white chief
Mayne Reid Adventure: other Adventure MastersEnd of the 18th century. San Ildefonso is a town somewhere on the outskirts of the Great North American Prairie. Here the sun always shines brightly, the meadows turn green, the rivers silver. All the girls here are completely beautiful, because even local ugly girls have a refined taste and understand a lot about beautiful dresses.
To match them, garrison officers - chest like a wheel, eyes burn, mustaches bristle, with a carelessness worthy of emperors, they drag long sabers along the ground, jingling their spurs. The careless San Ildefonso grew mad, unbelted. Here they flirt, play cards, sometimes outrageous.
But after all, someone has to fight evil under the sun, even at the edge of the world. The legend of the White Leader is one of the gems of adventure literature. The talent of Mine Reed, a subtle and fascinating storyteller, is revealed in this book from the first lines and is unlikely to leave anyone indifferent.
The plot of the novel revolves around the relationship between the emperor, the empress and their best friend, Alexander Menshikov. Will the heroes be able to keep their feelings and create a worthy empire?
Some of them are worthy of posthumous greatness, others, alas, ingloriously completed their journey. The reader will learn how Charlemagne tried to unite the whole of Europe, and Philip II turned to religion, how Hitler bribed his people, how Stalin built socialism. Over 600 illustrations clearly reflect the stages of each of the 100 represented rulers.
The book is intended for a wide range of readers.
The charming Lin Suyin is at the center of this web and the only one who sees in the imperturbable cruel young warrior not a living legend, but a man of flesh and blood, with feelings, doubts and suffering. Will the ruthless warlord, who opposed himself to the whole empire, be able to find salvation and redemption without falling under the seductive spell, and what kind of woman will become a worthy couple for him in this war and ... in love?
Peter I Europeanized Russia by Asian methods. Catherine the Great tried to turn the country into a majestic world power. Pavel the First, with regrettable extravagance, tried to impose discipline and justice in the country ... The Emperor of All Russia Nicholas I (1796-1855) also had his own Russian idea, by the grace of God.
There is an apocryphal quote - words that he allegedly wrote once in the margins of a geography textbook: "Russia is not an agricultural, industrial or commercial power, Russia is a military power and its purpose is to be a thunderstorm to the rest of the world." The entire reign of Nicholas I became the embodiment of these words.
He sought - and achieved this. And like anyone who put everything on one card, he eventually lost. For a man of one idea becomes a man of one goal - and in the end dooms himself to loneliness. There are timeless lessons from history. After Crimean War reforms began, leading to the abolition of serfdom.
Has Russia become weaker after Nicholas I? No. This was proved by the final conquest of the Caucasus, and the accession Central Asia, and Skobelev's victory in the Balkans. And who knows, perhaps Nicholas would not be disappointed in such a Russia: strong not only militarily, but also in agriculture, and in industry, and in trade.
Emperor of All Russia Nicholas I is one of the key figures national history, the tsar, who did no less for the greatness and power of the Russian Empire than his great predecessors - Peter I and Catherine II. He became the embodiment of a new type of ruler and a new - in every sense of the iron - XIX century.
The modern reader will unfold the entire dramatic, but surprisingly consistent sovereign path of this outstanding ruler: from a young man who was not yet completely self-confident, but already forced to make fateful decisions, who by chance received the reins of monarchy, to a mature statesman, a confident and iron hand holding the reins huge country.
Electronic publishing includes full text paper book and a selected part of the illustrative documentary material. And for true connoisseurs of gift editions, we offer classic book. Like all editions of the Great Rulers series, the book is provided with detailed historical and biographical commentaries.
The book has an excellent selection of illustrative material: the text is accompanied by more than 250 rare illustrations from domestic and foreign sources, many of which the modern reader will get acquainted with for the first time. Elegant design, excellent printing, the best offset paper make this series a wonderful gift and decoration for the library of the most demanding reader.
1812. Hour of pride and glory
Sergey Nechaev encyclopedias Is absent1812. A huge army that has conquered half of Europe is advancing. The invincible emperor leads his army to the last frontier. What prevented Napoleon from conquering Russia? Weather and roads? Insurmountable distances? Tactical miscalculations? Or did he face a worthy adversary for the first time and be crushed by the strength of the resistance that Russian army led by prominent generals? In this book, the events of the Patriotic War of 1812 come to life in portraits and biographies of famous generals and marshals, descriptions and maps of the main battles, drawings of military guns, and in these details the word “great era” acquires a new meaning.
The author of the texts is Sergey Nechaev, a well-known historian, writer and translator from French. The publishing house Corpus published his books "Three d" Artagnan "and" Venice of Casanova ". The project consultant is Mikhail Chereisky. Page after page, the book describes the most important events relating to the period immediately preceding the Patriotic War of 1812, the course of the hostilities themselves with the participation of the Russian and French armies.
Do you dream of the revival of the Russian Empire? Then this book is for you! Empire, that is, order, honor, strength, faith, dynamic development and prosperity - all this will definitely happen. On Earth and in the vastness of the Galaxy. But to the majestic Russian empire 2.
0 has become a reality, first you need to restore the monarchy. Who will be the candidate? From what environment, according to what criteria to select worthy Russian throne? Of course, a cruel and prudent enemy will try to prevent this. Coming conspiracies, sabotage, assassination attempts on applicants, battles in cyberspace, intrigues of special services.
