The role of speech in human development and life. The role of speech in labor and cognitive activity of a person. Audio communication features

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MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE OF THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION

Kemerovo State Agricultural Institute

Faculty of Humanities and Education

Department of History and Pedagogy

TEST

ON THE DISCIPLINE "PSYCHOLOGY"

Completed by: Sudnitsina R.N.

Checked by: Trefilkina I.M.

KEMEROVO 2014

1.2 TYPES OF SPEECH

1.4 INTERNAL SPEECH

2. PSYCHOLOGY OF A SMALL GROUP

2.1 CLASSIFICATION OF SMALL GROUPS

1. THE SIGNIFICANCE OF SPEECH IN HUMAN LIFE

“Speech is a channel for the development of intellect

The sooner the language is mastered, the easier and more fully the knowledge will be assimilated.

N.I. Zhinkin

Speech is very great importance In human life. With its help, we communicate with each other, learn about the world. Speech activity for a person and society has great value. This is the human environment. Because without communication, a person cannot exist. Thanks to communication, a person’s personality is formed, intelligence develops, a person is brought up and educated. Communication with other people helps to organize common work, discuss and implement plans. Thus, society reached a high level of civilization, flew into space, descended to the bottom of the ocean.

Speech is the main means of human communication. Without it, a person would not be able to receive and transmit a large number of information. Without written language, a person would be deprived of the opportunity to find out how people of previous generations lived, thought and did. He would not have had the opportunity to communicate his thoughts and feelings to others. Thanks to speech as a means of communication, the individual consciousness of a person, not limited to personal experience, is enriched by the experience of other people, and to a much greater extent than observation and other processes of non-verbal, direct cognition, carried out through the senses: perception, attention, imagination, memory and thinking. Through speech, the psychology and experience of one person become available to other people, enrich them, and contribute to their development.

According to its vital importance, speech has a multifunctional character. It is not only a means of communication, but also a means of thinking, a carrier of consciousness, memory, information (written texts), a means of controlling the behavior of other people and regulating a person’s own behavior. According to the set of its functions, speech is a polymorphic activity, i.e. in its various functional purposes is presented in different forms: external, internal, monologue, dialogue, written, oral, etc. Although all these forms of speech are interconnected, their vital purpose is not the same. External speech, for example, plays mainly the role of a means of communication, internal - a means of thinking. Written speech most often acts as a way of remembering information. The monologue serves the process of one-way, and the dialogue serves the two-way exchange of information.

It is important to distinguish language from speech. Their main difference is as follows. Language is a system of conventional symbols, with the help of which combinations of sounds are transmitted that have a certain meaning and meaning for people. Speech is a set of spoken or perceived sounds that have the same meaning and the same meaning as the corresponding system of written signs. The language is the same for all people using it, speech is individually unique. Speech expresses the psychology of a single person or a community of people for whom these features of speech are characteristic, the language reflects the psychology of the people for whom it is native, and not only living people, but also all others who lived before and spoke this language. language.

Speech without language acquisition is impossible, while language can exist and develop relatively independently of a person, according to laws that are not related either to his psychology or his behavior.

The link between language and speech is the meaning of the word. It is expressed both in units of language and in units of speech.

At the same time, speech carries a certain meaning that characterizes the personality of the person who uses it. Meaning, unlike meaning, is expressed in those purely personal thoughts, feelings, images, associations that given word causes this person. The meanings of the same words are different for different people, although the linguistic meanings may be the same.

speech thinking psychology child

1.1 SPEECH AS A MEANS OF COMMUNICATION AND GENERALIZATION

In phylogeny, speech originally acted, probably, as a means of communication between people, a way of exchanging information between them. This assumption is supported by the fact that many animals have developed means of communication and only humans have the ability to use speech in solving intellectual problems. In chimpanzees, for example, we find a relatively highly developed speech that is in some respects human-like. Chimpanzee speech, however, expresses only the organic needs of animals and their subjective states. It is a system of emotional-expressive expressions, but never a symbol or sign of anything outside the animal. The language of animals does not have those meanings that human speech is rich in, and even more so meanings. In various forms of gesture-mimic and pantomimic communication of chimpanzees, emotional-expressive movements are in the first place, although they are very bright, rich in form and shades.

In animals, in addition, one can find expressive movements associated with the so-called social emotions, for example, special gestures - greetings to each other. Higher animals, as the experience of careful observation of their communication shows, are well versed in each other's gestures and facial expressions. With the help of gestures, they express not only their emotional states but also impulses directed to other objects. The most common way chimpanzees communicate on such occasions is by initiating the movement or action they want to imitate or to which they want to induce another animal. The grasping movements serve the same purpose, expressing the desire of the monkey to receive some object from another animal. Many animals are characterized by the connection of expressive emotional movements with specific vocal reactions. It, apparently, underlies the emergence and development of human speech.

Let us pay attention to one more genetic prerequisite for the development of human speech as a means of communication. For many animals, speech is not only a system of emotional and expressive reactions, but also a means of psychological contact with their own kind. Speech, which is formed in ontogenesis, initially plays the same role in humans, at least at the age of one and a half years. This speech function is also not yet associated with the intellect.

But the human individual cannot be satisfied with such a communicative role of speech, which is very limited in its capabilities. In order to convey any experience or content of consciousness to another person, there is no other way than the signification of speech statements, i.e. attributing the transmitted content to some known class of objects or phenomena. This certainly requires abstraction and generalization, the expression of a generalized abstracted content in a word-concept. The communication of people developed psychologically and culturally certainly presupposes generalization, the development of verbal meanings. This is the main way to improve human speech, bringing it closer to thinking and including speech in the management of all other cognitive processes.

In recent years, there has been a lot of controversy and discussion on the question of whether the ability to assimilate speech in humans is innate or not. The opinions of scientists on this issue are divided: some stand on the position that this ability is not innate, while others adhere to the point of view that it is genetically determined.

On the one hand, there is convincing evidence that one cannot speak of any innateness of human speech. These are, for example, the facts of the absence of any signs of articulate human speech in children who grew up in isolation from people speaking their native language and who never heard a human voice. This is also evidence of numerous unsuccessful experiments in teaching higher animals the language of man, the ability to use at least elementary concepts. Only in a person, and only in conditions of properly organized training and education, can verbal intelligible speech appear and develop.

On the other hand, there are no less reliable facts that indicate that many higher animals have a developed communication system, which in many of its functions resembles human speech. Higher animals (monkeys, dogs, dolphins and some others) understand human speech addressed to them, selectively react to its emotional and expressive aspects.

