Relevance of the study: Until recently, one of the features of the Russian socio-cultural context was the situation of a sharp break in religious traditions, which arose as a result of the radical atheism of the Soviet period. Over the past decades, this situation has changed significantly, and enough time has passed since the late 1980s for many traditions to be restored and religious institutions to regain their former functions. However, it is probably too early to talk about the complete overcoming of this gap. Ethnic groups, in whose traditional culture there is a large confessional component, still feel it in the intergenerational transfer of sacred knowledge, religious practices and their meanings, in the absence of religious socialization. In addition, being involved in dynamic transformational processes taking place in the context of globalization and modernization, such communities are now experiencing difficulties of a different kind.

In addition to the so-called "main" religions - Orthodoxy and Islam, as well as many "new" trends that have appeared in recent years, in the modern ethno-confessional mosaic of Russia, one can single out a group of traditional religions that are not widely spread today, but have played a significant role in national history. The latter include, in particular, the Old Believers. Due to objective reasons, such groups that did not retain even a minimal base for growth during the Soviet period (clergy personnel, educational institutions, religious buildings) and did not enjoy external support, such groups found themselves in a rather difficult situation. Their survival entirely depends only on internal adaptation resources and developed during historical development self-preservation mechanisms.

The Old Believer culture strives for the maximum actualization of the heritage, and tradition is the most important way of structuring the collective experience. In the mental sphere, traditionalism is expressed in the use by the Old Believers of the categories of mythologized (medieval) consciousness to explain historical realities and modern reality, a kind of interpretation of book texts, and the existence of utopian legends. This principle is clearly demonstrated by the high degree of preservation of the ancient forms of worship and the attributes that accompany it. Adherence to antiquity is observed in oral and musical folklore, in aesthetic preferences (canonical iconography and architectural types), in the archaic way of life and rituals of the life cycle, the abundance of Old Slavicisms in Old Believer dialects, etc.

As is known, due to the binary nature of the thinking of believers, the semantic series of “traditional” and “modern” are always value-opposed, and therefore, in the collective consciousness, there is usually a certain ideal type of “ancient tradition” (synonymous with “pure”, “clear”), which in contact with modernity is threatened. The concept of "purity of the canon", sealed with sacred authority, underlies the self-determination of any religious institutions, and those for which traditionalism is of particular value associate this purity with the need to preserve the faith of their ancestors. For them, the problem of finding new forms of translation of traditional norms in modern dynamic reality is on a par with the problem of self-preservation of the group as an integrity. Consequently, the absence of such an opportunity threatens them with the erosion of identity and the loss of selfhood. In this regard, the following questions seem to be extremely relevant: what are the mechanisms of such self-preservation, in what particular forms (practices) do they find their expression, and, finally, are they capable of ensuring the stable existence of such ethno-confessional formations today? It should be noted that the mechanisms of self-preservation in this work are understood as a set of unique states and processes, interdependent and in a certain subordination, aimed at maintaining group integrity and balance between the social system and the environment.

The aspects of the features of self-preservation of closed religious communities considered in this dissertation work as an object of study are of great scientific interest already because of their novelty and little study. So, in public opinion and among most of the scientists, the Old Believers are defined only as a Russian religious movement. However, being one of the forms of Christianity, it was not an exclusively Russian phenomenon and was quite widespread among a number of Finno-Ugric and some Turkic peoples. On the territory of the Ural-Volga region, most of all non-Russian Old Believers were among the Mordovians and Komi-Permyaks, a small number among the Udmurts and Chuvashs. This is evidenced by various written sources, in particular, the published materials of the All-Russian census of 1897. Such groups with cultural specificity still exist and need a comprehensive study. The penetration of the Old Believers into different ethno-cultural environments undoubtedly influenced the existence of the environment itself, transformed it and introduced new elements. At the same time, it modified itself, pouring out into other forms in the process of adaptation to the real environment. The cultural specificity of the groups that adopted the Old Believers largely contributed to the identification of new divisions within the ethnic groups (in the case of the ethnographic groups of the Komi-Permyaks, the Yazva and Zyuzda people). Today, the problem of self-preservation for such groups, which are under the threat of Russian assimilation, cannot be considered apart from the question of their confessional affiliation.

Thus, the consideration of the Old Believers as a phenomenon aimed at the reproduction of tradition precisely in various ethno-cultural environments makes it possible to solve complex theoretical problems related to the interaction, interpenetration and coexistence of ethnic cultures and to identify the general patterns of self-preservation of traditional societies in the conditions of a modernizing reality.

The purpose of the study: to identify the mechanisms of self-preservation of the Russian and Finno-Ugric Old Believer communities of the Ural-Volga region, ways of translating traditional values ​​and practices into them in a modern dynamic context. To increase the degree of representativeness of the study, the Old Believer groups among Russians, Mordovians, Komi-Permyaks (Yazva and Zyuzda) were studied, who did not follow the same path of historical development and have pronounced specifics within their ethno-cultural traditions.

Achievement specified purpose was carried out by solving the following specific tasks:

Coverage of the history of the formation and nature of the settlement of various ethnic groups of the Old Believers (Russians, Mordovians, Chuvashs, Komi-Zyuzdins and Komi-Yazvins) on the territory of the Ural-Volga region, taking into account historical, geographical and socio-cultural factors;

Identification of the main circumstances, causes and general patterns of penetration of the Old Believers into a foreign cultural environment;

Characteristics of external intergroup ties (the prevalence of mixed marriages, the nature of social, economic and domestic contacts with non-Christians), the degree of declared and real isolation of the Old Believer communities;

Analysis of existing socio-cultural stereotypes, evaluative and behavioral norms, household prescriptions and ways of their observance by modern Old Believers;

Determining the role of confessional symbols and everyday phenomena in maintaining group boundaries;

Identification of the degree of preservation of ancient forms of spiritual culture, the level of ownership of them by leaders and ordinary members of the Old Believer communities, ways of their intergenerational transmission (knowledge and observance of the canons, reading skills, hook singing, performance of spiritual verses, etc.);

Consideration of the rites of passage (baptism and funeral-commemoration complex) as a group marker and indicator of intercultural interactions;

The study of ways to regulate life and implement the interactions of the Old Believer communities within the framework of separate agreements;

Analysis of the internal structure of modern Old Believer communities (gender and age composition, hierarchy, status groups, leaders, social roles);

Consideration of traditional narrative forms and narrative structure of modern eschatological legends and historical prose, their interpretative and adaptive function in the Old Believer culture.

The chronological framework of the study in the historical part of the work extends in depth to the end XVII century, that is, the time of the appearance of the Old Believers in the Volga-Ural region, however, in general, they cover the period from the middle of the 19th century. to the present day (2006), which is due to the possibility of using an extensive corpus of archival and published sources, as well as author's field material, in relation to this period.

The territorial scope of the study includes two broad geographic areas. The first is outlined by the natural boundaries of the Southern Urals, which include the territories of the modern Republic of Bashkortostan, the Orenburg and part of the Chelyabinsk regions (the former Orenburg and Ufa provinces). Until recently, this region was little known in the Old Believer historiography and was included only in single works on the history and culture of the entire Russian Old Believers. In addition, the Southern Urals, where the peoples of Eastern Slavic, Turkic and Finno-Ugric origin have long coexisted in close contact, is interesting for revealing the historical experience of adaptation of the Old Believers in a foreign cultural and confessional environment. For more than ten years, I have been collecting field and archival material about the South Ural Old Believers - Russians (in the bulk) and Mordovians.

The complication of research tasks and the need to attract additional materials on non-Russian Old Believers led to the expansion of the geographical scope of the study. Compact groups of Komi-Permyak Old Believers are settled on the territory of the Middle Urals and the Urals - in the north of the Perm Territory (Krasnovishersky and Solikamsky districts) and in the east of the Kirov regions (Afanasevsky district). In addition, material was drawn on the Chuvash Old Believers settled in the territories of the Republic of Chuvashia (Shemurshinsky district) and the Ulyanovsk region (Veshkayem district). These territories were not isolated from each other and were connected through a network of skete centers of both local and all-Russian significance.

Theoretical approaches and research methodology. characteristic feature The development of domestic ethnological science at the current, post-Soviet stage has been a critical review of its theoretical and methodological foundations, primarily the theory of ethnos and the nature of ethnicity. Numerous discussions on this subject are reflected in the pages of professional publications and author's monographs1.

The great openness in the expression of their own views by Russian scientists, and the availability of previously unknown foreign theoretical developments, on the one hand, led to the absence of a generally accepted system of terms and categories and related research difficulties, on the other hand, to the recognition of the ambiguous nature of the ethnic phenomenon and the impossibility of considering it within the framework of only one methodological model. According to D.A. Funk, “every researcher who literally grew up “surrounded” by established methods and methodologies, and who tries to find his own way, involuntarily finds himself outside the usual scientific paradigms, in any case, outside any one of them”2.

To date, most researchers recognize the need for a reasonable integration of various scientific theories and concepts and the relevance of integrated interdisciplinary methods. In this regard, having determined the optimality of the adaptive approach for solving the problem posed in my study, I want to make a reservation that it does not have a rigid impenetrable framework and allows, depending on the context, the involvement of others, in particular, symbolic and phenomenological interpretations of concepts and phenomena3.

1 See for example: Races and peoples. Yearbook. M., 1989. Issue. nineteen; articles by various authors in EO for 1992-2003; Rybakov S.E. Philosophy of ethnos. M., 2001; Tishkov V.A. Essays on the theory and politics of ethnicity in Russia. M., 1997; He is. Requiem for ethnicity. Studies in socio-cultural anthropology. M., 2003.