Blood will spill at the steps of the temple. But the day of the coronation will definitely take place. The Emperor is coming!
dragon queen
Anna Minaeva Is absentDuring the day, Tina is a modest employee in a large corporation, and at night she is an artifact thief. She likes such a life on the edge, but one day she will meet a worthy opponent and turn from a free hunter into a victim. Lord Executioner of the Northern Lands, Scourge of the Emperor, Lord of Dread… What secret is hidden in his amber eyes? And will there be a winner in their confrontation?
There is a huge layer of literature about Russian rulers. But it was under the Romanovs that Russia became one of the great powers of the world.
« The dynasty actually created and strengthened the Russian Empire. It was the most powerful state, a colossal power, which was created by Russian sovereigns - Peter the Great, Catherine the Great ... and others. It was the rise of Russian civilization. The significance of the Romanov dynasty is also great in the social, economic, cultural and spiritual fields. It was the pivotal family for Russian civilization over a three-hundred-year, eventful period” (Evgeny Pchelov, Candidate of Historical Sciences).
Emperor Peter I is the brightest representative of the dynasty, the reformer of Russia, who sharply accelerated the development of the state. For services to the Fatherland, by the decision of the Senate, he was proclaimed the first emperor of the Russian Empire, while he was given the titles "Great" and "Father of the Fatherland."
The rulers of Russia are warriors, diplomats, philosophers... They are all different, but the main thing in their life was service to their country. The exhibition on the topic includes books, journal publications, as well as illustrative material.
Story Russian state. Biographies, 18th century [Text]: essays / Ros. nat. b-ka; auth.-stat. E. M. Teper [i dr.]. - Moscow: Prince. chamber, 1996.
Formation empire [Text] / [comp.: Amrahova G. S.]. - Moscow: Veche, 2010. - 379, p. : ill. ; 21. - (Russia in the works of great historians).
Pashkov, B. G. Russia. Russia. Russian empire. Chronicle of the reigns and events of 862-1917. [Text]: textbook. allowance / Pashkov B. G. - 2nd ed., revised. and additional - Moscow: TsentrKom, 1997.
In the fight for power [Text]: pages watered. history of Russia in the 18th century. - Moscow: Thought, 1988.
Anisimov, E. V. Russia in the middle of the VIII century [Text]: the struggle for the legacy of Peter / E. V. Anisimov. - Moscow: Thought, 1986.
Eidelman, N. Ya. Edge of the Ages [Text]: watered. wrestling in Russia, late XVIII - early. XIX century / N. Ya. Eidelman - Moscow: Thought, 1982.
Kamensky, A. B. From Peter I to Paul I: Reforms in Russia in the 18th century [Text]: experience intact. analysis / A. B. Kamensky; Ros. state humanit. un-t. - Moscow: [b. i.], 2001.
three centuries: Russia from the Time of Troubles to our time [Text] : ist. Sat. : In 6 vols. T. 3: XVIII century. First half / ed. V. V. Kallash. - Reprint. ed. - Moscow: Patriot, 1992 - (Reprint reproduction of the 1912 edition).
three centuries: Russia from the Time of Troubles to our time [Text] : ist. Sat. : In 6 vols. T. 4: XVIII century. The second half / ed. V. V. Kallash. - Reprint. ed. - Moscow: Patriot, 1992 - (Reprint reproduction of the 1912 edition).
Tercentenary Houses of the Romanovs, 1613-913 [Text]. - Moscow: Sovremennik, 1990. - (Reprint reproduction of the anniversary edition of 1913).
Three hundred years of the Romanov dynasty, 1613-1913 [Text]. - Reprint. ed. - Moscow: Assoc. "InformEKO", B. g. (1990). - (Reprint reproduction of the anniversary edition of 1913).
Russia under the scepter of the Romanovs, 1613-1913 [Text]. - Moscow; Tallinn: Moscow. and Tallinn. Phil. Joint venture "Interbook", 1991. - (Reprint reproduction of the anniversary edition of 1912).
Birth empire [Text] / comp. A. Lieberman, S. Shokarev. - Moscow: Sergei Dubov Foundation, 1997. - 538 p. - (History of Russia and the Romanov dynasty in the memoirs of contemporaries. XVII-XX centuries).
Kamensky, A. B. Russian Empire in the 18th century: traditions and modernization [Text] / Kamensky A.B. - Moscow: New lit. Review, 1999. - 326 p. : ill. - (Historia Rossica).
Marasinova, E. N. Power and personality [Text]: essays in Russian. history XVIII in. / E. N. Marasinova; Ros. acad. Sciences, Nauch. council "History of world culture", Ying. stories. - Moscow: Nauka, 2008.
Russian sovereigns, 1598-1917 [Text] / [ed. M. G. Davydov]. - Smolensk: Rusich, 2004.
With a sword and a torch: Palace coups in Russia, 1725-1825 [Text]: Sat. doc. and materials / comp., entry. Art. and comment. M. A. Boytsova. - Moscow: Sovremennik, 1991.
Bychkov, A. A. The Russian Empire of the Romanov era [Text] / Alexey Bychkov. - Moscow: AST [and others], 2007.
Chulkov, G. I. Emperors [Text]: psychol. portrait / Chulkov G. I. - Moscow: Art, 1995.
Manko, A. V. Women on the Russian throne [Text] / A.V. Manko. - Moscow: Shk. press, 2002.
Chizhova, I. B. Ten Empresses [Text] / Irina Chizhova. - Moscow: EKSMO; St. Petersburg: Midgard, 2006. - 813, p., l. col. ill., port. : ill. ; 22. - (Women's century. Socialites and fatal beauties).