Completely acquired behavior, which does not have innate inclinations for development, is formed and progresses slowly, not at all in the same way as it takes place in the case of the acquisition of speech. First, when it is unfolded, the simplest elements of acquired behavior appear, which become peculiar inclinations, and only then more complex forms of behavior are constructed on their basis. This process, as a rule, is long and covers a very significant period of time in the life of an individual. An example of this is the process of assimilation of concepts by children, which is completed only by adolescence, although speech is already formed at the age of about three years.

Another proof of the possible existence of innate prerequisites for the acquisition of speech in humans is the typical sequence of stages of its development. This sequence is the same for all children, regardless of where, in what country and when they were born, in what culture they developed, and what language they speak. An additional, indirect proof of the same idea is the following fact: as is well known, speech cannot be mastered by a child before a certain period of time, for example, before one year of age. This becomes possible only when the corresponding anatomical and physiological structures mature in the body.

Very interesting, but no less complicated, is the following question: are higher animals able to master human speech? Numerous early experiments in teaching the speech of monkeys did not, as we know, give a satisfactory answer to this question. The anthropoids in these experiments were taught verbal language and the use of concepts, but all these attempts failed. Subsequently, scientists dealing with this problem abandoned teaching animals the highest form of human speech associated with thinking, and decided to try to teach animals to use the human language of facial expressions and gestures, the one used by people who are deaf from birth. And the experience was a success.

One of the most famous and fruitful studies of this type was carried out in 1972. Its authors, American scientists B.T. Gardner and R.A. Hardner, attempted to teach female chimpanzees to use some special signs borrowed from the American version of the language of the deaf. The training began when the chimpanzee was about one year old (about the same time that a human child begins to actively acquire speech), and continued for four years. All those who cared for the animals were supposed to use only the language of facial expressions and gestures in communicating with them.

At first, people actively supported any attempts of the monkey to independently reproduce and practically use this or that gesture demonstrated to it in communication with a person. Later, after the experimenter, having taken the monkey's hands in his own, at the right moment imitated the studied gesture for a sufficiently long period of time, the monkey learned to use signs of this kind well. Ultimately, the animal began to learn new gestures on its own, simply by watching how a person uses them. By the age of about 4 years, Washi (that was the name of the monkey) could already quite independently reproduce about 130 different gestures, and understood even more. A similar positive result was then obtained by other researchers. For example, F.G. Patterson, teaching sign language to a gorilla monkey named Koko from 1 year to 7 years old, taught her to use 375 signs in communicating with people.

1.2 TYPES OF SPEECH

Let's highlight the main types of human speech. This is oral and written speech, dialogical and monologue speech, external (sounding and conscious) and internal (not accompanied by sounds and not conscious) speech.

Oral speech is called speech, with the help of which people directly communicate with each other, pronouncing certain sets of sounds associated with certain objects or phenomena known from experience. These sets of sounds are transmitted and perceived by other people by ear through the corresponding fluctuations in air pressure. Oral speech does not involve the use of signs depicted on any material media and perceived visually or by touch (such as writing signs for blind people).

Written speech is called speech based on images of symbols (signs, letters, hieroglyphs) on any material media: on papyrus, parchment, paper, monitor screen, on any other visually perceived material. Written speech has a figurative basis; in it, any images are used to convey the content of the statement.

Dialogic is a speech in which at least two people participate. Each of them utters a remark addressed to another person or several people; their own speech statements, in turn, act as reactions to the replica of this person.

Monologue is a speech that belongs to only one person, pronounced from beginning to end only by himself. For example, it can be a text written by one person, a speech delivered by one person and not interrupted by the remarks of other people. Oral monologue is the performance of a person in front of the public.

Dialogue involves the repeated interruption of a given person's speech by the statements of other people; at the same time, the remarks of each of the participants in the dialogue act as speech reactions to the statements of other people and without this they may be incomprehensible to those who listen or read this dialogue.

The monologue, in turn, does not imply any speech reaction on the part of the person who perceives it and should be understandable in itself.

Both dialogue and monologue can be, respectively, oral or written. In an oral dialogue, for example, a person can make a speech on behalf of two or several different persons, successively changing roles with them (if more than two people participate in such an exchange of speech remarks, then their joint conversation is called a polylogue). This is what actors often do. Writers often reproduce various forms of written dialogue in their literary works.

External (sounding, conscious) is called such speech, which is realized by the speaker himself and which is also perceived by other people. In everyday business, household and other types of communication, we constantly use this speech to exchange information with each other.

Inner speech is a special kind of speech that is involved in managing only the internal, psychological processes that take place in a person’s head. This speech has its own characteristics and its own specific functions.

1.3 CORRELATION OF SPEECH AND THINKING

We already know that at the highest levels of development of speech and thinking, when we mean the verbal-logical thinking of a person, speech and thinking are most closely related to each other. However, not all types of thinking are necessarily carried out on a speech basis. There are types of thinking that are not directly related to speech. This is visual-effective and visual-figurative thinking. There are also varieties of speech that are not related to thinking. These include, for example, all types of speech that are used by a person exclusively in the communicative function. The simplest of these types of speech is the one called body language and which includes gestures, facial expressions, pantomime. A more complex - also almost exclusively communicative type of speech - is the one that children master at an early age, from one to three years. This is an ordinary, sounding speech, actively used by children in the process of communicating with people around them, but children early age, as a rule, do not use it to organize their thinking. Following the general logic of speech development, which is characteristic of both phylogenesis and ontogenesis, children first master speech in its communicative function and only then, after a few years and usually not earlier than 4 years of age, turn to the use of speech in the intellectual function.

It follows from the foregoing that speech and thinking in the human psyche can exist both together and separately from each other. IN domestic psychology this question was first raised and discussed in detail by L.S. Vygotsky, his ideas were recognized by the world psychological science. Thought and word in verbal-logical thinking, according to Vygotsky, are so closely related to each other that it is practically impossible to separate them. Following the tradition that has developed in many developed sciences to divide complex phenomena not into elements, but into units, Vygotsky singled out a unit that characterizes verbal-logical thinking and designated it as the meaning of a word. In his famous book Thinking and Speech, Vygotsky wrote that the meaning of a word belongs both to the realm of thinking and to the realm of speech. This should be understood in the following way. The meaning of a word includes the content that is embedded in the word as a concept by people who speak the language to which this word refers. The meanings of words are usually reflected in the explanatory dictionaries of the corresponding language. When people communicate with each other in the corresponding language, they primarily exchange the meanings of words with each other and achieve mutual understanding for the reason that they understand the meanings of the corresponding words in the same way. Consequently, the meaning of a word is something that is inextricably linked with speech, that is, “belongs to the realm of speech,” in the words of Vygotsky.