2 Funk D.A. Worlds of shamans and storytellers: a comprehensive study of Teleut and Shor materials. M., 2005. S. 25.

3 Lotman Yu.M. Selected articles. Tallinn, 1992. Volume 1. Articles on semiotics and typology of culture; Berger P., Lukman T. Social construction of reality. M., 1995. Gurevich A.Ya. Categories of medieval culture. M., 1984; He is. Problems of medieval folk culture. M., 1981; Bernshtam T.A. New perspectives in the knowledge and study of traditional folk culture (theory and practice of ethnographic research). Kyiv, 1993.

Describing the theoretical developments used in this dissertation, let us dwell on some of the main provisions of the adaptation approach and the possibilities of its application to the studies of the Old Believers. The main thing for him is the understanding of culture as a dynamic adaptive mechanism, or the ability to bring oneself in line with a changing environment. Such an understanding, firstly, served as an impetus for the development of new directions in domestic and foreign ethnology since the 1970s, in particular, ethnoecology, and the introduction of the concept of “life support system” into the field of scientific research1, and secondly, stimulated consideration within the framework of many humanitarian disciplines of the problems of socio-cultural and psychological adaptation of various ethnic groups in the context of social transformations. The optimal ways of this process were determined, given various characteristics, specific sociological and ethnopsychological studies were carried out2. It is no longer possible to list all the currently available scientific works carried out in this vein. The most complete and detailed historiographical review of the problem of adaptation is presented in the monograph by L.V. Corel.

For my research, the most important is the understanding of tradition developed within the framework of the adaptation approach. In contrast to the value perception of tradition, often used in sociology, as an opposition to modernization and progress, in the approach under consideration, tradition is defined as a way of reproducing culture or “a universal mechanism that, thanks to the selection of life experience, its accumulation and spatial

1 Kozlov V.I. Ethnic Ecology: Theory and Practice. M., 1991; Arutyunov S.A. Life Support Culture and Ethnos: Ethnocultural Research Experience (on the Example of Armenian Rural Culture). Yerevan, 1983 etc.

2 Lebedeva N.M. Introduction to ethnic and cross-cultural psychology. M., 1998; Gritsenko V.V. Socio-psychological adaptation of immigrants in Russia. M., 2002.

3 Korel L.V. Sociology of adaptation: Questions of theory, methodology and methodology. Novosibirsk, 2005. temporary transmission, allows you to achieve the stability necessary for the existence of social organisms”1. Understood in this way, tradition turns out to be closely connected with the mechanisms of self-preservation and the problems of social and cultural adaptation. In the domestic humanities for the first time such a view of the tradition was formulated by E.S. Markarian and was generally shared by the majority of scientists. Tradition is interpreted broadly, practically synonymous with the concept of "culture" (in my study also "Old Believer tradition" = "Old Believer culture"), and as a dynamic interdependent process that includes changes and innovations that turn into tradition in the course of development3. In modern foreign science, S. Eisenstadt occupies close positions, having singled out conservative and creative components in tradition4, and used E. Shils’s theory of the “central zone” of culture, which has semantic and ordering functions to explain the inconsistency of tradition”5.

The work also used R. Crummy theoretical approaches to the study of the Old Believers in the context of modern discussions about “folk religion” and the consideration of the Old Believers as a “textual community” consisting of many interconnected subcultures with complex synchronous and diachronic connections6.

Big influence The present study was also supported by the works of the well-known researcher of the Volga-Ural region and the author

1 Markaryan E.S. Key problems of the theory of cultural tradition and SE. 1981. No. 2. S. 87.

2 See: Discussion of the article by E.S. Markaryan II SE. 1981. No. 2. S. 97-115.

3 Arutyunov S.A. Cultures, traditions and their development and interaction. M., 2000. S.210.

4 Eisenstadt S.N. Tradition, Change and Modernity. New York, 1973.

5 Cited. by: Lurie C.B. Historical ethnology. M., 1998. S. 183.

6 Crammey R. Old Belief as Popular Religion: New Approaches // Slavic Review. Vol. 52, no. 4 (Winter 1993). P. 700-712. a number of serious theoretical works by R.G. Kuzeeva1. When determining the specifics of the various Old Believer sub-confessions of Islam, the publications of P.I. Puchkov.

The research methodology was based on a set of general scientific methods. A comparative historical method was used with the use of systemic and cross-cultural analysis in the interpretation of the material. My approach can also be described as typological, since I tried to find similarities and differences between similar ethno-confessional groups. And, finally, a descriptive method was used, which made it possible to more fully convey the specifics of the ethnographic material and the real context.

The collection of field material was carried out on the basis of a qualitative approach: participant observation and a semi-structured interview with a guide, in which problem-thematic blocks of conversation with study participants were identified3. These blocks corresponded to the selected research objectives. The survey included two stages: 1) interviews with the main (“key”) informants and 2) subsequent addition of the results obtained on certain questions from secondary informants. When compiling the questionnaire, the programs of M.M. Gromyko, C.B. Kuznetsova, A.B. Buganov "Orthodoxy in Russian folk culture", as well as T.A. Listova (according to native rituals) and I.A. Kremlin (according to funeral rituals)4, supplemented and adapted to the Old Believer material.

1 Kuzeev R.G. The peoples of the Middle Volga and Southern Urals: An ethnogenetic view of history. M., 1992; Kuzeev R.G., Babenko V.Ya. Ethnographic and ethnic groups (on the problem of ethnic heterogeneity) // Ethnos and its subdivisions. M., 1992. S. 17-38 and others.

2 P.I. Puchkov. Modern geography religions. M., 1979; Puchkov P.I., Kazmina O.E. Religions of the modern world. M., 1998; Puchkov P.I. To the question of the classification of religions // Ethnos and religion. M., 1998. S. 7-48.

3 Semenova V.V. Qualitative Methods: An Introduction to Humanistic Sociology. M., 1998; Yadov V.A. Strategy of sociological research. Description, explanation, understanding of social reality. M., 1998.

4 Gromyko M.M., Kuznetsov S.V., Buganov A.V. Orthodoxy in Russian folk culture: research direction // EO. 1993. No. 6. S. 60-84; Listova T.A. Data Collection Program

Another method of collecting information was photography and video filming, which made it possible to fully capture the dynamic processes, material attributes of culture (objects of worship and household items, clothing, interior of residential and liturgical premises). When conducting video filming, the developed by E.V. Aleksandrov, the "consonant chamber" method, which is based on a trusting relationship between the researcher and the bearers of culture, which allows them to maintain natural behavior. The method involves continuous filming of relatively long shots, the use of synchronous sound, and discreet editing1.

Historiography. The initial stage of understanding any scientific problem is an appeal to the already existing historiographical heritage. Estimates of the Old Believers, this broad religious, social, cultural phenomenon, have never been unambiguous. It was seen as “the cause of troubles and a panacea for them; the only guardian of Orthodoxy and the power that destroys it; the rudest of the Russians, the saviors of national cultural traditions or their destroyers; black-hundred support of the empire or constant carriers of the Russian people's revolt. Over the three-century history of the schism, literature about it has grown to a huge mass. In this regard, in this historiographic review, I have included only that part of it that was directly used or had a certain influence on the dissertation, distributing it into thematic sections. The first included general works on the Old Believers with the designation of the main directions of the Old Believer historiography, without which there are no customs and rituals associated with the birth of a child // Russian: family and social life. M., 1998. S. 292-307; Kremleva I.A. The program for collecting material on funeral customs and rites // Ibid. M., 1998. S. 307-326.

Alexandrov E.V. On two approaches to the creation of anthropological films // Salekhard 2000. Collection of articles on visual anthropology dedicated to the II Anthropological Film Festival. M., 2000. S. 14-33.

2 Pozdeeva I.V. Comprehensive studies of modern traditional culture of the Russian Old Believers: Results and perspectives // World of Old Believers. Issue 4. Living Traditions: Results and Perspectives of Comprehensive Studies of the Russian Old Believers. M. 1998. S. 12. You can imagine the very appeal to the stated topic. In the second - works devoted to non-Russian Old Believers. And, finally, published studies, in which, to one degree or another, the problems of socio-cultural adaptation of the Old Believer groups and the mechanisms of their self-preservation are raised.

The first works on the Old Believers were written by representatives of the official Orthodox Church and Russian historical science and pursued exclusively accusatory and missionary goals. They are attributed to the synodal direction of the Old Believer historiography, a characteristic feature of which was the isolation of the schism from the general historical context and the explanation of its causes only by internal church problems. The most famous work of this kind belongs to Metropolitan Macarius (Bulgakov)1. In this series, one can list the works of A.I. Zhuravlev, E. Golubinsky and many other authors2. The theory about the incorrectness of the old Russian rites was first objectively revised by N.F. Kapterev.

In this regard, it is interesting to compare the synodal works with the polemical writings of the Old Believers themselves, which give their own interpretations of the historical events that led to the split. First of all, these are the “History of the Vygovskaya Hermitage” by I. Filippov4, “A Brief History of the Old Orthodox (Old Believer) Church” by F.E. Melnikova5 and others. In the works of the Old Believer writers I.A. Kirillova, V.G. Senatov, V.P. Ryabushinsky found a definition of the philosophical and religious foundations of the Russian Old Believers, tra

1 (Bulgakov) Macarius. The history of the Russian split, known under the name of the Old Believers. SPb., 1855.