About Emperor PeterI
Peter I(imp.). Favorites [Text] / Peter the Great; comp., auth. intro. Art. and comment. A. B. Kamensky; Institute of Societies. thoughts. - Moscow: ROSSPEN, 2010. - 485 p. ; 22. - (Library of domestic social thought from ancient times to the beginning of the 20th century).
Peter Great [Text]: memories. Diary entry. Anecdotes / comp., entry. Art. pp.5-50, and note. E. V. Anisimova. - St. Petersburg: Kultur.-prosvet. about-in "Pushkin. Fund" and others, 1993. - 447 p: 8 sheets of ill. -( statesmen Russia through the eyes of contemporaries).
Bogoslovsky, M. M. Peter I [Text]: materials for biogr. : [in 5 volumes] / M. M. Bogoslovsky. - Moscow: Tsentrpoligraf, 2007.
Massey, R.K. Peter the Great [Text]: personality and era: [in 2 volumes] / Robert K. Massey; [per. from English. Vitaly Volkovsky and Nina Luzhetskaya]. - St. Petersburg: Vita Nova, 2003.
Valishevsky, K. Peter the Great [Text]: ist. research / Kazimir Valishevsky. - Moscow: AST [and others], 2004. - 474, p. - (Golden Library of Historical Novel. Romanovs. Peter the Great).
berserk reformer [Text]. - Moscow: Sergei Dubov Foundation, 2000. - 554 p. - (History of Russia and the Romanov dynasty in the memoirs of contemporaries. XVII-XX centuries).
Peter Veliky: pro et contra [Text]: the personality and deeds of Peter I in the assessment of Russian. thinkers and researchers. : anthology / North-West. Department of Ros. Acad. education, Rus. Christian. humanit. in-t. - St. Petersburg: Publishing House Rus. Christian. humanit. in-ta, 2001. - 758 p. : portrait - (Russian way).
Brikner, A. G. An illustrated history of Peter the Great [Text] / A. G. Brikner. - Moscow: Svarog and K", 2000. - 682 p.: ill. - (Great Russia).
Pavlenko, N. I. Peter the Great [Text]: ist. essay / Pavlenko N.I. - Moscow: Thought, 1990.
Tolstoy, A. N. Peter the Great [Text]: novel: [in 2 volumes] / A.N. Tolstoy. - Moscow: Mosk. worker, 1980.
Granin, D. A. Evenings with Peter the Great [Text]: message. and evidence of Mr. M. / D.A. Granin. - St. Petersburg: History. ill., 2000. - ( Library of the Foundation for the Memory of His Serene Highness Prince A. D. Menshikov).
Schildkret, K. G. Under the yoke of Russia [Text]: (trilogy) / K.G. Shieldcrete. - Moscow: Armada, 1994. - 792 p. - (Romanovs: a dynasty in novels. Peter the Great (1672-1725)).
About Empress CatherineI
Petrov, P. N. In the name of Her Majesty / V. N. Druzhinin. Wax person / Yu. N. Tynyanov. White and black. - Moscow: Armada, 1996. - 780 p. - (Romanovs: Dynasty in novels. Catherine I).
Tynyanov, Yu. N. Wax person. Petrov, P. N. In the Name of Her Majesty / V. N. Druzhinin. Wax person / Yu. N. Tynyanov. White and black. - Moscow: Armada, 1996. - 780 p. - (Romanovs: Dynasty in novels. Catherine I).
Pavlenko, N. I. Catherine I [Text] / N. I. Pavlenko. - Moscow: Young Guard, 2004.
About Empress Anna Ioannovna
Anisimov, E. V. Anna Ioannovna [Text] / Evgeny Anisimov. - . - Moscow: Young Guard, 2004. - 362 p., L. ill., portrait, fax. : ill. ; 21. - (The life of remarkable people: a series of biogr.; Issue 1076 (876)).
About Emperor John Antonovich
Karnovich, E. P. Love and the Crown [Text] / E. P. Karnovich. Mirovich / G. P. Danilevsky. Two masks / V.A. Sosnora. - Moscow: Armada, 1994. - 764 p. - (The Romanovs: a dynasty in novels; v. 8. John Antonovich (1740-1764)). - Zagl. region : John Antonovich.
About Empress Elizabeth Petrovna
Anisimov, E. V. Elizaveta Petrovna [Text] / Anisimov E.V. - Moscow: Young Guard, 2000.
Valishevsky, K. Daughter of Peter the Great [Text]: Elizaveta Petrovna / Valishevsky K. - Reprint. play from ed. A. S. Suvorina. - Moscow: Joint. council.-fin. enterprise "IKPA"; Minsk: Polymya, 1990.
Valishevsky, K. Daughter of Peter the Great [Text]: Elizaveta Petrovna / K. Valishevsky; intro. Art. E. V. Anisimova. - Reprint. play 1911 edition - Moscow: Book: SP "Vneshiberika", 1990.
Maurin, E. I. Louis and Elizabeth [Text] / E. I. Maurin. Daughter of the Great Peter / N. E. Heinze. - Moscow: Armada, 1994. - 715 p. - (Romanovs: a dynasty in novels. Elizaveta Petrovna).
About Emperor PeterIII
Samarov, G. On the throne of the great grandfather [Text]: translation / G. Samarov. Witness: [to Sat. in general: ed. and comment. N. Yu. Rumyantseva] / E. M. Skobelev. - Moscow: Armada, 1995. - 713 p. : portrait - (Romanovs: a dynasty in novels. Peter III). - Zagl. region : Peter III.
Mylnikov, A. S."He did not look like a sovereign..." [Text]: Peter III. Narrative in doc. and versions / A. S. Mylnikov. - St. Petersburg: Lenizdat, 2001. - 670 p. : ill. - (Historical facts and literary versions).