However, the meaning of a word is also a concept, and a concept refers to thinking. Therefore, the meaning of a word is also a unit of thinking, and as a result, a unit of that unity that represents verbal-logical thinking. True, as Vygotsky rightly admits, the word does not immediately and completely acquire the meaning that characterizes the speech and thinking of adults. The process is quite lengthy, it takes at least ten years in human ontogenesis, and by tracing it, we can establish the laws by which the connection of thinking and speech proceeds in ontogenesis.

1.4 INTERNAL SPEECH

Inner speech is primarily silent speech. When a person uses this type of speech, he does not pronounce words aloud and does not produce any sounds that could be perceived by himself or others. The process of generating this speech is completely internal process, which does not have obvious external manifestations. Inner speech is unconscious. When a person uses inner speech, he himself is not aware of this fact and, in connection with this, cannot say which words, phrases, etc. he speaks in inner speech. It follows, for example, that a person is not able to consciously control the process of his inner speech. Inner speech has its own special structure that distinguishes this speech from other varieties of speech. First of all, it is predicative. This means that in inner speech there are only words and expressions related to the predicate of the utterance, and there are practically no words and expressions related to the subject of the utterance. Second, inner speech is agglutinated. Inner speech is used by a person only to organize his own thinking and to control his mental processes, states and behavior. It is never used as a means of exchanging information or communicating between people. This does not mean that a person is not able to convey to other people what exists at the level of his inner speech. But he does this not with the help of inner speech as such, but with the help of other varieties of speech, in particular those described above. Inner speech can pass into other types of speech, and the process of this transition is also basically internal.

1.5 EGOCENTRIC SPEECH OF THE CHILD

Egocentric speech is one of the external manifestations of the child's egocentric position. According to J. Piaget, children's speech is egocentric because the child speaks only "from his own point of view" and does not try to take the point of view of the interlocutor. The child thinks that others understand him (just like he understands himself), and does not feel the desire to influence the interlocutor and really tell him something. For him, only the interest of the interlocutor is important.

Such an understanding of egocentric speech met with many objections (L. S. Vygotsky, S. Buhler, V. Stern, S. Eysenck, etc.), and Piaget in later works tried to clarify the meaning of this concept. According to Piaget, the child is not aware of the difference between his own and someone else's point of view. Egocentric speech does not cover the entire spontaneous speech of the child. The coefficient of egocentric speech (the share of egocentric speech in the array of spontaneous speech) is changeable and depends on the activity of the child himself and on the type of social relations established between the child and the adult and between children of the same age.

In an environment where spontaneous, casual connections dominate and the child is left to himself, the coefficient of egocentric speech increases. During the symbolic game, it is higher in comparison with the situation of jointly organized work of children. With age, the distinction between play and experimentation is established, and the egocentric speech quotient decreases.

At the age of 3, it reaches its greatest value: 75% of all spontaneous speech. From 3 to 6 years Egocentric speech gradually decreases, and after 7 years it practically disappears completely. Where adult authority and coercive relations dominate, the percentage of egocentric speech is quite high. In a peer environment where discussions and disputes are possible, the percentage of egocentric speech decreases.

Vygotsky gave the concept of "egocentric speech" a different meaning. According to his concept, egocentric speech is “speech for oneself”, and in the course of development it does not disappear without a trace, but turns into inner speech. Piaget highly appreciated Vygotsky's hypothesis, at the same time emphasizing the originality of his own concept. Egocentric speech is characterized, according to Piaget, by the fact that the subject is not sufficiently aware of the significance of his position and personal capabilities in the picture of the outside world and projects his subjective ideas in this world. (L. F. Obukhova.)

2. PSYCHOLOGY OF A SMALL GROUP

A person as a person is formed in a group, he is a direct and indirect spokesman for intra-group relations. The significance of the group for the individual, first of all, is that the group is a certain system of activity, given by its place in the system of social division of labor. The group itself acts as a subject of a certain type of activity and through it is included in the entire system public relations. In this regard, the group acts as the most complete reflection of the fundamental features of the social system within which it is formed and functions.

A group is a community limited in size, distinguished from the social whole on the basis of certain characteristics (the nature of the activity performed, social or class affiliation, structure, composition, level of development, etc.).

The most common division of groups by size into large and small groups. Large groups can be conditional, including subjects who do not have direct and indirect objective relationships with each other, may never even see each other, but due to the sign on the basis of which they were singled out into such a group, have common social and psychological characteristics (national, age, gender, etc.).

Unlike large groups, small groups are always directly contacting individuals united by common goals and objectives. A distinctive feature of a small group is the relative simplicity of its internal structure. This means that in a small group there is, as a rule, an authoritative leader (if the group is informal) or an authoritative leader (if the group is official), around whom the rest of the group members unite. Differentiating groups according to the nature of their organization, which regulates the interaction of group members, it should be noted that the official organization assumes that the structure of the group is given from outside, while the informal organization of the group is regulated by internal structural features that are formed as a result of psychological rather than legal interaction of people.

Depending on the tasks facing the psychologist, small groups can be divided:

according to the degree of proximity of relations between group members into primary (family, close friends) and secondary (educational, industrial contacts);

depending on the rights that are granted to the participants by the group, on parity (all members of the group have equal rights) and non-parity (there is a certain hierarchy of rights and obligations);

depending on the value of the group for the individual, into membership groups (where the individual is present only due to certain circumstances, although he does not share the attitudes, relations, etc. existing in it) and reference groups (acting for the individual as a standard, a model for behavior, self-esteem).

The very fact that people are included in groups according to their activities, according to the nature of social relations, becomes so obvious that it requires the close attention of researchers. It can be said that the role of small groups is objectively increasing in a person's life, in particular, because the need to make group decisions in production, in life, and so on, is increasing.

