paradox - to be an adult without killing the child in yourself. After all, in fact, children are not faceted, their minds are not littered, they have no prejudices.

How to understand your own freedom

You can determine the freedom of the individual by honestly answering yourself to five questions:

Am I an independent person? Can an individual independently develop, learn and learn new things, does he stop at the achieved result, does he move forward.
Am I doing it in such a way that it becomes a source of permanent income? A person is successful when everything in life is filled with love, especially work. If a person does an unloved job, he is definitely not happy. BUT unlucky person does not gain freedom, because he is “bound” by necessity or need.
Is my thinking free from outside influence? Can an individual think independently, regardless of circumstances and other people.
Do I read a lot of books? Books are a great resource for development. You can start with, you can comprehend the biographies of famous people who are alive. This will not add freedom, but will tell you in which direction to move.
, thoughts and feelings? A person who feels and at the same time is his own master is free.

A free person does what she likes, what she wants. Such a person stands out from the crowd, she is not like the others, because she lives according to her own specific program, which is not imposed by strangers.

March 16, 2014, 14:38

The problem of freedom in domestic psychology

in Russia in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. the category of freedom, as noted above, was considered in the works of Russian philosophers - P. E. Astafiev, N. A. Berdyaev, N. O. Lossky, Vl. Solovyov and others. On the pages of the journal ʼʼProblems of Philosophy and Psychologyʼʼ (whose editor since 1885 was N. Ya. Grot), as well as in ʼʼProceedings of a Psychological Societyʼʼ, articles were constantly published reflecting the intensity of discussions on the issue of free will and determinism, ideas about freedom in the German classical philosophy. With development psychological science requiring the unity of theoretical understanding and empirical research, freedom was affirmed in the status of a mental phenomenon - the quality of a person; the subject of study was not so much freedom in itself, but its bearer - a person striving for it. The collaboration of philosophers and psychologists has given rise to a special culture of the study of freedom in domestic psychological science (most clearly manifested in the works of S. L. Rubinshtein), led to the emergence of a single semantic space for understanding and studying freedom, in which both the philosophical and psychological vectors of knowledge are declared.

Thanks to the first philosophical) vector, its possibilities for analyzing the diverse relationships of a person with the world are approved and revealed methodological foundations understanding of freedom, the principles of determinism, the unity of consciousness and activity, activity; in free reasoning, not constrained by the framework of a specific scientific school, deep existential knowledge about it is revealed.

Second - psychological a vector representing the subject (cognizing, acting, experiencing, interacting with other people) as a unit of analysis of all mental phenomena, and therefore uniting the ontological, epistemological and axiological foundations for understanding freedom in its human dimension, makes it possible on the basis of objective methods confirm philosophical ideas about it, reveal new aspects and manifestations in human life. In the domestic psychology of the twentieth century. The following stages can be distinguished in the study of freedom.

Stage I: the end of X I X - the middle of the 30s. 20th century Ideas of freedom are found in the works of the following scholars:

- M. I. Vladislavleva - about freedom as a person's ability to control their actions;

- M. M. Troitsky in connection with the issue of personal and social dependence;

- N. Ya. Grota - on the dependence of free will on self-consciousness and the state of a person;

- I.P. Pavlov, a domestic physiologist who discovered the reflexes of freedom and submission, which, as he believed, are characteristic not only of animals, but also of man;

- D. N. Uznadze - about consciousness, the ability of the individual to objectification (liberation from the installation);

- A.F. Lazursky - about the type of people who adapt the world around them to their goals;

- L. S. Vygotsky - on the role of consciousness, fantasy, the ability to form concepts in achieving freedom.

Stage II: mid-30s - early 90s. 20th century(periods of a totalitarian regime, stagnation that came after a short Khrushchev thaw, and the so-called perestroika). Since the mid-30s. 20th century in connection with the sharply changed socio-political circumstances, the topic of human freedom in domestic psychology was practically closed. This is not surprising, since it was dangerous not only to act freely, but also to think about freedom; any manifestation of free-thinking was punished, the people were required to obey, slave labor, rejoice before the Leader and Father of all times and peoples, and show pride in the advantages of the Soviet way of life. The theme of freedom as an independent from 1936 to 1990 ᴦ. not developed in Russia. We should pay tribute to the courage of outstanding domestic scientists who, not without risk to themselves in a difficult period for the country and science of an unregulated ban not only on the study of freedom, but also on free thought, dared to raise the problem of human freedom in their works devoted to the physiology of human movements (Н A. Bernshtein), the principles of determinism, the unity of consciousness and activity (S. L. Rubinshtein). Completely unreasonably, these prominent scientists were accused of cosmopolitanism (S. L. Rubinstein - in 1947 ᴦ., N. A. Bernstein - in 1949 ᴦ.), Their works were not accepted for publication; they were later removed from their positions.