2 Golubinsky E. History of the Russian Church. M., 1900; Zhuravlev A.I. Complete historical news about the ancient strigolniks and new schismatics, the so-called Old Believers, collected from hidden Old Believer traditions, notes and letters, the Church of the Descent of the Holy Spirit, on Bolshaya Okhta. In 4 parts. M., 1890.

3 Kapterev N.F. Patriarch Nikon and Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich. In 2 vols. M., 1996.

4 Filippov I. History of the Vygovskaya Old Believer Desert. SPb., 1862.

5 Melnikov F.E. A Brief History of the Old Orthodox (Old Believer) Church. Barnaul, 1999. The tradition continued with a monograph by the modern Old Believer philosopher M.O. Shakhova1.

From the middle of the XIX century. a new, so-called democratic trend in the study of schism is developing. A start was made by A.P. Shchapov, who began to consider the Old Believers exclusively as a movement of social protest. In this vein, the works of S.P. Melgunov, A.S. Prugavin and others. Subsequently, such attempts were renewed more than once, first in the first revolutionary years, then in the Soviet period4.

In the 19th century the first interesting works appear, in which the Old Believers are characterized as a peculiar historical and cultural phenomenon of Russian life. So. N.M. Kostomarov saw in him a "phenomenon of mental progress", and P.N. Milyukov tried to identify common roots with other religious movements and Christian sectarianism5.

In the Soviet period, in accordance with the existing ideological guidelines, the Old Believers were considered either from an atheistic position or as a form of anti-feudal protest6. Serious in-depth research appeared at this time among Russian

1 Kirillov I.A. The Third Rome (an outline of the historical development of the idea of ​​Russian messionism). M., 1996; Ryabushinsky V.P. Old Believers and Russian religious feeling. M.-Jerusalem, 1994; Senatov V.G. Philosophy of the history of the Old Believers. M., 1995; Shakhov M.O. Philosophical aspects of old belief. M., 1997.

2 Shchapov A. Russian schism of the Old Believers, considered in connection with the internal state of the Russian church and citizenship in the 17th century and in the first half of the 18th century. The experience of historical research on the causes of the origin and spread of the Russian schism. Kazan, 1859.

3 Melgunov S.P. Old Believers and freedom of conscience (historical essay). M., 1907; He is. From the history of religious and social movements in Russia in the 19th century. Old Believers. Religious persecution. Sectarianism. M., 1919; Prugavin A.S. Religious renegades (essays on contemporary sectarianism). Issue 1. SPb., 1904.

4 Bonch-Bruevich V.D. Materials for the history and study of Russian sectarianism and schism. St. Petersburg, 1908-1909; He is. Schism and sectarianism in Russia (report by V.D. Bonch-Bruevich to the second regular congress of the RSDLP) // Selected Works. M., 1959. T.1. pp. 153-189; Kartsov V.G. Religious schism as a form of anti-feudal protest in the history of Russia. In 2 hours. Kalinin, 1971.

5 Kostomarov N.M. The history of the split among the schismatics // Bulletin of Europe. 1871. Book 4. C. 470537; Milyukov P.N. Essays on the history of Russian culture. T.2. 4.1.

6 Katunsky A. Old Believers. M., 1972; Milovidov V.F. Old Believers in the past and present. M., 1969; He is. Modern Old Believers. M., 1979. Russian emigration (S.A. Zenkovsky, A.V. Kartashov)1. A number of works by Soviet scientists devoted to medieval social consciousness, the ideology of the peasantry, social utopias and their connection with the Old Believer movement have not lost their significance to this day (A.I. Klibanov, K.V. Chistov, R.G. Pikhoya) .

The most consistent study of the Old Believers, its book and hand-written tradition was carried out by domestic archaeographers, thanks to which a huge number of monuments of the Old Believer thought were introduced into scientific circulation, their detailed analysis was made (N.N. Pokrovsky, I.V. Pozdeeva, E.A. Ageeva, E.B. Smilyanskaya, E.M. Smorgunova, I.V. Pochinskaya, A.T. Shashkov, V.I. Baidin, A.G. Mosin, E.M. Yukhimenko, etc.). Art critics, philologists and collectors of folklore (O.N. Bakhtina, T.E. Grebenyuk, S.E. Nikitina, B.JI. Klyaus and others) addressed the topic of the Old Believers.

The refusal of modern researchers from the given schemes and methodological clichés has opened up new prospects for the objective consecration of the phenomenon of the Old Believers in all its contradictions and versatility. Numerous scientific developments are reflected in specialized collections and periodicals. In this regard, it should be noted the series "The World of the Old Believers", which has been regularly published since 1992 by the archeographic laboratory of Moscow State University3. The works of leading and novice specialists representing various branches of knowledge, reports of local historians and members of religious communities are published in the materials of the annual conferences “Old Believers: history, culture

1 Zenkovsky S.A. Russian Old Believers: Spiritual Movements of the Seventeenth Century. M., 1995; Kartashev A.V. Collected works: in two volumes. T.2: Essays on the history of the Russian Church. M., 1992.

2 Klibanov A.I. People's social utopia in Russia. period of feudalism. M., 1977; Pikhoya R.G. Socio-political thought of the working people of the Urals (late XVH-XVHI centuries). Sverdlovsk, 1987; Chistov K.V. Russian folk socio-utopian legends of the 17th-19th centuries. M., 1976.

3 The world of the Old Believers. Issue. I: Personality. Book. Tradition. M.-SPb., 1992; Same. Issue. II: Old Believer Moscow. M., 1995; Same. Issue. III: Book. Tradition. Culture. Moscow, 1996; Same. tour, modernity"1. In addition, magazines with the same name have been published since 19942. To date, several issues of the "Ural Collection" prepared by Yekaterinburg scientists have already seen the light of day, a periodical dedicated to a special group of Old Believers - Lipovans appeared in Odessa3. The list can be continued with collective works edited by E.M. Yukhimenko4, collections and monographs covering the history and culture of various regional groups, including the Southern Urals5, etc.

In the context of my research, works that reflect historical events that took place in the study area, first of all, the monograph H.H. Pokrovsky "Anti-feudal protest of the Ural-Siberian peasants-Old Believers in the 18th century" (Novosibirsk, 1974). The South Ural region was included in only a few works on the history and culture of the entire Ural Old Believers. In this regard, we can name the book of N.P. Parfentiev6, which analyzes the later traditions of Old Russian musical art. Recently, the resulting gap has been significantly filled with two fundamental works - “Essays on the history of the Old Believers in the Urals and adjacent territories

Issue. 4. Living Traditions: Results and Prospects of Comprehensive Research. Materials of the international scientific conference. Moscow, 1998; Same. Issue. 5. History and modernity. M., 1999.

Old Believers: history, culture, modernity. Abstracts. M., 1996; Same. Moscow, 1997; Same. M., 1998; Same. M., 2000; Same. M., 2002; Same. M „ 2005. In 2 parts.

2 Old Believers: history, traditions, modernity. Issue. 1. M., 1994; Same. Issue. 2. M., 1994; Old Believers: history, culture, modernity. Issue. 3. M., 1995; Same. Issue. 4. M., 1995; Same. Issue. 5. M., 1996; The same, issue. 6. M., 1998; Same. Issue. 7. M., 1999; Same. Issue. 8. M., 2000; Same. Issue. 9. M., 2002; Same. Issue. 10. M., 2004.

Ural collection. Story. Culture. Religion. Issue 1. Yekaterinburg 1997; Same. Issue. II. Yekaterinburg, 1998; Same. Issue. 111. Yekaterinburg, 1999; Lipovan. History and culture of Russian Old Believers. Odessa, 2004; Same. Odessa, 2005.

4 Old Believers in Russia (XVII - XX centuries). M., 1999; Same. Issue Z. Moscow, 2004; Patriarch Nikon and his time. M., 2004.

5 Mikhailov S. Edinoverie churches in Guslitsy. Kurovskoe, 2001; Danilko E.S. Old Believers in the Southern Urals: Essays on History and Traditional Culture. Ufa, 2002; Old Believers in Ukraine and Russia: past and present. Kyiv, 2004; Filippovskaya genealogy: historical works of the Old Believers-Philippians of the Volga region and South Vyatka. M., 2004; Apanasenok A.V. The Old Believers of the Kursk Territory in the 17th - early 20th centuries. Kursk, 2005.

Parfentiev N.P. Traditions and monuments of ancient Russian musical and written culture in the Urals (XVI - XX centuries). Chelyabinsk, 1994. thorium” and a joint monograph by H.H. Pokrovsky and N.D. Zolnikova about chapel consent1.

In ethnographic terms, the material and spiritual culture of the Old Believers living in the Perm Territory has been most comprehensively studied to date (G.N. Chagin, S.A. Dilmukhametova, I.V. Vlasova, I.A. Kremleva, T.A. Listova , T.S. Makashina), Ust-Tsilma (T.N. Dronova), Far East(Yu.V. Argudyaeva), Transbaikalia (F.F. Bolonev) . A special category is made up of monographic studies of the Russian population in a particular territory, in which some specificity characteristic of the Old Believer culture was noted. According to this principle, the works of E.V. Richter about the Russians of the Western Peipsi, T.A. Bernshtam about Pomor culture, V.A. Lipinskaya about the Altai Territory3, etc.