A small group is considered as a special kind of psychological phenomenon, as an intermediate link in the "personality - society" system. The study of this phenomenon, according to scientists, will explain not only the laws of personality formation, but also the laws of social development of a higher order. The cohesion of small groups, the stability of their structure, against the impact of forces aimed at breaking intra-group ties, the effectiveness of the group and its dependence on the size, on the style of leadership, the conformity of the individual in the group and its independence from the group, as well as other problems of interpersonal relations - all this became the subject of research and formed a special section social psychology- the study of group dynamics within the framework of the psychology of the team.

2.1 CLASSIFICATION OF SMALL GROUPS

The abundance of small groups in society implies their great diversity, and therefore, for the purposes of research, their classification is necessary. The ambiguity of the concept of a small group gave rise to the ambiguity of the proposed classifications. In principle, the most diverse grounds for classifying small groups are acceptable: groups differ in the time of their existence (long-term and short-term), in the degree of closeness of contact between members, in the way an individual enters, etc. Currently, about fifty different bases of classification are known. It is advisable to choose the most common of them, which are three classifications: 1) dividing small groups into “primary” and “secondary”, 2) dividing them into “formal” “informal”, 3) dividing them into “membership groups” and “reference groups” ".

For the first time, the division of small groups into primary and secondary was introduced by the American sociologist C. Cooley (1864 - 1929). He introduced into the classification of small groups such a sign as immediacy of contacts. The primary group consists of a small number of people between whom direct relationships are established, in which an essential role belongs to their individual characteristics. The secondary is formed from people between whom direct emotionally colored ties are relatively rare, and interaction is due to the desire to achieve common goals. In the secondary group, the roles are clearly defined, but its members often know little about each other, and emotional relationships are rarely established between them, which are characteristic of small primary groups. So, in an educational institution, common primary groups are study groups of students and teams of departments, and the whole team acts as a common secondary group. educational institution. This classification has no practical significance at present.

The division of small groups into formal and informal was first proposed by the American researcher E. Mayo (1880 - 1949) during his famous Hawthorne experiments. According to Mayo, a formal group is distinguished by the fact that all the positions of its members are clearly defined in it, they are prescribed by group norms. In accordance with this, the roles of all members of the group and the system of subordination to the leadership are also strictly distributed in the formal group. An example of a formal group is any group created under the conditions of some specific activity: a work team, a school class, a sports team, etc.

Within formal groups, E. Mayo also discovered “informal” groups that form and arise spontaneously, where neither statuses nor roles are prescribed, where there is no given system of vertical relationships. An informal group can be created within a formal one, when, for example, in a school class groupings arise, consisting of close friends united by some common interest, thus, two structures of relations are intertwined within a formal group. But an informal group can also arise on its own, not within a formal group, but outside it: people who accidentally united for volleyball games somewhere on the beach, or a closer group of friends belonging to completely different formal groups, are examples of such informal groups. groups. Sometimes, within the framework of such a group (say, in a group of tourists who went on a hike for one day), despite its informal nature, joint activities arise, and then the group acquires some features of a formal group: certain, albeit short-term, positions and roles. In practice, it was found that in reality it is very difficult to isolate strictly formal and strictly informal groups, especially in cases where informal groups arose within the framework of formal ones.

Therefore, proposals were born in social psychology that remove this dichotomy. On the one hand, the concepts of formal and informal group structures (or the structure of formal and informal relations) were introduced, and it was not the groups that began to differ, but the type, the nature of the relations within them. Mayo's proposals contained just such a meaning, and the transfer of the definitions of "formal" and "informal" to the characteristics of groups was done quite arbitrarily. On the other hand, a more radical distinction between the concepts of "group" and "organization" was introduced, which is characteristic of the development of social psychology in the last twenty years. Despite the abundance of research on the social psychology of organizations, a sufficiently clear separation of the concepts of "organization" and "formal group" still does not exist. In a number of cases, we are talking about the fact that any formal group, unlike an informal one, has the features of an organization.

Despite some vagueness of terminology, the discovery of the very presence of two structures in small groups was of great importance. It was already emphasized in Mayo's studies, and from them conclusions were subsequently drawn that had a certain social meaning, namely: the ability to use the informal structure of relations in the interests of the organization. There are currently a large number experimental studies dedicated to identifying the influence of a certain ratio of formal and informal group structures on its cohesion, productivity, etc. The problem is of particular importance in the study of the issue of managing and leading a group.

Thus, the second of the traditionally developed classifications of small groups cannot be considered rigorous, although the classification of structures built on its basis is useful for developing ideas about the nature of groups.

The third classification of small groups distinguishes between membership groups and reference groups. It was introduced by G. Hyman, who owns the discovery of the very phenomenon of the "reference group". In Hyman's experiments, it was shown that some members of certain small groups (in this case, these were student groups) share the norms of behavior adopted by no means in this group, but in some other one, to which they are guided. Such groups, in which individuals are not really included, but the norms that they accept, Hyman called reference groups. The difference between these groups and real membership groups was noted even more clearly in the works of M. Sheriff, where the concept of a reference group was associated with the "frame of reference" that an individual uses to compare his status with the status of other persons. Later, G. Kelly, developing the concept of reference groups, identified two of their functions: comparative and normative. The comparative function is manifested in the fact that the individual compares behavior with the norms of the reference group as with a standard, and the normative function evaluates it from the standpoint of the norms accepted in the group. In Russian social psychology (A.V. Petrovsky, b. 1924), the reference group is defined as a “significant social circle”, i.e. as a circle of persons selected from the entire composition of the real group and especially significant for the individual. In this case, a situation may arise when the norms adopted by the group become personally acceptable to the individual only when they are accepted by the "significant circle of communication", i.e. there also appears, as it were, an intermediate landmark, to which the individual intends to be equal. And such an interpretation has a certain meaning, but, apparently, in this case we should not talk about “reference groups”, but about “reference” as a special property of relations in a group, when one of its members chooses as a starting point for their behavior and activities a certain circle of people (Shchedrina, 1979).

The division into membership groups and reference groups opens up an interesting perspective for applied research, in particular in the field of studying the illegal behavior of adolescents: to find out why a person included in such membership groups as a school class, a sports team, suddenly begins to focus on the wrong norms, which are accepted in them, but on the norms of completely different groups, in which he was initially not included at all (some dubious elements "from the street"). The mechanism of influence of the reference group allows us to give a primary interpretation of this fact: the membership group has lost its attractiveness for the individual, he compares his behavior with another group.