About Empress CatherineII Great
Ivanov, V. N. Empress Fike [Text] / V. N. Ivanov. Catherine the Great / P. N. Krasnov. Petrovsky days / E. A. Salias. - Moscow: Armada, 1995. - 731 p. - (The Romanovs: a dynasty in novels. Book 1, Catherine the Great).
Catherine II(imp.). Notes of Empress Catherine II [Text]: per. from fr. / Catherine II; Academy of Sciences of the USSR. Institute of History of the USSR; resp. ed. E. L. Rudnitskaya. - Reprint. repro., 1859, London. - Moscow: Nauka, 1990. - VIII, 277 p. -( Russia XVIII century in the publications of the Free Russian Printing House of A. I. Herzen and N. P. Ogarev).
Obolensky, G. L. Age of Catherine the Great [Text]: the time of heroes and heroes. cases / G. L. Obolensky. - Moscow: Rus. word, 2001.
Donnert, E. Catherine the Great [Text]: personality and era / Erich Donnert; [per. with him. Vladislav Pevchev]. - St. Petersburg: Vita Nova, 2003.
De Madariaga, I. Catherine the Great and her era [Text] / Isabel de Madariaga; [per. from English. N. Luzhetskaya]. - [Means. revised book version. "Catherine the Great" (1990)]. - Moscow: Omega, 2006. - 445, p., l. col. ill., portrait, fax. : ill. ; 24. - (Mysterious Russia. A New Look) (Yale University: An Objective Research Experience).
Chaikovskaya, O. G. Empress. The reign of Catherine II [Text] / Tchaikovskaya O. G. - Moscow: Olympus; Smolensk: Rusich, 1998. - 508 p. : ill. - (Legendary person).
Bushkov, A. A. Catherine II [Text]: diamond Cinderella / Alexander Bushkov. - Moscow: OLMA Media Group, 2007.
Ravich, N. A. Two capitals [Text] / N. A. Ravich. The last favorite / D. G. Zhdanov. Senate Secretary / E.A. Salias. - Moscow: Armada, 1995. - 633 p. - (The Romanovs: a dynasty in novels. Book 2. Catherine the Great).
About Emperor PaulI
Peskov, A. M. Pavel I [Text] / Peskov A. M. - Moscow: Young Guard, 2000. - 420 p. - (The life of remarkable people: a series of biogr.; Issue 783).
Krestovsky, V.V. Grandfathers [Text] / V. V. Krestovsky. Knights of Malta in Russia / E. P. Karnovich. Conspiracy / M. A. Aldanov. - Moscow: Armada, 1994. - 731 p. - (The Romanovs: a dynasty in novels; vol. 12. Pavel 1 (1754-1801)).
O. I. Kryukovskaya, librarian of the service department
For almost 400 years of the existence of this title, it was worn completely different people- from adventurers and liberals to tyrants and conservatives.
Rurikovichi
Over the years, Russia (from Rurik to Putin) has changed its political system many times. At first, the rulers had a princely title. When after a period political fragmentation around Moscow a new Russian state, the owners of the Kremlin thought about taking the royal title.
This was done under Ivan the Terrible (1547-1584). This one decided to marry the kingdom. And this decision was not accidental. So the Moscow monarch emphasized that he was the successor. It was they who bestowed Orthodoxy on Russia. In the 16th century, Byzantium no longer existed (it fell under the onslaught of the Ottomans), so Ivan the Terrible rightly believed that his act would have serious symbolic significance.
Such historical figures as had a great influence on the development of the whole country. In addition to the fact that Ivan the Terrible changed his title, he also captured the Kazan and Astrakhan khanates, starting Russian expansion to the East.
Ivan's son Fedor (1584-1598) was distinguished by his weak character and health. Nevertheless, under him the state continued to develop. The patriarchate was established. Rulers have always paid much attention to the issue of succession to the throne. This time he stood up especially sharply. Fedor had no children. When he died, the Rurik dynasty on the Moscow throne came to an end.
Time of Troubles
After Fyodor's death, Boris Godunov (1598-1605), his brother-in-law, came to power. He did not belong to the royal family, and many considered him a usurper. With him because of natural disasters there was a huge famine. The tsars and presidents of Russia have always tried to keep calm in the provinces. Due to the tense situation, Godunov failed to do this. Several peasant uprisings took place in the country.
In addition, the adventurer Grishka Otrepiev called himself one of the sons of Ivan the Terrible and began a military campaign against Moscow. He really managed to capture the capital and become king. Boris Godunov did not live up to this moment - he died from health complications. His son Fyodor II was captured by the associates of False Dmitry and killed.
The impostor ruled for only a year, after which he was overthrown during the Moscow uprising, which was inspired by disgruntled Russian boyars who did not like that False Dmitry surrounded himself with Catholic Poles. decided to transfer the crown to Vasily Shuisky (1606-1610). AT Troubled times Russia's rulers changed frequently.
The princes, tsars and presidents of Russia had to carefully guard their power. Shuisky did not hold her back and was overthrown by the Polish interventionists.
First Romanovs
When in 1613 Moscow was liberated from foreign invaders, the question arose of who to make the sovereign. This text presents all the tsars of Russia in order (with portraits). Now it's time to tell about the ascension to the throne of the Romanov dynasty.
The first sovereign of this kind - Michael (1613-1645) - was just a young man when he was put to rule a vast country. His main goal was the struggle with Poland for the lands occupied by it during the Time of Troubles.