The selection of only certain aspects of culture and life in the study of other regional groups of Old Believers somewhat complicates a general comparative analysis, but opens up opportunities for comparisons at a particular detailed level. Object-household sphere and economic activity Bukhtarmins are devoted to the works of E.E. Blomkvist and N.P. Grinkova4, Ural Cossacks - S.K. Sagnai

1 Essays on the history of the Old Believers of the Urals and adjacent territories. Yekaterinburg, 2000; Pokrovsky H.H., Zolnikova N.D. Old Believers-chapels in the East of Russia in the 17th - 20th centuries. M., 2002.

2 On the Ways from the Land of Perm to Siberia: Essays on the Ethnography of the North Ural Peasantry in the 17th - 20th Centuries. M., 1989; The Old Believer World of the Volga-Kama: Problems of Comprehensive Study: Proceedings of the Scientific Conference. Perm, 2001; Dronova T.I. Russian Old Believers-bespriests of Ust-Tsilma: confessional traditions in the rituals of the life cycle (end of the 19th - 20th centuries) Syktyvkar, 2002; Argudyaeva Yu.V. Peasant family among the Eastern Slavs in the south of the Russian Far East (50s of the 19th century - early 20th century). Moscow, 1997; She is. Old Believers in the Far East of Russia. M., 2000; Bolonev F.F. Folk calendar of Semey Transbaikalia (second half of the 19th - early 20th centuries). Novosibirsk, 1978; He is. Semeyskie: Historical and ethnographic essays. Ulan-Ude, 1985; He is. Old Believers of Transbaikalia in the XVIII - XX centuries. M., 2004.

3 Bernshtam T.A. Russian folk culture of Pomorie in the 19th - early 20th centuries. Ethnographic essays. L., 1983; Richter E.V. Russian population of Western Peipsi (essays on history, material and spiritual culture). Tallinn, 1976; Lipinskaya V.A. Russian population Altai Territory. Folk traditions in material culture (XVIII-XX centuries). M., 1987.

4 Bukhtarma Old Believers. L., 1930. war1. V.P. Fedorova examined in detail the wedding rituals of the Trans-Urals "Kerzhaks", there are descriptions of the rituals of the life cycle of the "Ust-Tsilems"3.

Many works of foreign authors are devoted to the Old Believers (R. Morris, R. Robson, D. Scheffel, E. Nakamura, E. Ivanets)4. Features of intergenerational relationships in the families of Old Believers and forms of communication are analyzed in the book by V. Player and the article by V. Ryuk-Dravin, which differ in the original author's approach, but contain many inaccuracies and superficial conclusions, which, in my opinion, is due to the lack of own field research5. A classic work on the Old Believers is the monograph of the French religious scholar P. Pascal, who, using the example of the Old Believers, characterized the Russian mentality and features of religiosity6.

As mentioned above, the next section of the historiographic review consists of works devoted to non-Russian Old Believers. Traditionally, studies of the schism and its significance in the history and culture of Russia were associated with the Russian people, and an official opinion was formed and consolidated about the monoethnicity of the Old Believers. However, according to historical evidence, it was quite widespread among a number of Finno-Ugric peoples, with whom many leading centers were associated on the territory of the modern Republic of Komi and Karelia, the Volga region and the Urals. First

1 Sagnaeva S.K. material culture Ural Cossacks of the late XIX - early XX century (development of ethnic traditions). Moscow, 1993.

2 Fedorova V.P. Wedding in the system of calendar and family customs of the Old Believers of the Southern Trans-Urals. Kurgan, 1997.

3 Babikova T.I. Funeral and memorial rite of the "Ust-Tsilems". Syktyvkar, 1998; Dronova T.I. The World of Childhood in the Traditional Culture of the Ust-Tsilems. Syktyvkar, 1999.

5 Pleyr W. Das russische Altglaubigentum: Geschihte. Darsrtellung in der Literatur. Munich, 1961; Ruke-Dravina V. Die Untersuchungen der russischen Mundarten im Balticum und ihre Bedeutung fur die allgemeine Dialektologie // Scando-Slavica. T.P. Copenhagen, 1965. S. 198-209.

6 Paskai P.P. Die russische Volksfrommigkeit // Ortodoxe Beitrage. Marburg an der Lahn, 1966. No.

7(2). information about non-Russian Old Believers appeared in publications already in the middle of the 19th century, but an increase in targeted research interest in them is observed only in last decade. The most extensive historiography belongs to the Komi Old Believers.

The first works that examined the influence of the Old Belief on the way of life and everyday life of the Komi-Zyryans are the essays by K.F. Zhakov and P.A. Sorokina1. Then, in the course of comprehensive studies of the ethnography of the Komi peoples in the 1940s-1950s. under the direction of V.N. Belitzer, the collection of field material was carried out along the way in the Old Believer villages. As a result of the expeditions, essays on the material and spiritual culture of the Komi peoples were published, in some cases some cultural specificity of individual Old Believer groups was noted, although their confessional affiliation and religiousness were not the subject of special consideration2.

The next to the topic of interest were L.N. Zherebtsov and L.P. Lashuk, in the works of different years they noted the cultural specificity of the Komi groups that adopted the "old faith", determined the geography of their settlement and sub-confessional composition. All their works are united by the conclusion about the conservative influence of the Old Believers on the culture of the Zyrians and on the preservation of "archaic religious remnants". Of great interest are the works of Yu.V. Gagarin, written on the results of a continuous concrete sociological study of the state of religiosity of the rural Komi population in 1966

1 Zhakov K.F. On the question of the composition of the population in the eastern part of the Vologda province. M., 1908; Sorokin P. A. Modern Zyryans // Ethnographic studies. Syktyvkar, 1999.

Belitser V.N. Report on the work of the integrated expedition to the Pechora // KSIE. Issue Z. M., 1947; She is. Ethnographic works on the Pechora // KSIE. Issue 14. M., 1952; She is. Essays on the ethnography of the Komi peoples: XIX - early XX century. M., 1958.

3 Zherebtsov L.N., Lashuk L.P. Ethnographic structure of the population of the upper Vychegda // Historical and philological collection. Issue. 5. Syktyvkar, 1960, pp. 53-98; Lashuk L.P. Old Believers on the territory of the Komi ASSR // Issues of atheistic propaganda. Syktyvkar, 1961, pp. 39-53; Foal

67 years The objectives of the study were to identify the degree of preservation of religious ideas and their characteristics among the Old Believers. The main conclusion was the conclusion about the imminent "extinction" of the Old Believers1.

Systematic and consistent research on Pechora, Vychegda and Vashka began already in the 1980s, when a folklore and ethnographic laboratory was created at Syktyvkar University. Syktyvkar scientists (A.N. Vlasov, Yu.V. Savelyev, E.V. Prokuratorova, T.A. Kaneva, T.F. Volkova, T.A. Dronova, V.E. Sharapov) prepared a series of collections with materials on the Old Believer book and handwritten tradition, the formation and functioning of individual communities, mentor clans, the role of the book in traditional culture2.

The latest research among the Komi-Zyryan Old Believers (questions of mythology, artistic creativity) belong to V.E. Sharapov and P.F. Limerov3 who worked in Old Believer villages in the 1990s. The history and culture of local Old Believer groups among the Komi-Zyryans became the subject of A.A. Chuvyurova and V.V. Vlasova in order to identify the role of the Old Believers in the formation of local ethno-confessional communities, determining their cultural specifics4. These authors also own many other published works. More details L.N. Economy, culture and life of the Udora Komi in the 18th - early 20th centuries. M., 1972; Lashuk L.P. Formation of the Komi people. M., 1972.

1 Gagarin Yu.V. Old Believers. Syktyvkar, 1973; He is. History of religion and atheism of the Komi people. M., 1978.

2 Sources on the history of the folk culture of the North. Syktyvkar, 1991; Old Believer Center on Vashka. The Oral and Written Tradition of Udora: Materials and Research. Syktyvkar, 2002; Old Belief in the North-East of the European part of Russia. Syktyvkar, 2006.

3 Sharapov V.E. Christian stories in the folklore of the Komi-Old Believers of the Middle Pechora // Christianization of the Komi region and its role in the development of statehood and culture. Syktyvkar, 1996; He is. On the tradition of making carved wooden icons and pectoral crosses among Komi-Old Believers-bespopovtsev // Museums and local history. Issue Z. Syktyvkar, 2001, pp. 191-197; Limerov P.F. Udora Old Believers // Springs of Parma. Bbin IV. Syktyvkar, 1996.

4 Vlasova V.V. Groups of Komi (Zyryan) Old Believers: confessional features of social and ritual life (XIX - XX centuries). Diss. for the competition uch. Art. cand. ist. Sciences. St. Petersburg, 2002; Chuvyurov A.A. Local Komi groups of the Upper and Middle Pechora: problems of linguistic, historical, cultural and confessional self-identification. SPb., 2003. A review of publications on the Zyryan Old Believers was also compiled by V.V. Vlasova.

The ethno-confessional history of the Tikhvin Karelian Old Believers over the course of three and a half centuries, based on original field material and identified archival and documentary sources, is consecrated in the monograph and articles by O.M. Fishman, who used a phenomenological approach in her research1.

Scientific research among the Old Believer groups of Perm began to be carried out already in the 1950s. V.N. Belitzer, in addition to the mentioned works, a separate essay was written on the material culture of the Komi-Zyuzdins, where their belonging to the Old Believers is noted, but attention is focused on other problems2. Modern scientific publications about this group are literally counted in units3, the rest belong mainly to pre-revolutionary authors. In this regard, for my research, it was interesting to attract materials about the closest neighbors of the Zyuzda Permians - the Yurlin group of Russians, which was subjected to strong Old Believer influence (collective monograph by Bakhmatov A.A., Podyukov I.A., Khorobrykh C.V., Chernykh A.V., articles by I.V. Vlasova)4 .