In addition to those considered, there are other classifications of small groups. So, A.V. Petrovsky distinguishes groups according to the degree of their development, taking into account the nature of interpersonal relationships. He represents the hierarchy of real contact groups as follows: a diffuse group - in it, relationships are mediated only by likes and dislikes, but not by the content of group activity; association - a group in which relationships are mediated only by personally significant goals; corporation - relationships are mediated by personally significant, but asocial in their settings, the content of group activity; collective - relationships are mediated by personally significant and socially valuable content of group activity.

It is suggested that the virtualization of life, the development of information networks can lead to the emergence of virtual interest groups united by communication using the electronic "web" of the Internet.

Particularly favorable for the members of the group, their socialization, self-actualization and self-affirmation, as well as the success of joint activities, is a group that is at a high level of socio-psychological development and is characterized as a team. It is distinguished by the highest cohesion, unity of aspirations to achieve socially and personally significant goals, mutual strengthening of formal and informal structures, socially mature group phenomena (group norms, collective opinion, moods, traditions and customs, etc.), business and comradely relationships, goodwill, friendship, comradeship, mutual assistance, coordination of actions, collectivism, emotional upsurge, high group identification of members, their ability to combine personal relationships with collective ones, moods of satisfaction with membership in a team and pride in belonging to it. In the team there is a sense of honor of the team, the need to respect, protect and strengthen it.

The sociometric direction in the study of small groups is associated with the name of J. Moreno. The discussion that constantly arises in the literature about the limitations of the sociometric method requires a brief reminder of the essence of the concept. Moreno proceeded from the idea that two structures of relations can be distinguished in society: the macrostructure (which for Moreno meant the “spatial” placement of individuals in various forms of their life activity) and the microstructure, which, in other words, means the structure of the psychological relations of the individual with the people around him . According to Moreno, all tensions, conflicts, including social ones, are caused by a mismatch between micro- and macrostructures: the system of likes and dislikes that express the psychological relations of an individual often does not fit into the framework of the macrostructure, and the immediate environment is not necessarily an environment consisting of psychologically acceptable relation to people. Therefore, the task is to rearrange the macrostructure in such a way as to bring it into line with the microstructure. Based on the application of this technique, a whole area of small group research has arisen, especially in applied areas.

The sociological direction in the study of small groups is associated with the tradition that was laid down in the experiments of E. Mayo already mentioned. Their essence was as follows. Western Electric has experienced a decline in the productivity of relay assemblers. Long-term research (prior to Mayo's invitation) did not lead to a satisfactory explanation of the reasons. Then, in 1928, Mayo was invited, who set up his own experiment, initially with the aim of elucidating the influence on labor productivity of such a factor as the illumination of the working room. The experiments at Hawthorne, in total, lasted from 1924 to 1936, the various stages are clearly marked in them, but only the main scheme of the experiment is reproduced here. In the experimental and control groups identified by Mayo, various conditions labor: in the experimental group, the illumination increased and an increase in labor productivity was indicated, in the control group, with constant illumination, labor productivity did not grow. At the next stage, a new increase in illumination in the experimental group gave a new increase in labor productivity; but suddenly in the control group - with constant illumination - labor productivity also increased. At the third stage, lighting improvements were canceled in the experimental group, and labor productivity continued to grow; the same happened at this stage in the control group.

These unexpected results led Mayo to modify the experiment and conduct several additional studies: now not only the illumination was changed, but a much wider range of working conditions (placing six workers in a separate room, improving the wage system, introducing additional breaks, two days off a week and etc.). With the introduction of all these innovations, labor productivity increased, but when, under the conditions of the experiment, innovations were canceled, it, although it decreased somewhat, remained at a level higher than the original one.

Mayo suggested that some other variable manifests itself in the experiment, and considered the very fact of the participation of workers in the experiment as such a variable: awareness of the importance of what is happening, their participation in some event, attention to themselves led to greater involvement in the production process and increased productivity labor, even in cases where there were no objective improvements. Mayo interpreted this as a manifestation of a special sense of sociality - the need to feel "belonging" to a group. The second line of interpretation was the idea of the existence of special informal relations within the work brigades, which just emerged as soon as attention was paid to the needs of the workers, to their personal “destiny” in the course of the production process. Mayo concluded not only that, along with the formal, there is also an informal structure in the teams, but also about the significance of the latter, in particular, about the possibility of using it as a factor influencing the team in the interests of the company. As for the theoretical significance of Mayo's discoveries, it consists in obtaining a new fact - the existence of two types of structures in a small group, which opened up a broad perspective for research. After the Hawthorne experiments, a whole trend in the study of small groups arose, mainly associated with the analysis of each of the two types of group structures, identifying the relative significance of each of them in the group management system.

The school of "group dynamics" is the most "psychological" direction in the research of small groups and is associated with the name of K. Levin. The American period of Levit's activity after emigration from Nazi Germany began with the creation of a special Center for the Study of Group Dynamics at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. The direction of research in this center was based on the “field theory” created by Levin. The central idea of field theory, that the laws of social behavior should be sought through the knowledge of the psychological and social forces that determine it, was developed in relation to the science of groups, to the analysis of these forces, their localization and measurement. The most important method of analyzing the psychological field was the creation in laboratory conditions groups with given characteristics and the subsequent study of the functioning of these groups. The totality of these studies has received the name "group dynamics". The main problems boiled down to the following: what is the nature of groups, what are the conditions for their formation, what is their relationship with individuals and with other groups, what are the conditions for their successful functioning. great attention was also given to the problems of formation of such characteristics of the group as norms, cohesion, the ratio of individual motives and group goals, and finally, leadership in groups.

Answering the main question about what needs drive people's social behavior, "group dynamics" closely studied the problem of intra-group conflicts, compared the effectiveness of group activity in conditions of cooperation and competition, and ways of making group decisions. Like all the psychological heritage of K. Levin, "group dynamics" had a great influence on the subsequent development of socio-psychological thought.

Interactionist concept. According to this approach, a group is a system of interacting individuals whose functioning in a group is described by three basic concepts: individual activity, interaction, and attitude. The interactionist concept suggests that all aspects of group behavior can be described based on an analysis of the relationships between the three named elements. The works carried out within the framework of this direction are mainly devoted to the study of the structural aspects of the group.

Empirical-statistical direction. According to this approach, the basic concepts of group theory should be derived from the results of statistical procedures, such as factor analysis, and not formulated a priori. Such an understanding led to the widespread use of procedures developed in the field of personality testing and presented, in particular, in the studies of such a well-known specialist as R. Cattell, who proposed one of the theories of group behavior.

Today, at least four major research approaches can be distinguished in domestic group psychology.