These were the biographies of the rulers and the dates of reign until mid-seventeenth century. After Michael, his son Alexei (1645-1676) ruled. He annexed left-bank Ukraine and Kyiv to Russia. So, after several centuries of fragmentation and Lithuanian rule, the fraternal peoples finally began to live in one country.
Alexei had many sons. The eldest of them, Fedor III (1676-1682), died at a young age. After him came the simultaneous reign of two children - Ivan and Peter.
Peter the Great
Ivan Alekseevich was unable to govern the country. Therefore, in 1689, the sole reign of Peter the Great began. He completely rebuilt the country in a European manner. Russia - from Rurik to Putin (we will consider all the rulers in chronological order) - knows few examples of an era so full of changes.
Appeared new army and fleet. To do this, Peter started a war against Sweden. 21 years lasted North War. During it, the Swedish army was defeated, and the kingdom agreed to cede its southern Baltic lands. In this region, in 1703, St. Petersburg was founded - the new capital of Russia. Peter's success made him think about changing his title. In 1721 he became emperor. However, this change did not abolish the royal title - in everyday speech, monarchs continued to be called kings.
The era of palace coups
Peter's death was followed by a long period of unstable power. The monarchs succeeded each other with enviable regularity, which was facilitated. As a rule, the guards or certain courtiers were at the head of these changes. During this era, Catherine I (1725-1727), Peter II (1727-1730), Anna Ioannovna (1730-1740), Ivan VI (1740-1741), Elizabeth Petrovna (1741-1761) and Peter III (1761-1762) ruled ).
The last of them was of German origin. Under the predecessor Peter III Elizabeth Russia led victorious war against Prussia. The new monarch renounced all conquests, returned Berlin to the king and concluded a peace treaty. With this act, he signed his own death warrant. The guard organized another palace coup, after which the wife of Peter Catherine II was on the throne.
Catherine II and Paul I
Catherine II (1762-1796) had a deep state mind. On the throne, she began to pursue a policy of enlightened absolutism. The Empress organized the work of the famous statutory commission, the purpose of which was to prepare a comprehensive project of reforms in Russia. She also wrote the Order. This document contained many considerations about the transformations needed for the country. The reforms were curtailed when a peasant uprising led by Pugachev broke out in the Volga region in the 1770s.
All the tsars and presidents of Russia (in chronological order, we listed all the royal persons) took care that the country looked worthy on the foreign arena. She was no exception. She led several successful military campaigns against Turkey. As a result, Crimea and other important Black Sea regions were annexed to Russia. At the end of Catherine's reign, three partitions of Poland took place. So the Russian Empire received important acquisitions in the west.
After the death of the great empress, her son Paul I (1796-1801) came to power. This quarrelsome man was not liked by many in the St. Petersburg elite.
First half of the 19th century
In 1801 there was another and the last palace coup. A group of conspirators dealt with Pavel. His son Alexander I (1801-1825) was on the throne. His reign fell on the Patriotic War and the invasion of Napoleon. Rulers Russian state For two centuries they have not encountered such a serious enemy intervention. Despite the capture of Moscow, Bonaparte was defeated. Alexander became the most popular and famous monarch of the Old World. He was also called "the liberator of Europe".
Inside his country, Alexander in his youth tried to implement liberal reforms. historical persons often change their policies with age. So Alexander soon abandoned his ideas. He died in Taganrog in 1825 under mysterious circumstances.
At the beginning of the reign of his brother Nicholas I (1825-1855) there was an uprising of the Decembrists. Because of this, conservative orders triumphed in the country for thirty years.
Second half of the 19th century
Here are all the tsars of Russia in order, with portraits. Further, we will talk about the main reformer of the national statehood - Alexander II (1855-1881). He became the initiator of the manifesto on the liberation of the peasants. The destruction of serfdom made it possible to develop Russian market and capitalism. The country began to grow economically. The reforms also affected the judiciary, local government, administrative and conscription systems. The monarch tried to raise the country to its feet and learn the lessons that the lost started under Nicholas I presented him.
But Alexander's reforms were not enough for the radicals. Terrorists attempted several times on his life. In 1881 they were successful. Alexander II died from a bomb explosion. The news came as a shock to the whole world.
Because of what happened, the son of the deceased monarch, Alexander III (1881-1894), forever became a tough reactionary and conservative. But he is best known as a peacemaker. During his reign, Russia did not conduct a single war.
The last king
Alexander III died in 1894. Power passed into the hands of Nicholas II (1894-1917) - his son and the last Russian monarch. By that time, the old world order with the absolute power of kings and kings had already outlived itself. Russia - from Rurik to Putin - knew a lot of upheavals, but it was under Nicholas that there were more than ever many of them.
In 1904-1905. the country experienced a humiliating war with Japan. It was followed by the first revolution. Although the unrest was suppressed, the king had to make concessions to public opinion. He agreed to establish a constitutional monarchy and a parliament.
The tsars and presidents of Russia at all times faced a certain opposition within the state. Now people could elect deputies who expressed these sentiments.
In 1914 the First World War. No one then suspected that it would end with the fall of several empires at once, including the Russian one. In 1917 broke out February Revolution, and the last king had to abdicate. Nicholas II, together with his family, was shot by the Bolsheviks in the basement of the Ipatiev House in Yekaterinburg.
The Winter Palace in St. Petersburg is the main imperial palace of Russia. The current building of the palace (fifth) was built in 1754-1762 by the Italian architect B.F. Rastrelli in the style of lush Elizabethan baroque with elements of French rococo in the interiors. From the end of construction in 1762 to 1904 it was used as the official winter residence Russian emperors.