Philologists turned to the culture of the Yazva Permians, who noted the bright specificity of their dialect, these are, first of all, V.I. Lytkin in the 1960s, then modern scientists (P.M. Batalova,

1 Fishman O.M. Life by Faith: Tikhvin Karelians-Old Believers. M., 2003; She is. Phenomenological approach to the study of the group consciousness of the Tikhvin Karelians (on the example of mythological and historical legends) // Kunstkamera. Ethnographic notebooks. Issue. 2-3. SPb., 1993. S. 20-28 and others.

2 Belitzer B.H. Among the Zyuzda Komi-Permyaks // KSIE. XV. Moscow, 1952, pp. 27-39.

3 Trushkova I. Yu., Senkina G.A. Zyuzda Komi: ethnocultural specificity in the past and present // Komi-Permyatsky Okrug and the Urals: history and modernity. Kudymkar, 2000, p. 103105.

4 Bakhmatov A.A., Podyukov I.A., Khorobrykh C.V., Chernykh A.V. Yurlinsky region. Traditional Russian culture of the late XIX - early XX centuries. Materials and research. Kudymkar, 2003; Vlasova I.V. To the study of ethnographic groups of Russians (Yurlintsy) // Nash Krai. Kudymkar, 1995. Issue. 7. S. 61-67; She is. Placement of the Old Believers in the Northern Urals and their contacts with the surrounding population // TDMK. pp. 196-202.

EAT. Smorgunov)1. Numerous works by G.N. Chagin, who, on the basis of many years of research, comes to important conclusions that, due to the specificity of culture and language, the Yazvinians can be considered not as an ethnographic group of Permians, but as one of the Komi peoples. On the example of Yazvintsev V.I. Baidin revealed the general patterns of the spread of Old Belief among the Finno-Ugric peoples.

Since 1972, systematic work was carried out among the Yazvinians by the employees of the archeographic laboratory of Moscow State University, the local book tradition was studied, its relationship with the history of the fugitive-priest Old Believer consent was revealed. The research was reflected in a number of publications in the aforementioned university series of publications devoted to the problems of the Old Believers (articles by E.M. Smorgunova, V.P. Pushkov, I.V. Pozdeeva). Several expeditions were organized by teachers and students of Kudymkar state institute. Thus, today it is the most studied group of the Finno-Ugric Old Believer population in the Ural-Volga region. However, far from all aspects of the history and culture of the Komi-Yazva people are fully consecrated, and their comprehensive analysis is also required.

There were practically no separate works devoted to the Old Believers among the Mordovians, although there are references to this phenomenon in missionary reports, archival sources, and articles on the Christianization of foreigners. Some information about sectarianism among the Mordovians, and about a hundred

1 Lytkin V.I. Komi-Yazva dialect. M., 1961; Batalova R.M. Areal research on Eastern Finno-Ugric languages ​​(Komi languages). Moscow, 1992; Smorgunova E.M. Old Believers of Upper Yazva: a special language situation // TDKM. pp. 157-162.

2 Chagin G.N., Chernykh A.V. The peoples of the Kama region. Essays on ethnocultural development in the 19th-20th centuries. Perm, 2002; Chagin G.N. Pudvinskaya Lavra // Ural collection. Story. Culture. Religion. Ekaterinburg, 1997. S.168-173; He is. Yazvinsky Permians. Perm, 1993; He is. Yazvinsky Permians. Historical and cultural island. Perm, 1995; He is. On the ground it was, but on Yazvinskaya. Perm, 1997; He is. Komi-Yazvinsky Permians are an ancient people of the Northern Urals. Krasnovishersk, 2002.

3 Baidin V.I. The initial period of the history of the Verkh-Yazva sketes (on the issue of the spread of the Old Believers among the Finno-Ugric peoples) // Cherdyn and the Urals in the historical and cultural heritage of Russia. Perm, 1999. S.195-200. rituals of different consents, available in pre-revolutionary publications, were summarized by E.H. Mokshina1.

Among the other Finno-Ugric peoples of the Volga region, the Old Believers did not find wide distribution and, accordingly, its influence on their traditional culture was insignificant. There are references to the Old Believers among the Udmurts in the book by Yu.M. Ivonin, but are only ascertaining in nature. E.F. writes about this in somewhat more detail. Shumilov in a monograph on Christianity in Udmurtia2.

The Old Believer groups among the Chuvash aroused scientific interest only in the context of general studies of various sectarian movements, without being the subject of special consideration. Yu.M. Braslavsky3. G.E. Kudryashov singled out this phenomenon among the Chuvash as a special type of religious syncretism, formed as a result of the convergence (i.e., preliminary synthesis) of a number of religious systems at a late stage of inter-confessional and inter-ethnic interactions4.

Thus, the problem of non-Russian Old Believers in the Ural-Volga region, which is of great theoretical interest, was considered fragmentary, there are practically no comprehensive studies, and the degree of study of various groups of Old Believers is not the same. In this regard, new research in this area seems to be very promising.

1 Mokshina E.H. Religious life of the Mordovians in the second half of the 19th - early 21st century. Saransk, 2004.

2 Ivonin Yu.M. Old Believers and Old Believers in Udmurtia. Izhevsk, 1973; Shumilov E.F. Christianity in Udmurtia. Civilization processes and Christian art. XVI - early XX century. Izhevsk, 2001.

3Braslavsky JI.IO. Old Believers and Christian sectarianism in Chuvashia. Cheboksary,

4Kudryashov G.E. Dynamics of polysyncretic religiosity. Experience of historical-ethnographic and concrete-sociological study of the genesis, evolution and extinction of the religious survivals of the Chuvash. Cheboksary, 1974. S. 28.

In the third section of this historiographical review, works are noted in which, to one degree or another, problems are raised that are also being solved in this dissertation. First of all, it is necessary to make a reservation that the consideration of the Old Believers not as a conservative and extremely isolated phenomenon, but as a living developing tradition is characteristic of most modern studies. So, archeographers, analyzing works of writing in all genre diversity, draw a direct parallel between the ancient Russian cultural tradition and modern Old Believers. This approach is typical, in particular, for the works of E.A. Ageeva, E.V. Smorgunova, I.V. Pozdeeva, E.B. Smilyanskaya, and others published in the periodical series of Moscow State University. UFO. Bubnov defines the Old Believers as an intermediary culture between the Middle Ages and modern Europeanized Russia1. At the same time, speaking about the preservation of the ancient elements of Russian culture in the Old Believers, scientists note “the persistence, activity, dynamism, even just the resourcefulness of the Old Believer movement as a whole,” which allow it to always be in accordance with a specific historical context. S.E. Nikita-on. R. Morris characterizes the Old Believers as a kind of key to understanding the processes of convergence in modern world 3.

1 Bubnov Yu.N. Old Believer book in Russia in the second half of the 17th century. Sources, types and evolution. SPb., 1995.

2 See for example: Nikitina S.E. On the concept of an ethno-confessional group in relation to the Old Believers // Altar of Russia. Issue 1. S. 16.

3 Morris R. Old Believers as a Key to Understanding the Process of Convergence // Altar of Russia. Issue. 1. Old Believers in Siberia and the Far East, history and modernity: local tradition. Russian and foreign connections. Vladivostok - Big Stone, 1997. S. 24-29; He is. Life according to ancient traditions in the remote Siberian taiga // World of the Old Believers. Issue. 4. Living Traditions: Results and Perspectives of Integrated Research, Moscow, 1998, pp. 320-333.

The problem of adaptation resources of the Old Believers was raised by E.E. Dutchak, who emphasized the important role of the family in the processes of intergenerational transmission of traditional norms1. The difficulties of self-preservation of the Old Believers in a single-ethnic environment were also considered by V.A. Lipinskaya2.

Source base of research. An important source for the dissertation research was pre-revolutionary publications, which contain information of varying degrees of saturation about the split in the study area. The line between sources and historiography seems to be very arbitrary here. In this regard, N. Chernavsky's work on the Orenburg diocese is of great value. Describing in detail all any significant local events, the author provides a lot of interesting information about the Old Believers: the popularity of their ideas among the Cossacks, the founding of sketes, the missionary activities of secular authorities and the Orthodox clergy, and statistical tables3. A similar kind of work on the Ufa diocese was written by I.G. Zoloto-Verkhovnikov. Placing in the book data on the number of schismatics by counties and individual settlements for 1897, he also explains the reason for the rapid spread of the split in the region, linking it with the construction of mining plants4. The stages of this process are analyzed by V.M. Cheremshansky1.

One of the active figures of the Ufa Missionary Committee N.P. Tyunin published in 1889 a collection of personal conversations with the Old Believers, supplemented by the author's reflections and comments

1 Dutchak E.E. The Old Believer Community of Gar: Possibilities of Sociological Discourse // Old Believers: History, Culture, Modernity. M., 2002. S. 189-199.

Lipinskaya V.A. On the stability of small confessional groups in a single-ethnic environment (based on materials from the south of Western Siberia) // TDMK.Novosibirsk, 1992. P. 212-224.

3 Chernavsky N. Orenburg diocese in the past and present // Proceedings of the Orenburg Scientific Archival Commission. Issue. I. Orenburg, 1900; Issue. II. 1901-1902.