Activity approach. It is based on one of the most fundamental principles of Marxist psychology - the principle of activity. Application of the activity principle to research social group had a very fruitful effect on the construction of a number of theories of group activity. Among them, first of all, it should be noted the above-mentioned stratometric concept of A.V. Petrovsky, the most developed model of the group process in Russian social psychology today, which has recently received further development in the system-activity analysis of the behavior of an individual in a group. Among other theoretical constructions in this direction, we will name the one proposed by M.G. Yaroshevsky, a program-role approach to the study of a scientific team and developed by G.M. Andreeva model of social-perceptual processes in joint activity. The ideas of the activity approach were embodied in the study of individual phenomena of a social group: its integration and effectiveness, leadership and leadership, intergroup relations.

Sociometric direction. As in foreign group psychology, a considerable number of domestic studies of small groups can be attributed to the so-called sociometric direction. The basis for such an attribution is the use by specialists in specific empirical work as the main methodological means of certain variants of the sociometric test. In Soviet social psychology, Ya.L. . he designed various sociometric procedures and included the empirical method in a meaningful theoretical context - this has no analogues in Western social psychology, where the use of sociometry as a method for studying interpersonal relations, according to the foreign authors themselves, has long been “untied” from any serious theory.

parametric concept. The creator of this research approach is L.I. Umansky, who developed the original concept of group activity in the 1960s and 1970s. The main idea of the approach is the assumption that the gradual development of a small (contact. according to L.I. Umansky) group is carried out due to the development of its most important socio-psychological parameters. The most significant research carried out within the framework of this concept concerns the organizational, emotional and dynamic characteristics of the group.

Organizational and managerial approach. This approach is based on the ideas developed in Soviet social science, including sociological and socio-psychological science, about social organization and management activities. Relating to the direction under consideration (its originators are the psychologists of the Leningrad school and, above all, E.S. Kuzmin), numerous studies of groups and collectives are of a pronounced applied nature and, for the most part, are focused on solving problems of psychological support in the sphere of industrial production.

Thus, the trend that prevails today abroad consists in the integration and interpenetration of approaches, in the erasure of strictly defined conceptual frameworks, in the development of local theoretical structures that do not claim to be broad, group-wide generalizations, but rather are designed to explain a rather narrow range of empirical facts related to to one or another separate group phenomenon, less often to several of them.

Tracing the history of the formation of the psychology of small groups and collectives in our country and noting the progress made in recent decades in the development of theory and empirical developments, it should be noted that the problem of group development needs further development, especially the section that relates to the characteristics of the highest level of life activity. groups are collectives. Another "bottleneck" in the study of the group is its consideration as an aggregate subject of joint activity with specific attributes inherent in it. Also among the poorly developed issues of group psychology is the empirical study of a small group as an element of a larger social community (for example, a social organization), experiencing its influence and, in turn, capable of influencing the macrosociety.

LIST OF USED LITERATURE

1. Brushlinsky A.V. Introduction to psychology. - M: 1985.-115s.

2. Grozdev A.N. Questions of studying children's speech. - M.: 1983.-231s.

3. Danilova A.N. Psychology. - M.: 1998.- 68s.

4. Tikhomirov O.K. Psychology of thinking. - M.: 1984.-72s.

5. General psychology: A course of lectures for the first stage of ped. education. (Compiled by E.I. Rogov.-M.: Humanitarian publishing center VLADOS, 2002.-448s.).

6. Nemov R.S. Psychology: Proc. for students of higher ped. textbook establishments. In 3 books. - 4th ed. - M.: Humanit. ed. center VLADOS, 2000.-book 1: General Basics psychology.-688s.

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The beginning of speech development

Speech as a science began to be studied in depth in the 20th century. At the same time, since ancient times, there have been sciences that were also aimed at understanding speech, such as linguistics, logic, poetics, the theory of literature, rhetoric and the theory of stage speech. As for the 20th century, it brought new directions in the study of speech, such as psycholinguistics, communication theory, research on child speech, bilingual theory, sociolinguistics. Functional stylistics, colloquial studies, phonology, functional and communicative approaches in grammar, statistics of language and speech, semiotics, phonology and computer languages have received an impetus in development. At the same time, the functions and forms of speech began to be actively studied. Psychology studies the process of information exchange in close relationship with thinking and consciousness.

Theories of the origin of speech in humans

Since the development of psychology as a science, interest in the study of the phenomenon of speech has not weakened. Thanks to this popularity, a number of theories of its origin have arisen, most of them are absurd and have no right to exist, because they do not solve the problem of the genesis of the language and do not confirm what functions speech performs. Here are some of the most popular theories at different times:

The social contract theory was popular in the 18th century and said that speech arose for the conclusion of this very contract.
The theory of the instinctive origin of language cannot explain the difference between human speech and the language of animals in that part that the former is conscious and designated.
The theory of the “onomatopoeic” origin of the language lies in the fact that speech is based on onomatopoeic words that are found in different languages (for example, children's words tick-tock, meow-meow and others). But it has not received development, since these words are designed to depict the subject, and the function of speech is to display it.
Noiret theory - according to this theory, speech was formed in the process of hard work and is based on a combination of sounds emitted when performing a certain type of work, thus in the team the connection between the action and the sound associated with it caused the formation of speech.
Marr's theory is based on the works of Marx and Engels and represents the following concept. Language is a product of socio-historical development in the process of production and undergoes refraction through social consciousness. It is impossible to consider the language only from the physiological and phonetic point of view; when studying it, one should definitely take into account its semantic side. Because it consists of phonemes - separate conscious parts, and not of instinctively emitted sounds.

Audio communication features

Any child, gradually developing, first begins to master gestures and movements, and then proceeds to the perception and use of sounds, which later become connected speech, taking into account all the rules and traditions adopted in this ethnic group.

Communication through sounds has its own functions, which emerged gradually and do not reflect the functions of speech:

An investment in the spoken emotional coloring, which allows you to influence the perception of the opponent and in some cases increases the possibility of obtaining benefits from contact.
Imitation of sounds - thanks to sound imitation, some objects, creatures and phenomena got their names, since this phenomenon is designed to display the sound they make.
The expression of thoughts is associative. Some objects got their names due to their similarity to other objects. So, for example, a leaf of a tree is called so due to the sound it makes, a paper sheet took its name from it - the sounds of folding were similar to the rustle of trees. But the rolled sheet is outwardly associated with paper and is named the same. Thus, a series of associations gave three completely different objects the same name.