In total, five winter palaces were built in the city during the period 1711-1764. Initially, Peter I settled in a one-story house built in 1703 not far from the Peter and Paul Fortress.
Peter the Great owned the site between the Neva and Millionnaya Street (on the site of the present Hermitage Theatre). In 1708, here, in the depths of the site, a wooden "Winter House" was built - a small two-story house with a high porch and a tiled roof. In 1712, the stone Wedding Chambers of Peter I were built. This palace was a gift from the governor of St. Petersburg, AD Menshikov, for the wedding of Peter I and Ekaterina Alekseevna.
In 1716, the architect Georg Mattarnovi, on the orders of the king, began the construction of a new Winter Palace, on the corner of the Neva and the Winter Canal (which was then called the "Winter Canal"). In 1720, Peter I and his entire family moved from their summer residence to their winter residence. In 1725, Peter died in this palace.
Later, Empress Anna Ioannovna considered the Winter Palace too small and in 1731 entrusted its reconstruction to F. B. Rastrelli, who offered her his project for the reconstruction of the Winter Palace. According to his project, it was required to purchase houses that stood at that time on the site occupied by the current palace and belonged to Count Apraksin, the Naval Academy, Raguzinsky and Chernyshev. Anna Ioannovna approved the project, the houses were bought up, demolished and construction began in the spring of 1732. The facades of this palace were facing the Neva, the Admiralty and the "meadow side", that is, the palace square. In 1735, the construction of the palace was completed, and Anna Ioannovna moved into it to live. The four-story building included about 70 ceremonial halls, more than 100 bedrooms, a gallery, a theater, and a large chapel.
After the death of Anna Ioannovna, the young emperor John Antonovich was brought here, who stayed here until November 25, 1741, when Elizaveta Petrovna took power into her own hands. Under Elizabeth, the extension to the palace of office premises continued. On January 1, 1752, the Empress decided to expand the Winter Palace, after which the neighboring plots Raguzinsky and Yaguzhinsky. At the new location, Rastrelli built new buildings. According to the project he drew up, these buildings were to be attached to the existing ones and be decorated with them in the same style. In December 1752, the Empress wished to increase the height of the Winter Palace from 14 to 22 meters. Rastrelli was forced to redo the design of the building, after which he decided to build it in a new location. But Elizaveta Petrovna refused to move the new Winter Palace. As a result, the architect decides to rebuild the entire building; the new project was signed by Elizaveta Petrovna on June 16 (June 27), 1754.
The fourth (temporary) Winter Palace was built in 1755. It was built by Rastrelli at the corner of Nevsky Prospekt and the embankment of the river. Washers. It was destroyed in 1762.
From 1754 to 1762, the construction of the existing and currently existing palace building was underway, which at that time became the tallest residential building in St. Petersburg. The building included about 1500 rooms. The total area of the palace is about 60,000 sq. m. Elizaveta Petrovna did not live to see the completion of construction, Peter III accepted the job on April 6, 1762. By this time, the decoration of the facades was completed, but many of the interior spaces were not yet ready. In the summer of 1762, Peter III was overthrown from the throne, the construction of the Winter Palace was completed under Catherine II.
First of all, the Empress removed Rastrelli from work. The interior decoration of the palace was carried out by the architects Yu. M. Felten, J. B. Vallin-Delamot and A. Rinaldi under the guidance of Betsky. According to the original layout of the palace, made by Rastrelli, the largest front rooms were on the 2nd floor and overlooked the Neva. As conceived by the architect, the path to the huge “Throne” Hall (which occupied the entire space of the northwestern wing) began from the east - from the “Jordanian” or, as it was formerly called, “Ambassadorial” stairs and ran through a suite of five anterooms. Rastrelli placed the palace theater "Opera House" in the southwestern wing. Kitchens and other services occupied the northeastern wing, and in the southeastern part, between the living quarters and the “Great Church” arranged in the eastern courtyard, a gallery was thrown.
In 1763, the empress moved her chambers to the south-eastern part of the palace; under her rooms, she ordered the chambers of her favorite G. G. Orlov to be placed. In the northwestern risalit, the “Throne Hall” was equipped; a waiting room appeared in front of it - the “White Hall”. A dining room was placed behind the White Hall. Adjacent to it was the "Light Cabinet". The dining room was followed by the “Front Bedchamber”, which became the “Diamond Peace” a year later.
In 1764, Catherine II received from Berlin 317 valuable paintings with a total value of 183 thousand thalers from the private collection of paintings by Johann Ernst Gotzkovsky on account of his debt to Prince Vladimir Sergeevich Dolgorukov. The paintings were placed in secluded apartments of the palace, which received the French name "Hermitage" (a place of solitude); from 1767 to 1775 a special building was built for them to the east of the palace.
In the 1790s, by decree of Catherine II, who considered it inappropriate for the public to enter the Hermitage through her own chambers, a lintel gallery was created with the Winter Palace - "Apollo Hall", with the help of which visitors could bypass the royal apartments. At the same time, Quarenghi also erected a new “Throne (Georgievsky)” hall, opened in 1795. The old throne room was converted into a series of rooms provided for the quarters of the newly married Grand Duke Alexander. The "Marble Gallery" (of three halls) was also created.
In 1826, according to the project of K. I. Rossi, the Military Gallery was built in front of St. George's Hall, which housed 330 portraits of generals who participated in the war of 1812, painted over almost 10 years by D. Dow. In the early 1830s, in the eastern building of the palace, O. Montferrand designed the Field Marshal's, Petrovsky and Armorial halls.