4 Zolotoverkhovnikov I.G. Ufa diocese in 1897. Geographical, ethnographic, administrative-historical and statistical essay. Ufa, 1899. mi2. It included a lot of ethnographic stories - descriptions of some family rituals, household specifics, small details characteristic of the local sects (hollow holes, pigeon sense, etc.). This cannot be gleaned from dry archival files. Tyunin's biased attitude towards his interlocutors and noticeable tendentiousness do not prevent him from considering the book an important source.

Ethnographic sketches about the Old Believers were made in the travel notes of M.A. Krukovsky and K.P. Gorbunov, historical essay by V. Kasimovsky3. Interesting information about the life of famous schismatic sketes, located on the territory of the Ural Cossack army and closely associated with the Irgiz monasteries, can be extracted from the article by P.V. Yudin4. The most detailed ethnographic essay on the Old Believers of the Southern Urals at the beginning of the 20th century. is an article by D.K. Zelenina. In 1905, a well-known Russian scientist spent a whole month in the village of Usen-Ivanovskoye, Belebeevsky district, Ufa province, among the Runaway Old Believers and outlined his observations in a rather voluminous essay. It provides a historical overview general characteristics ways of managing, construction of dwellings, description of traditional clothing, features of the everyday way of life, religious life and ritual practice of the Usinchans1.

Early history of the Old Believers on the territory of the Perm province (from the end of the 17th century to the second half of XIX centuries) was presented in detail by Archimandrite Pallady (Pyankov), his fundamental work, based on a huge number of almost all available documents during the period of writing and information from obvious

Cheremshansky V.M. Description of the Orenburg province in economic and statistical, ethnographic, geographical and industrial terms. Ufa. 1859.

2 Tyunin N.P. Letters on the split (for the years 1886-1889). Issue. I. Ufa, 1889.

3 Krukovsky M.A. Southern Urals. Travel essays. M., 1909; Gorbunov K.P. Among the schismatics of the Southern Urals (from the diary of a tourist) // Historical Bulletin. 1888. No. 12; Kasimovsky V. Historical essays on Duvan (1868, 1877). Mesyagutovo, 1991.

4 Yudin P.V. In the Syrt Wilds (Essay from the past of the Ural Old Believers) // Russian antiquity. 1896. No. 1. Tsev, to this day remains the most valuable and objective source of information about the Old Believer communities of various accords in all counties of the province (the appearance of the first sketes, biographies of famous priests and mentors), including the Old Believer center on Upper Yazva. The works of I.Ya. Krivoshchekov, Ya. Kamasinsky, travel notes of N.P. Beldytsky3.

An extensive ethnographic essay by N.P. Steinfeld, which contains detailed information about the features of their settlement and management, describes the way of life. Noting the commitment of the local population to the split, the author writes: “The split here is a positive and special phenomenon. During the five hundred years of Orthodoxy, the Zyuzdins did not even learn how to pray, let alone any more or less definite concepts of the dogmas and rites of their religion. It would seem that the soil here is decidedly unsuitable for the emergence of a split. In fact, about fifty years ago, it spread quite strongly and is holding on stubbornly.

Some data that allows localizing the Chuvash Old Believer groups on the territory of the Ural-Volga region are available in the articles by N.V. Nikolsky5. Fragmentary information about the Old Believers among the Mordovians is contained in the well-known researcher M.V. Evsevieva6.

1 Zelenin D.K. Life features of the Usen-Ivanovo Old Believers // Proceedings of the Society for History, Archeology and Ethnography at Kazan University. 1905, Vol.21. Issue Z. pp. 201-258.

1 Shchalladiy] (Pyankov), archim. Review of the Perm schism of the so-called "Old Believers". SPb., 1863.

3 Krivoshchekov I.Ya. Geographical and statistical dictionary of the Cherdyn district of the Perm province. Perm, 1914; Kamasinsky Ya. Near the Kama. Ethnographic essays and stories. M., 1905; Beldytsky N.P. About the Vishera Territory // Perm Zemstvo Week. 1908. No. 7-18.

4 Steinfeld N.P. Zyuzda region (Glazovsky district) N Calendar of the Vyatka province for 1893. Vyatka, 1892. P. 312.

5 Nikolsky H.B. Christianity among the Chuvash of the Middle Volga region in the XVI-XVIH centuries. Historical essay. Kazan, 1912.

6 Evseviev M.V. Selected writings. T.5. Saransk, 1966.

Another type of published sources used in this work are various periodicals. First of all, these are regularly published in the 19th and early 20th centuries. Diocesan Gazette (Orenburg, Ufa, Vyatka, Perm, Samara, Simbirsk Gazettes were used). The reports of parish priests printed in them without fail contained information about existing schisms and sects, sometimes the distribution of schismatics according to interpretations and agreements was made. Of particular value are the personal observations of their compilers, since statistics, as a rule, were not reliable.

The first publications about the Old Believers among the Finno-Ugric peoples of the Ural-Volga region appeared precisely in church periodicals, these were works written by Orthodox priests and having a predominantly missionary orientation. Despite the tendentiousness, they are distinguished by their detail; they also deal with the history of the spread of the schism among the "gentiles", and the peculiarities of their way of life, and the form of religious life. A series of articles by priest N. Blinov on the Komi-Permyaks should be singled out, where the special influence of the Old Believers on their way of life is noted1. Information about the Zyuzda group of Perm Old Believers can be gleaned from the work of Archpriest M. Formakovsky2. The missionary G. Selivanovsky3 wrote about the group of “non-Molaks”. A short note in Simbirskie Vedomosti became practically the only source of information about one of the groups of Chuvash Old Believers4, etc.

1 Blinov N. Agricultural life of the Permians and Votyaks of the Karsovai parish (Glazovsky district) // Vyatskiye Provincial Gazette. 1865. No. 31-33; He is. Foreigners of the north-eastern part of the Glazov district//Ibid. No. 59-67.

2 Formakovsky M. A split in the northern strip of the Glazovsky district. From the report of the missionary Archpriest M. Formakovsky for 1879 // BEB. 1880. No. 10.

3 Selivanovsky G. Nemolyaki // BEB. 1902. No. 16.

4 On the history of Christian educational work among foreigners (History of one foreign parish) // SEV. 1898. No. 23.

In addition, the report of the Ufa Brotherhood of the Resurrection of Christ for 1898 and notes about the Old Believers from provincial newspapers were actively used in the dissertation. The materials of the All-Russian census of 1897 partly contributed to the discovery of a non-Russian element among the Old Believer population of the region. "Lists of populated places" in various provinces were involved.

The fragmentation and insufficiency of the published materials at my disposal predetermined their auxiliary, secondary function. The volume of archival documentation is much more significant in the work, in all its diversity several categories can be conventionally distinguished (See Appendix III).

The first type includes archival sources of a statistical nature. Solving the task of completely eradicating the split, which the authorities set themselves, was impossible without clarifying the places of its distribution and knowing the quantitative indicators. In this regard, throughout its existence, many orders were issued obliging local city and police departments to provide accurate information about the number of schismatics and their prayer buildings. This desired accuracy in real practice was practically unattainable, for a number of reasons. First, the natural desire of the Old Believers themselves to hide their confessional affiliation, both because of persecution and out of prejudice against official records. Secondly, a significant layer of the entrepreneurial elite of the Ural society consisted of adherents of the old faith. This is in addition to the fact that merchants and factory owners were seriously interested in cheap and reliable labor, and therefore were in no hurry to give the authorities the true number of Old Believers. Thirdly, the silence of the official clergy could often be guaranteed by elementary bribery.

Accordingly, various statements and reports deposited in archival funds do not carry objective statistical information. Their value lies elsewhere. They made it possible to identify the settlements where the Old Believers lived, and sometimes their sub-confessions, which was especially important for the almost unexplored Southern Urals in this regard. Such cases, together with modern field material, formed the basis for the creation of maps placed in the appendix (See Appendix IV). With their help, the routes of modern expeditionary trips were planned.

The second category of archival sources, selectively used in the dissertation, included forensic investigative materials. These are reports about the crimes of schismatics against the Orthodox Church, lists of those who were not at confession, court cases on seducing the Orthodox into schism, on the capture of schismatic priests, the discovery of secret sketes and prayer houses, on marriages, etc.

The next large group of materials was the registration documents of the Old Believer communities. The first stream of such cases is observed in the period from 1906 to 1915, that is, after the Supreme Decree on freedom of religion in the Russian Empire. And the second - already in Soviet times, when the fiscal goals of an atheistic state were disguised under the guise of registration. In the Soviet period, another kind of sources was formed that covered directly opposite processes - the cessation of the activities of Old Believer religious associations, the closure and transfer of churches and prayer houses for cultural institutions and economic needs. This also includes applications for the registration of various groups and correspondence in this regard.

In general, sources stored in seven archives were studied - the Russian State Historical Archive (RGIA, F.815, 796), the Archive of the Russian Academy of Sciences (St.

Petersburg branch, F.ZO), Central State Historical Archive of the Republic of Bashkortostan (TsGIA RB. F.I-1, I-2, I.6, I-9, I-11, R-394, R-1252, R- 4732, R-4797), the State Archive of Public Associations of the Republic of Bashkortostan (SAOO RB, F. P-122), the current archive of the Council for Religious Affairs under the Cabinet of Ministers of the Republic of Belarus, the Central State Archive of the Orenburg Region (TsGAOO. F.6, 10, 11 , 18, 37, 94, 164, 167, 175, R-617) and the State Archive of the Chelyabinsk Region (GACHO. F.220, I-1, I-3, I-33, R-274, F.6, F .eleven). More than two hundred cases were involved in the analysis.