What are the types of speech

Over time, more branches of science have appeared that study the types and functions of speech. So, recently it was possible to distinguish the main types of speech:

Autonomous - a phenomenon of the child's speech. This type is remarkable in that it arises situationally and does not have a special syntactic connection with the concepts of words and syllables repeated after adults.
Egocentric - speech without taking into account the presence of the interlocutor, directed at oneself, characterizes and controls one's own actions. It occurs in preschool children when they are still talking to themselves, commenting on their actions or asking questions without receiving an answer from outside. As a rule, the manifestation of this type of speech in children disappears by the age of 7.
Oral - speech with the use of language, perceived by ear.
Written - communication occurs through the use of graphic structures that reflect the meaning of oral speech.
Gesture - used to communicate with people who are deaf, has its own grammatical and lexical patterns.
Dactyl - has a resemblance to gestural speech, while it has mimic accompaniment.
Internal - supports thinking and is not aimed at communication.
External - serves to communicate with other persons and transfer information both orally and in writing.

inner speech

Inner speech serves to support the thinking of the individual; it does not include sound accompaniment. Due to the fact that it is deprived of the primary function of speech - the transmission of a message, inner speech becomes a form of thought work. In this case, in a person's thinking, a process of internal dialogue, or an imaginary dialogue, takes place with some object with which it is not possible to communicate personally.

It is often devoid of a number of elements typical of the communicative function of speech, and is also significantly compressed.

External speech

External speech is used mainly to convey information to other individuals, being the transformation of thought into something tangible. The types and functions of speech in this case are more extensive.

Types of external speech:

Monologue - a type of speech in which there is only one subject, serves to transfer knowledge and information of a large volume, is considered a very complex process and implies a high speech development of the subject.
Dialogue is a mutual, alternating exchange of information between two or more individuals.
A retort is an emotional response to an opponent's statement or action.

The functions that speech performs

The process of information exchange, like any other, performs its tasks. The functions of speech in psychology are its features as an activity. They are used by the subject consciously and unconsciously to achieve certain goals.

Main functions of speech:

Indicative function - an indication of an object occurs explicitly or veiled.
Predicative - serves to express subjective judgments on a specific topic.
Semantic - expresses the thoughts of the speaker, due to which it denotes objects and actions, as well as phenomena.
The communicative function of speech serves both to convey information to other people and to encourage them to actions that are beneficial to the speaker.
Emotionally expressive - expresses the emotional attitude of a particular person to another individual or event. In some cases, it can be a call to action.

Functions of speech styles

Scientific - necessary for the transfer of complex scientific knowledge.
Journalistic - performs the function of propaganda, agitation and influence. Used in public speaking, news and periodicals.
Artistic - used when writing works for a wide range of readers, affects them emotionally.
Business style - used when writing business documentation and concise transmission of information, completely devoid of emotional overtones.
Conversational - is used both in oral and written forms, the functions of speech in this case are reduced to informal communication.

Features of the child's speech

As mentioned earlier, the child's speech is initially autonomous. Following the autonomous stage of speech development in children, an egocentric type of speech begins to appear. In addition to communicating with others, the child accompanies his actions with sound speech, this lasts until the age of seven, at which time the lexicon child to approximately 4500 words. Gradually, egocentric speech turns into internal speech, and then the functions of the child's speech change.

At the first stages, children learn nouns and verbs, and later adjectives are added. It has also been proven that in preschool age, in the process of becoming a child's speech, he fully masters both the sound mother tongue, and the chain of building a grammatically correct sentence, that is, the child learns to initially build full-fledged sentences, this happens almost subconsciously.

The functions of speech in psychology, like science itself, are still being actively studied. Much attention is paid to the study of the characteristics of children's speech, since it is believed that it is at this age that the formation of thinking and consciousness of an adult begins.

Questions at the beginning of the paragraph.

Question 1. What are the similarities and differences between the needs of humans and animals?

A person, like animals, has needs that are fixed genetically: for food, water, comfortable temperature, and communication. Such needs can be called basic, because without their satisfaction a person cannot exist physically. Congenital unconditioned reflexes and conditioned reflexes developed on their basis allow the child to satisfy his needs with the help of adults.

Question 2. What are the functions of external and internal speech?

Inner speech is not just talking to yourself. It, performing a regulatory or planning role, has an abbreviated structure other than external speech. Inner speech in its semantics never denotes an object, never has a strictly nominative character.

External speech serves as a means of communication between people.

Question 3. What applies to cognitive processes?

Question 4. How can observation, memory and imagination be improved?

Speed reading courses are an excellent source for improving memory. They will not only improve your memory, but will also allow you to read and process the information you read 5-8 times faster than an ordinary person.

Memory is directly related to mindfulness. Therefore, in order to improve memory, it is first necessary to develop mindfulness. During a trip in a fixed-route taxi, carefully look at people, remember faces, hairstyles, color of clothes and other seemingly insignificant little things. Then, after some time has passed, try to reproduce the people who traveled with you in public transport.

Questions at the end of the paragraph.

Question 1. What is the difference between the needs of humans and animals?

Along with the needs that ensure physical existence (for food, water, communication, procreation, safety, etc.), a person has spiritual needs (in creative activity, recognition of the results of his work, art, etc.) and needs in objects created by human civilization.

Question 2. Give examples of basic and secondary human needs.

Basic needs (related to ensuring the vital activity of the body): the need for food, water, regular movement, keeping warm, etc. Secondary needs (related to human behavior in society): the need for study, work, creativity, art, etc.

Question 3. What factors influence the formation of needs?

The formation of needs is influenced by the level of development of society, the material wealth of the family, the fashion for certain consumer goods.

Question 4. What is the role of speech in the organization of work?

With the help of words, people can exchange thoughts, consciously manage their behavior, coordinating it with other people, share knowledge, acquire new knowledge, skills and abilities.

Question 5. Explain how inner speech is formed. What function does it perform?

The behavior of a small child is usually controlled by adults. They show him the necessary actions and call them. Gradually, the moment comes when the child himself is able to follow the verbal instruction. In the future, the child himself begins to pronounce the actions that he is going to take, as if giving instructions to himself. This is especially evident during the game. Verbal cues - commands later turn into internal speech. The instructions become so long, but just enough to organize conscious behavior. Thus, speech becomes not only a means of communication, but also a means of organizing one's own behavior.

Question 6. What mental processes are cognitive?