During the ʼʼPavlovianʼʼ session (50s of the XX century) in psychological science, which had not yet come to its senses after the devastating Decree of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks of 1936 ᴦ. ʼʼAbout pedological perversions in the system of Narkomprosʼʼ, scientists were required to be adherents of the teachings of I.P. Pavlov about conditioned reflexes– to conduct a scientific analysis of the adaptive activity of a person. M. G. Yaroshevsky in the book ʼʼPsychology in the 20th centuryʼʼ notes the popularity of the version that arose after the ʼʼPavlovskʼʼ session of some foreign psychologists: ʼʼ...as if the support provided by the party and the government to I.P. Pavlov is explained by an attempt to develop, based on his ideas, a state a plan for managing people based on conditioned reflexes. This version, invented by Bauer, was unfortunately supported by some serious researchers, in particular Skinnerʼʼ. Bauer's assumption, of course, is far from the truth, although some phenomena in the life of our country were surprisingly similar to the situations (methods of managing people) described in J. Orwell's novel ʼʼ1984ʼʼ - five minutes and a week of hatred for the Big Brother enemy͵ defensive reaction (betrayal) to fear in the 101st room and others. Indeed, long before the "Pavlovian" session, such phenomena occurred that, on a superficial examination, resemble the manifestation of adaptation in the form of a conditioned reflex. Thus, the proclamation of the next victim as an enemy of the people was accompanied by an immediate and invariable reaction of sharp, merciless condemnation by a huge mass of people. Everything Western, transoceanic (achievements in science, technology, art) was given a label - ʼʼbourgeoisʼʼ (bourgeois philosophy, bourgeois psychology, bourgeois art, etc.) and caused a negative reaction. There are many examples, but the point is not in Pavlovian conditioned reflexes, but in the Stalinist ideology (submissive obedience, execution of orders, etc.), which was implanted during these years. The worst thing is that a person should not have thought, realized what was happening. It is no coincidence that in psychological science, as V.P. Zinchenko notes, the problem of activity was ahead of the topic of consciousness. As for the problem of freedom, undoubtedly associated with awareness, over the years of the totalitarian regime in many works it has lost the depth of consideration, turning into a list of proofs of human freedom under socialism. With a real reduction in freedom in all forms, myths about freedom flourished in the country, which slowed down the processes of understanding and achieving it for more than one decade.

At the same time, attempts were nevertheless made by some writers, public figures (A. Solzhenitsyn, V. Tendryakov, A. Sakharov and others) to dispel the illusions of imaginary freedom. Many of them suffered for their courage, but had an invaluable impact on self-consciousness. a large number of people. During the ʼʼPrague Springʼʼ at that time, the little-known atomic physicist A. Sakharov began work on the book ʼʼReflections on Progress, Peaceful Coexistence and Intellectual Freedomʼʼ (the book was published in samizdat in 1986 ᴦ., in the journal ʼʼVoprosy filosofiiʼʼ was first published in 1990 ᴦ. ). In it, he writes with concern about the threat to intellectual, i.e., internal, freedom, independence, value. human personality the meaning of human life in our country. As dangers of loss of freedom, not only war, poverty, terror, but also ʼʼstupefaction of a person ... by mass culture with a deliberate or commercially conditioned decrease in the intellectual level and problematic, with an emphasis on entertainment or utilitarianism with carefully protective censoringʼʼ are called. In the education system, there is a danger in changing the appeal, a certain narrowing of the scope of discussions and intellectual boldness of conclusions at an age when beliefs are formed.

Stage III: early 90s. 20th century - Until now. In this period, obviously, not without the influence of the changing socio-political situation, the processes of democratization that began in Russia, the problem of freedom was revived in Russian psychology, but already at the level of setting the topic of freedom as an independent one, requiring thorough theoretical and experimental work. The phenomenon of freedom began to be addressed: V.P. Zinchenko in his works on the essence of living movement, K.A. Abulkhanova-Slavskaya - on the choice of a life strategy. In the early 1990s. we have proposed a reflexive-activity approach to understanding the phenomenon of freedom, conducted an empirical study of its individual manifestations (freedom from frustration, freedom of creativity in conditions of democratic and authoritarian styles of interaction). During this period, works on human freedom by the Russian-American psychologist V. Lefebvre are being published in Russia, in which a reflexive model of a free subject is given.

On the present stage development of domestic psychological science and the development of Russia, its self-determination as a democratic country, it is important not only to generalize the knowledge about freedom offered by thinkers - philosophers and psychologists of various eras and countries, but also not to lose the valuable that has been achieved in understanding freedom in the domestic psychology of the twentieth century. The conceptual ideas of Russian psychologists about freedom are relevant and open up prospects for further theoretical and experimental research into the phenomenon of freedom.

The problem of freedom in domestic psychology - the concept and types. Classification and features of the category "The problem of freedom in domestic psychology" 2017, 2018.