Despite the great importance of archival data, the most extensive group of sources was the materials of the author's field ethnographic research, collected during individual expedition trips. About 80 settlements were covered on the territory of the Republic of Bashkortostan (1996-2005) and Chuvashia (2005), Chelyabinsk (2001-2005), Orenburg (2001-2004), Perm (2004-2005). ), Kirov (2004-2005), Ulyanovsk (2006) regions. The list of settlements is given in the appendix.

In the questionnaire-guidebook, the main thematic blocks of the conversation with the informants were identified. The guide includes sections on history (settlement, the history of the Old Believer movements, the current state of communities), material and spiritual culture.

As observations show, at present, the material culture of the Old Believers has undergone significant unification and standardization, therefore, attention was paid only to those elements of it that moved into the category of attributes of the ritual-religious sphere and were fixed as dominant features of culture (prayer costume complex, ritual food, etc.). d.).

Accordingly, the corpus of questions relating to spiritual culture was much wider. It included sections designed to reveal the features of the Old Believer worldview (eschatological expectations, the existence of utopian legends, the interpretation of book texts). Much attention was paid to the study of religiosity. Research in this area is feasible only in the context of the daily life of an individual and society and involves the recording and analysis of particular manifestations of religiosity. Church holidays, public worship, veneration of local shrines, as well as the degree of observance of religious prescriptions and taboos, knowledge of the basic canons, attitude to the sacraments were considered as the latter. The composition and structure of confessional communities, the role of spiritual leaders in them - priests and mentors were revealed.

Scientific novelty of the research. Fundamentally new is the solution of the task - to identify the mechanisms of self-preservation of the Old Believer communities - on the example of various ethno-cultural environments, since the involvement of material on the Finno-Ugric groups of Old Believers and a multi-level comparative analysis with control groups of Russian Old Believers and representatives of the studied peoples who do not belong to the Old Believer confession is carried out in ethnology for the first time.

In many ways, the object of research is also new - the Old Believers among the Finno-Ugric peoples. In particular, to date, not a single special work has been devoted to the Old Believers among the Mordovians, and studies among the Komi-Zyuzdins, which were reflected in only a few articles, were carried out in the middle of the past century.

For the first time in the dissertation, previously unknown archival sources and original field material are introduced into scientific circulation, which makes it possible to fill in the gaps in Russian science and provides concrete material for scientific generalizations.

Practical significance. Dissertation materials can be used to popularize knowledge about the Old Believers, when writing curricula and manuals on the history and traditional culture of the East Slavic and Finno-Ugric peoples of the Ural-Volga region and various confessional groups, and used to compile confessional maps. The scientific information contained in the dissertation can become the basis for the development of general and special courses in universities, as well as for lecture and educational activities in museums and national cultural societies.

Approbation of the study. The main provisions of the dissertation were presented by the author in reports and communications at international, all-Russian, regional conferences and congresses organized by scientific and educational centers of the years. Moscow (1997, 1998, 1999, 2000, 2002, 2004, 2005), St. Petersburg (2005), Omsk (1997, 2003, 2005), Nalchik (2001), Ufa (1996, 1997, 1998, 1999, 2000, 2001, 2006), Yekaterinburg (2000), Orenburg (1998), Chelyabinsk (2006), Perm (2001), Saransk (2004), Samara (2002, 2006), Izhevsk (2004), Sarapul (1997), Yoshkar-Ola (2005), Ulan-Ude (2001), Astrakhan (2005), Kyiv (2004), Budapest (2004), were discussed at the Center for the Study of Interethnic Relations of the Institute of Ethnology and Anthropology of the Russian Academy of Sciences.

Conclusion

The spread of the Old Believers on the territory of the Ural-Volga region was a long historical process, the intensity of which at one stage or another, along with the complexities of relations with government bodies and the official church, was also determined by transformations within the entire religious movement and individual Old Believer agreements, as well as by the wide opportunities opening up. for the economic and cultural development of sparsely populated territories.

Until the first quarter of the 18th century, the bulk of the Old Believers in the region under study were Cossacks, who, due to their isolated position in the eastern outskirts of Russia, continued to adhere to the old rites even after the church reform. Subsequently, the increase in the number of "schismatics" here was associated with the construction of fortresses and mining enterprises, and then with peasant colonization. Religious self-organization within the framework of the Old Believer agreements turned out to be quite adapted to solving organizational problems that arose before the settlers (selection of places for settlements, migration routes, protection of property rights, land divisions, etc.), and subsequently contributed to the stabilization of the existence of communities in the new socio-economic conditions. Peasant colonization of the region continued with varying degrees of intensity until the beginning of the 20th century. Only by this time, the places of compact settlement of the Old Believers, the boundaries of the main interpretations and agreements, were finally designated.

Initially, the Old Believers in the Ural-Volga region were a Russian phenomenon. The basis for intercultural interactions with the Finno-Ugric and other peoples, which resulted in the adoption of part of their Old Believer doctrine, was laid mainly during the 18th and 19th centuries in the process of joint development of new lands and the gradual establishment of various contacts. In the course of the study, factors that contributed to intercultural interaction were identified: territorial (striped settlement); economic and economic (industrial and trade contacts, seasonal trades); sociocultural (knowledge of the Russian language by the Finno-Ugric peoples and Turks, familiarity with the basics of Christianity); and the main reasons for the spread of the Old Believers among the Volga peoples (worldview crisis, social tension caused by measures for forced Christianization, socio-psychological closeness of "schismatics" and "foreigners").

The adoption of the Old Believers by the Volga peoples, even where it was not a mass phenomenon, led to the isolation of small groups within their religious communities and, as a result, to their further isolation in social terms. In general, this diversified the general ethno-confessional mosaic of the Ural-Volga region and complicated inter-confessional and inter-ethnic, as well as intra-ethnic interaction in the region.

As the study showed, being originally a Russian phenomenon, the Old Believers as a religious doctrine, nevertheless, allowed the existence of a different ethnicity from their adherents. The adoption of the Old Believers did not lead to the immediate Russification of the "foreigners", religious self-consciousness coexisted with the general ethnic and linguistic. The Ural-Volga region is characterized by the formation of both mono-ethnic (Russian, Mordovian, Permyak, Chuvash) and poly-ethnic confessional communities based on the Old Believers (Russian-Mordovian, Russian-Permyak, Russian-Chuvash-Mordovian) around religious centers (temples or chapels), uniting the inhabitants of the nearest settlements according to the parish type.

Where the level of interethnic interactions is relatively low, confessional (Old Believer) affiliation, along with language, can serve as a group marker separating both from the main ethnic mass and from Russians. A similar situation has historically developed among the Yazva Permians ("We are not Komi-Permyaks and not Russians, they have the Nikon patriarchal faith, and we are Old Believers"). In addition, in this group, the adoption of the Old Believers also served as a factor in the conservation of their native language; it is among the Yazvin Old Believers that the Permian language is mainly used as a colloquial language. Among the Komi-Zyuzdins, such a relationship was not revealed, in the assimilation processes, accompanied by the loss of their native language and the change of ethnic identity (to Russian), both Old Believers and Orthodox are equally involved.

The adoption of the Old Believers by the Volga peoples led to the transformation of their ethno-cultural appearance, changing the ritual and everyday spheres of their life, in some cases, displacing, in others, on the contrary, conserving individual elements of the traditional complex, at the same time introducing new ones characteristic of Russian culture. As field studies show, the set of these conserved or displaced elements is always variable in different regional groups. According to S.A. Arutyunova, the extralinguistic part of culture is generally more diffuse and permeable than the linguistic part, so the moment of switching the cultural code is not as discrete and clear as when switching from one language to another, and is not so easily amenable to unambiguous fixation1. At the same time, in all the studied groups, a complex of cultural phenomena, objects, symbols is revealed, characterized by the bearers of culture themselves as "Old Believer", and acting as confessional markers, regardless of both the actual degree of preservation and the degree of compliance with the canon.

Thus, the Old Believers, both in Russian and Finno-Ugric communities, is an integral part of the group self-consciousness,

1 Arutyunov S.A. Cultures, traditions and their development and interaction. M., 2000. S. 182. defining it at various levels of social interactions: within a confession (separation between consents), within an ethnos (separation between ethnographic and religious groups) and, finally, more widely regulating relations with the external environment (separation from other ethnic groups on the basis of ethnic and confessional (Old Believer) affiliation).

The starting point in solving the main problem posed in this study was the thesis of the inseparability of the Old Believer group identity with the preservation and reproduction of tradition. For the Old Believers, tradition performs the function of defining meaning, evaluating and ordering being, that is, it is a universal mechanism that ensures the stability of Old Believer groups or social systems, aimed, on the one hand, at ordering the systems themselves as integral organisms, on the other hand, at regulating their interaction with external environment.

The external environment sets the rules and restrictions according to which the social system functions, and, at the same time, initiates the adaptation process. For the Old Believers, which was originally an opposition movement, relations with the state and the official church played an important role. In the course of historical development, the Old Believer communities developed many defensive strategies, and in this paper one of the aspects of the problem related to the organization of church life, which is heavily dependent on state measures to combat schism, was considered. The functions of religious centers in the Old Believers were performed by secret monasteries (monasteries) and private chapels, the connection between which was carried out through priests or mentors and active laity. As the study showed, church institutions scattered over vast territories regulated the life of many communities and represented a kind of network within the framework of individual agreements, the components of which were quickly restored in the event of destruction. In addition, Old Believer monasteries and church parishes have demonstrated the ability to combine and separate functions depending on the historical context. The maintenance of the stability of religious life was facilitated by the persisting and currently certain way of hierarchizing the internal structure of individual Old Believer communities according to the degree to which the behavior of individuals conforms to an authoritatively established norm.