Cognitive processes include sensations, perception, memory, imagination and thinking, as well as representations of memory and imagination.

Question 7. What do we attribute to the object of perception, and what to the background?

The object of perception can be attributed to objects and phenomena that become the center of our attention. All other objects at the moment serve as the background of perception.

Question 8. What are the difficulties in reproducing informational material?

Distinguish between objective and subjective perception. When a person accurately describes facts, he uses objective perception. With subjective perception, a person describes (reproduces) not so much the facts and events that he witnessed as his own feelings about these events. It is impossible to understand anything concrete from such a story.

Question 9. What is the meaning of speech in memorization and reproduction?

Memory is the memorization, preservation and subsequent reproduction by a person of his experience. Memory is much more stable when it is based on speech. With the help of speech, the memorization and subsequent reproduction of the received information is enhanced.

Question 10. How is short-term memory different from long-term memory?

Allocate short-term (seconds, minutes) and long-term (months, years) memory. In the first case, continuously circulating streams of nerve impulses are formed in the system of neutron chains, and in the second case, chemical substances, which direct the excitation through the desired communication channels.

Question 11. What is imagination?

Imagination is a mental process that consists in creating new ideas based on the processing of existing images and impressions.

Question 12. Explain the difference between active and passive imagination.

Active imagination is an imagination that allows a person to imagine what will be the result before starting his work. Passive imagination - imagination that replaces active actions, in essence - these are dreams.

Question 13. How is thinking related to speech? Give examples.

Speech is most directly related to thinking, as it is a means of expressing and communicating thoughts. For example, we express the idea of the continuous changeability of the world with the help of speech, in verbal formulations: “the world is constantly changing”, “there is nothing permanent”, “everything flows, everything changes”, “you cannot enter the same river twice”, etc. d.

Question 14. What are the qualities of the mind?

Mind - a set of individual features of thinking. Independence, criticality, flexibility, creative initiative, selectivity are the main qualities of the mind.

The concept and functions of speech.

Types of speech.

Equipment: lecture notes, notes and a diagram on the board, a test with tasks

Bibliography:

1. R.S. Nemov General psychology: A short course. - St. Petersburg: St. Petersburg, 2005: ill., (p. 151-153)

2. General psychology: Textbook / edited by Tugushev R.Kh. and Garber E.I.-M.: Eksmo Publishing House, 2006. (p. 244, p. 249)

3. Psychology: Textbook for students of higher pedagogical educational institutions: V3 book - 3rd ed.

Lesson progress

1.Org.moment

2. Setting goals and objectives

3. Study of new material.

The concept and functions of speech.

Speech- this is a mental function associated with the knowledge and use of languages by a person for communication, thinking and solving many other vital tasks. (R.S. Nemov)

Without written language, a person would be deprived of the opportunity to find out how people of previous generations lived, thought and did. He would not have had the opportunity to communicate his thoughts and feelings to others. Thanks to speech as a means of communication, the individual consciousness of a person, not limited to personal experience, is enriched by the experience of other people, and to a much greater extent than observation and other processes of non-verbal, direct cognition carried out through the senses: perception, attention, imagination, memory. and thinking. Through speech, the psychology and experience of one person become available to other people, enrich them, and contribute to their development.

Speech functions:

1.Communicative- speech acts as a means of communication or information exchange between people;

2.Intelligent- speech is involved in the processes of thinking;

3.Motivational-regulating- speech is involved in the management of both mental processes and states, and human behavior;

4.Psychodiagnostic- a person’s speech expresses his psychology (for example, when we analyze a person’s spontaneous speech statements, ask him questions and evaluate the answers to them. We offer to compose something and judge by the compositions psychological characteristics person);

5.Psychotherapeutic- we try to calm the person with words, inspire him with self-confidence, especially if this person is sick or worries about problems that have arisen in him.

The value of speech in human life.

Speech is the main means of human communication. Without it, a person would not be able to receive and transmit a large amount of information, in particular, one that carries a large semantic load or captures in itself something that cannot be perceived with the help of the senses (abstract concepts, not directly perceived phenomena, laws, rules, etc.). . P.). Thanks to speech as a means of communication, the individual consciousness of a person, not limited to personal experience, is enriched by the experience of other people, and to a much greater extent than observation and other processes of non-verbal, direct cognition carried out through the senses: perception, attention, imagination, memory and thinking.

“Speech is a channel for the development of intellect

The sooner the language is mastered, the easier and more fully the knowledge will be assimilated.

N.I. Zhinkin

Speech is very important in human life. With its help, we communicate with each other, learn about the world. Speech activity for a person and society is of great importance. This is the human environment. Because without communication, a person cannot exist. Thanks to communication, a person’s personality is formed, intelligence develops, a person is brought up and educated. Communication with other people helps to organize common work, discuss and implement plans. Thus, society reached a high level of civilization, flew into space, descended to the bottom of the ocean.

Speech is the main means of human communication. Without it, a person would not be able to receive and transmit a large amount of information. Without written language, a person would be deprived of the opportunity to find out how people of previous generations lived, thought and did. He would not have had the opportunity to communicate his thoughts and feelings to others. Thanks to speech as a means of communication, the individual consciousness of a person, not limited to personal experience, is enriched by the experience of other people, and to a much greater extent than observation and other processes of non-verbal, direct cognition carried out through the senses: perception, attention, imagination, memory. and thinking. Through speech, the psychology and experience of one person become available to other people, enrich them, and contribute to their development.

According to its vital importance, speech has a multifunctional character. It is not only a means of communication, but also a means of thinking, a carrier of consciousness, memory, information (written texts), a means of controlling the behavior of other people and regulating a person’s own behavior. According to the set of its functions, speech is a polymorphic activity, i.e. in its various functional purposes, it is presented in different forms: external, internal, monologue, dialogue, written, oral, etc. Although all these forms of speech are interconnected, their vital purpose is not the same. External speech, for example, plays mainly the role of a means of communication, internal - a means of thinking. Written speech most often acts as a way of remembering information. The monologue serves the process of one-way, and the dialogue serves the two-way exchange of information.

The link between language and speech is the meaning of the word. It is expressed both in units of language and in units of speech.

At the same time, speech carries a certain meaning that characterizes the personality of the person who uses it. Meaning, unlike meaning, is expressed in those purely personal thoughts, feelings, images, associations that a given word evokes in this particular person. The meanings of the same words are different for different people, although the linguistic meanings may be the same.

speech psychology small group