After the fire of 1837, when all the interiors were destroyed, the restoration work in the Winter Palace was led by architects V.P. Stasov, A.P. Bryullov and A.E. Shtaubert.
The modern three-story building has the shape of a square of 4 outbuildings with a courtyard and facades facing the Neva, the Admiralty and Palace Square. The splendor of the building is given by the magnificent decoration of the facades and rooms. The main façade, facing Palace Square, is cut through by the arch of the main passage, which was created by Rastrelli after his work on the repair of the palace in Strelna.
The palace building has 1084 rooms, 1945 windows, 117 stairs (including secret ones). The length of the facade from the side of the Neva is 137 meters, from the side of the Admiralty - 106 meters, the height is 23.5 meters.
Despite the restructuring and many innovations, the main planning scheme of the palace retained the ideas of F.-B. Rastrelli. Palace buildings are formed around the inner Great Courtyard. Light courtyards were created in the northwestern and southwestern wings on the site of the Throne Hall and the Opera House, around which enfilades of living quarters were formed. From the east, the Small Hermitage, built along the Black Passage, adjoins the Winter Palace. The buildings of the St. George's Hall, the Great Church, the southeast and northeast wings of the palace go into this passage; the space is divided into a system of courtyards and depressions: “Small” and “Big Church” courtyards (from the Big Church located here, founded back in 1763), “Church” and “Garage” (from the garage located here) depressions, “Kitchen Yard” .
In the 1840s, a unique heating system was installed in the building with Ammos stoves, which were located in the basements, and heated fresh air entered the premises through the fire channels (later, a water-air system will be created on this basis). In 1886 the Winter Palace was electrified.
The facades of the palace changed their color scheme several times. The original color had a very light warm ocher color, with the emphasis on the order system and the plastic decor with white lime paint. The minutes of the Chancellery from the buildings speak of the release of lime, chalk, ocher and blackling (red earth, which after processing was used as a pigment) for these works. In later documents, there are such names as “pale yellow with white”, “under the color of a wild stone”. The roof was tinned.
Before the fire of 1837, there were no fundamental changes in the color of the palace, with the exception of the roof, which in 1816 changes its color from white-gray to red. During the post-fire repair, the color scheme of the facade was made up of slaked Tosno lime, ocher, Italian mummy and part of the Olonets earth, which was used as a pigment and had a shade Ivory, the roof is painted with iron minium, giving it a brown-red color.
In the second half of the 1850s - 1860s, under Emperor Alexander II, the color of the facades of the palace changed. The ocher becomes more dense. The order system and plastic decor are not stained with an additional color, but acquire a very slight tonal highlight. In fact, facades are perceived as monochrome.
In the 1880s, under the emperor Alexandra III, the coloring of the facades is made in two tones: a dense ocher expression with the addition of red pigment and a weaker terracotta tone. With the accession of Nicholas II in 1897, the emperor approved the project for painting the facades of the Winter Palace in the color of the “new fence of the Own Garden” - red sandstone without any tonal highlighting of the columns and decor. All the buildings on Palace Square were painted in the same color - the headquarters of the Guards Corps and the General Staff, which, according to the architects of that period, contributed to the unity of perception of the ensemble.
The terracotta-brick color of the palace was preserved until the end of the 1920s, after which experiments and the search for a new color scheme began. In 1927, an attempt was made to paint it gray, in 1928-1930. - in brown-gray tones, and the copper sculpture on the roof - in black. In 1934, an attempt was made to paint the palace with oil paint for the first time. orange color with white paint highlighting the order system, but the oil paint had negative impact on stone, plaster and stucco decoration. In 1940, a decision was made to remove the oil paint from the façade.
With the beginning of the Great Patriotic War for camouflage, the palace is painted with reversible adhesive gray paint. In 1945-1947, a commission consisting of the chief architect of Leningrad N. V. Baranov, the head of the State Inspectorate for the Protection of Monuments N. N. Belekhov, representatives of the Leningrad City Executive Committee, the State Construction Control, the State Hermitage Museum and scientific consultants decided to paint the walls of the palace with chromium oxide with adding emerald pigment; columns, cornices, interfloor rods and window frames - in white; stucco decoration, cartouches, capitals - with ocher, while it was decided to leave the sculpture black.
Fifth emperor of the 18th century
Having become emperor, Paul I sought to catch up, to put his views into practice. He was talented person, but his tragedy was that for most of his life he waited for his "turn" to the throne, grieving and worrying about his unclear future as heir. Waiting for his hour lasted more than 20 years, and the feeling of worthlessness, humiliation, annoyance for mediocre lost years, constant danger did not leave Paul I, spoiled his character, made a neurasthenic man out of a once cheerful, romantic youth. Having come to power, Paul I could not overcome the vindictive desire to destroy everything that was instituted under his mother. Pedantic attention to detail, inconsistency, inconsistency with a clear tendency to solve problems with simplistic, crude methods - all this became his style of government. Paul's character deteriorated. What was previously held back by an effort of will, fear of his mother, broke out: the emperor became an unpredictable, quick-tempered, capricious and harsh ruler with the manners of a tyrant. He had no experience state activities, but he was stubborn and incapable of understanding the complex problems of politics. At the same time, he was intolerant not only to the free expression of his opinions by those around him, but also to any manifestation of independence. Having become an autocrat, he began to implement the “Gatchina” version of the transformations, to build not the “kingdom of reason and law”, about which they talked so much with N.I. Panin, but a crude repressive state.
marginal notes
Why did Paul, full of liberal designs in his youth, become such an unexpectedly harsh ruler? The debate about the personality and political views of Paul I has not subsided for the second century: this tragic figure of Russian history seems so contradictory and complex. It is clear that the political views of Paul I were formed under the influence of many factors and underwent a certain evolution during his life. These views were ultimately based on the ideas of the Enlightenment that were common to enlightened people of the 18th century and close to Catherine II, pursued the utopian goal of the “common good” common to the 18th century, but these ideas were interpreted and implemented by Paul I in a different way than that of Catherine II. This ultimately determined the striking difference between the transformations of Paul I, the emperor, and the transformations of Catherine II.