An important role in overcoming crisis situations in the Old Believers has always been played by the personal factor, which was especially evident in the most difficult Soviet period, when religious life in communities was supported by a small circle of people, as a rule, monks of former monasteries. The transfer of the monastery to the "world", although it was a violation of the canon, but under the prevailing conditions was considered as the only way to preserve and transmit the tradition. Accordingly, unlike most Old Believer communities, in which the transmission of religious experience in Soviet times took place only at the level of individual families, there were also institutionalized forms of transmission of sacred knowledge in such communities, which to a large extent contributed to the strengthening of intra-group ties. In general, the Soviet period turned out to be the most destructive for the Old Believers, the currently observed restoration of the infrastructure of the Old Believers' agreements is much slower than in official Orthodoxy. Historical experience is used: just as in the 19th century, communications between individual communities are carried out through priests and active laity.

Despite the declared isolation and the desire to limit external contacts, three main areas of interaction between the Old Believers and the environment of other ethnicities and confessions are identified. Interactions in the economic sphere, although they were the most active, did not affect the preservation of the religious tradition, but ensured the physical survival of the Old Believer communities. Interfaith marriages were subjected to stricter collective control, intra-family and intra-communal, but allowed under certain conditions, rather flexible ways of resolving contradictions between the canon and everyday practice were developed. Finally, the third direction of interaction - missionary activity, was qualitatively different from the first two, being quite definitely aimed precisely at expanding contacts and strengthening the presence of the Old Believers in the "foreign" environment.

The external environment, considered in the context of the adaptive process, also acts as a subject of interpretive activity, since each community perceives and explains it in its own way, in accordance with the cultural and historical context and with its own conceptual picture of the world. The Old Believers are characterized by the use of eschatological categories in the socio-historical conception, which, in my opinion, is explained both by the circumstances of their emergence and existence in an aggressive atmosphere, and by the reaction of traditional society to transformational processes. All new phenomena of the surrounding world, related to social life, to the objective and natural world, are interpreted by the Old Believers as signs of the last times. That is, eschatology is a way of interpreting reality and, accordingly, including the changing forms of everyday life in the circle of familiar and explicable concepts. In addition, by creating additional psychological tension, eschatology allows you to more fully mobilize defense mechanisms to maintain group integrity. Thus, the messianic idea, relevant for the Old Believers, is closely connected with Christian eschatology, contributing to the formation of pronounced personalism and their perception of their own position as the only correct and possible one.

The self-preservation of the Old Believer communities, as well as other ethno-confessional communities, is directly related to the maintenance of external and internal group boundaries, while the principle of selecting cultural features symbolizing the border is determined by the degree of compliance with tradition, they should not be subjectively evaluated as an innovation.

The separation of the Old Believers from other communities was originally built on a religious basis, in this regard, the border is fixed, first of all, by a system of confessional symbols (churches and prayer houses, books, icons, various religious objects), which make up the so-called basic symbolic environment, which, assimilated Being in the process of socialization as carriers of culture, it contributes to group cohesion. Accordingly, the most stringent restrictions on contacts with "strangers" also apply to the ritual and religious sphere (ban on joint worship, visits to temples, use of religious objects).

Along with confessional symbols, household phenomena (clothing, appearance, food) are also given a symbolic status in the Old Believers. If, under the conditions of normal reproduction of cultural tradition, everyday behavior is defined as “natural”, then in the case when society finds itself in the position of an outcast, it is endowed with a special meaning and additional functions, values ​​and motivations. The rejection of novelties, first of the Petrine era, and then of all subsequent ones, contributed to the gradual folding of a whole system of domestic prohibitions. Old-fashioned clothing, wearing a beard, and not smoking are now perceived by the Old Believers themselves and the surrounding population as symbols of the group. In addition, behavioral taboos are declared that are mandatory for every “true” Old Believer (a ban on a joint meal with representatives of another confession, the pronunciation of certain words, smoking, etc.).

Thus, both in a historical retrospective and now, all the symbolic resources of the Old Believer communities are thrown to preserve purity, the threat of which comes from others, from the “worldly”. Everything is used to constantly maintain the border - from radical eschatology to endogamy and "chalice". Here, according to the classification of R. Crammy, the "text community" dominates, which implies the identification of authenticity with strict normativity. However, if you take a closer look, it turns out that the super-task of preservation cannot be fulfilled except through a detailed, inventive system of adaptation, which also includes a repertoire of legitimate means of breaking the norm.

In addition to creating a boundary between “us” and “them”, every society, taking care of its integrity, develops a system of social codes or behavioral programs aimed at maintaining internal balance and developing various types of collective cohesion. The consolidation of members of the Old Believer communities is facilitated by many group ties: these are marriage contacts, and conciliar decisions on dogmatic and everyday issues, and common church holidays, and the veneration of one's own shrines.

In addition, a powerful psychological factor of consolidation, as well as one of the components of the group self-identification of the Old Believers, which makes it possible to draw an unmistakable border along the line “we” - “they”, is the perception by the Old Believers of their community as a collective custodian of sacred book texts. The traditionally important role of literacy was determined by the existence in the Old Believer oral culture of a large number of secondary texts (interpretations of written works), reflecting the mental characteristics of the entire community. The specificity of culture is already manifested at the level of selection of written works included in the processes of communication, based on the search for analogies between the events of sacred history and the history of the Old Believers. Such a comparison of the content of canonical texts and phenomena and events significant for the Old Believers serves them as a way of arguing the truth of their own dogma and contributes to the formation of a positive identity, the strengthening of confessional self-awareness.

Historical memory, as one of the components of group consciousness, also finds expression in oral works from the circle of "small" or "local" history, which also reveal distant and near projections - from legends about legendary ancestors to the history of one's community. As the study showed, the most archaic layers of local oral history, not based on Old Believer literacy, are more preserved among the Finno-Ugric groups (traditions about Chuds, ancestors-first settlers, endowed with the features of cultural heroes, etc.).

Thus, the desire declared by the Old Believers for a complete rejection of innovations and complete isolation inevitably faced the impossibility of their practical implementation, which prompted a constant search for a compromise and new ways to preserve tradition in a changing reality. It was traditionalism that put the Old Believers before the need to choose a more flexible relationship with the outside world, and, paradoxically, stimulated their creative and social activity. In this regard, some regularities can be distinguished.

Firstly, the degrees of declared and real closeness of the Old Believer communities do not always coincide, absolute isolation, both in historical retrospect and now, is rather a subjective idealized characteristic of the group, supported from inside and outside. The direction, intensity of the interactions of the Old Believers with the environment, as well as the level of collective control in this area may vary depending on the context and situation.

Secondly, the Old Believer culture, like any other, is not a rigid structure with a simple and unambiguous correspondence between all components, when the change or loss of one of them leads to its complete destruction. In changing conditions, not all components of the Old Believer culture are preserved, but only those that belong to the sacred sphere. In relation to this area, culturologists use the concept of “cultural core”, understanding it as a set of certain ideas, norms, dogmas accepted by the absolute majority of members of society as the basis of self-affirmation in the world1. Phenomena close to the sacred center turn out to be more conservative than those located in the profane peripheral and more mobile part of the culture. Thus, the Russian folk costume, ousted from everyday life, turned out to be “prayer” clothing, partly retains its traditional features. Proclaimed by the canons, but not observed in ordinary life prohibitions are updated during the performance of rituals, hand-made paschalia that does not find practical application is carefully betrayed from generation to generation, etc.

Thirdly, as ethnographic studies show, the norms declared by the Old Believers themselves do not remain unchanged, but are periodically revised taking into account specific situations. This can be seen in the examples of religious literature (late comments on church rituals) and everyday innovations. The views of the Old Believers on technical inventions evolve from active rejection to active use; eschatological dates are transferred and re-justified; justifications for the introduction of previously unseen items into everyday practice are offered; prohibited products are replaced by others, etc. That is, the set of rules is elastic and promptly responds to external impulses. The search for ways to turn new or foreign cultural phenomena into the norm implies either confirming its compliance with the teachings of the “holy fathers” by referring to an authoritative source, or interpreting it in terms and categories of one’s own culture. In this process, the discipline set by the canon is necessarily observed, but there is also room for free experimentation.

Fourthly, the fulfillment of the basic norms is not practiced by the entire collective, but only by a small part of its members who voluntarily assumed responsibility for the preservation of the tradition and limited external contacts. The transition to this category, which is possible for each member of the community, is made, as a rule, by people who do not participate in various social activities. The differentiation of “cathedral” and “secular” in non-priest communities and the informal division into groups according to the degree of churching in priestly ones allows the creation of legitimate intermediaries, firstly, between the “world” and “true believers”, and secondly, between the religious canon and practice . At the same time, continuity in the transfer of accumulated experience is not interrupted, its translation is ensured.

Thus, the conducted research testifies to the high adaptive abilities of the Old Believers. At the same time, the observed ratio of traditional and new forms always remains such that it allows the Old Believer communities to organically fit into the surrounding context and develop dynamically. In this regard, the mechanism of their self-preservation can be defined as follows - maintaining a balance or an optimal balance between tradition and innovation, between isolation and openness.

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