It is known that the formation of the worldview of Tsarevich Pavel Petrovich was strongly influenced by his tutor, Count N.I. Panin, a consistent supporter of limiting imperial power in Russia. It has already been said above that the meaning of the transformations proposed by N.I. Panin in 1763 was to establish a limitation on the power of the empress State Council clearly aristocratic. In the education system of the heir, Panin laid the general idea of the supremacy of "fundamental laws", without which it is indecent and impossible to rule a truly worthy sovereign. The idea itself was not particularly original. Since the time of Montesquieu, Ivan Shuvalov, a lot has been written and talked about this, these ideas have been in the air. Quite fully the logic of Panin's judgments is revealed by his "Discourses on indispensable laws", compiled by him on the eve of his death in 1783 and intended for Pavel. These arguments are syllogisms typical of the 18th century:
1. Power is given to the sovereign solely for the good of the people.
2. Only an absolutely virtuous sovereign - "virtue on the throne" can give a blessing.
3. Taking into account the weaknesses natural for the sovereign as a person, it is unthinkable to achieve absolute virtue.
Hence the conclusion: the sovereign can achieve the good of the people only in one way - "by setting immutable rules in his state, based on the common good and which he himself could not violate." The set of laws themselves is not so important, but it is important that the monarch cannot violate them. But this is where the death trap for autocracy lies, for in this way the most important postulate of autocracy is eliminated - the complete, uncontrolled right to change laws at any time, to establish them at one’s own discretion, and also to rule without any laws, when the law is the will of the sovereign.
Of course, all these ideas of Panin were closely connected with the current political situation for those times. They contained a condemnation of the favoritism reigning at the court of Catherine II, the rule not of law, but of “passions”. After all, this opened the way to arbitrariness, when “not the temper of the sovereign adapts to the laws, but the laws to his temper” and when, finally, the sovereign is enslaved by the spokesman of passions - a favorite, as a rule, an unworthy person. That's when autocracy "reaches unbelievability." Everything, according to Panin, depends on the arbitrariness of a pet, everyone is afraid of him, and “his gaze, posture, speech do not signify anything else than: “Worship me, I can destroy you!”
Reading this, Pavel saw the well-known figure of Orlov, Potemkin, or any other favorite of Catherine II. But for Pavel, Panin's constitutional ideas were important not only from the point of view of morality, worthy and useful service to the Fatherland, Russia (for Pavel, these concepts were not an empty phrase), but also from the point of view of his future. And it was very foggy. Catherine II, generally dissatisfied with Tsarevich Pavel, behaved with him in the same way as Elizabeth had once with Peter Fedorovich, who was objectionable to her. In other words, she simply held, like an ax over the head of the heir, the Charter on the succession to the throne of Peter the Great of 1722, which allowed her to appoint any of her subjects as her successors and cancel, if necessary, the decision already made on the succession to the throne. Let us add other factors to this: the insinuations spread by Paul’s enemies about his “illegitimate birth”, Catherine’s special demonstrative love for Paul’s son Alexander, the humiliation and oppression of the heir by the favorites, memories of the tragic fate of his father, Peter III, as well as Paul’s suspicions and fears for his life and freedom. In a word, considering all this, the problem of establishing such a “fundamental law” as the law of succession to the throne in a direct male descending line could become, seemed to Paul of paramount importance. In his absence, he saw the cause of both political instability in Russia and his precarious position.
In 1787, Paul drafted a similar law for succession to the throne by birthright. This was necessary so that “the state would not be without an heir, so that the heir was always appointed by the law itself, so that there was not the slightest doubt who would inherit and in order to preserve the right of childbirth in the inheritance, without violating natural rights and avoiding difficulties in the transition from the clan into the genus." Later, these considerations spurred Paul I, on the day of his coronation, April 5, 1797, to approve and publicly read out the law on succession to the throne, which should be above the will of a particular autocrat and which canceled Peter's "Charter" of 1722.
But it turned out that such a "fundamental law" was not enough. The root of Paul's tragedy is that, recognizing Panin's ideas, he tried to combine the unlimited power of the autocracy and human freedoms, "the power of the individual" and "the power of the law", in a word, to combine the incompatible. So, he wrote:
“We found it best to harmonize the necessary monarchical executive power in the vastness of the state, with the advantage of the liberty that every state needs to protect itself from despotism or the sovereign himself.”
But such “coordination” turned out to be impossible in principle. In addition, Paul I hated his mother, spreading this hatred to the liberal order that she introduced, and to her favorites, and to the outstanding and insignificant figures of her government. He denied everything that she brought to Russia with her reform activities. As a result, no matter what Paul I said about law, law (and without recognizing and continuing the acts of Catherine in this area, it was impossible to move on), in his mind, way of thinking and behavior, the Gatchina “model of life” still came to the fore. . He wanted to tighten discipline, introduce strict regulation, "indispensable order", and saw this as a panacea for all ills. Destroying the "state of enlightened monarchy" erected by his mother, Paul began to build only an "executive state." This was the root of his personal tragedy and death ...
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