Psychology studies various mental phenomena, processes and states. Sensation, perception, representation, imagination, thinking, speech, memorization, preservation, reproduction are cognitive mental processes.

Feel- this is a reflection of the individual properties of objects and phenomena that currently affect the senses. The peculiarity of sensations lies in their immediacy and momentaryness. When a person touches an object, puts it on the tongue, brings it to the nose, this effect is called contact. The impact of the object irritates special sensitive cells of the receptor. Irritation is a physiological process, under the influence of which excitation arises in nerve cells, which is transmitted through afferent nerve fibers to the corresponding part of the brain. Only in the brain does the physiological process turn into a mental one, and the individual feels one or another property of an object or phenomenon.

Properties of sensations. Our sense organs are able to change their characteristics, adapting to changing environmental conditions. An increase in sensitivity as a result of the interaction of sensations or the appearance of other stimuli is called sensitization.

Often, under the influence of one stimulus, sensations characteristic of another stimulus may occur. This phenomenon is associated with synesthesia (from the Greek synaisthesin - a one-time sensation, a joint feeling) - a mental state in which the action of an irritant on the corresponding sense organ, in addition to the will of the subject, causes not only a sensation specific to this sense organ, but at the same time also additional a sensation or representation characteristic of another sense organ. For example, it is well known that color combinations affect temperature sensitivity: blue-green color causes a feeling of cold, and yellow-orange - warm. This feature is taken into account by designers.

The phenomenon of sensory hunger, or a great deficit of sensations, is called sensory deprivation. In the case of sensory deprivation in the human psyche, various anomalous phenomena- from hallucinations and falling into oblivion to a complete shutdown of the brain.

Types of sensations. When classifying sensations, the following criteria are put forward:

• at the location of the receptors;
• by the presence or absence of direct contacts of the receptor with the stimulus that causes sensation;
• by the time of occurrence in the course of evolution;
• according to the modality (kind) of the stimulus.

There are three main classes of sensations:

• interoreceptive (organic),
• exteroceptive,
• proprioceptive.

Interoreceptive signal what is happening in the body (feelings of pain, thirst, hunger, etc.). exteroceptive arise when external stimuli act on receptors located on the surface of the body. proprioceptive located in the muscles and tendons, with their help the brain receives information about the movement and position of body parts.

In addition, sensations can be distant and contact. The former include visual, which transmit 85% of information about the outside world, and auditory. To the second - tactile, gustatory and olfactory.

Each type of human sensation provides specific information. However, there are general patterns that are characteristic of all types of sensations. These include levels of sensitivity, or "sensation thresholds". Sensitivity is the ability to recognize the magnitude and quality of a stimulus. "The threshold of sensations" is called the psychological relationship between the intensity of sensation and the strength of the causing stimulus.

The minimum value of the stimulus that causes a barely noticeable sensation is called the lower absolute threshold of sensitivity. The highest value of the stimulus at which this sensation is still preserved is called the upper threshold of sensitivity (for example, light is already blinding beyond this threshold).

Thanks to the threshold of sensitivity, a person can constantly capture minor changes in the parameters of the external and internal environment: the strength of vibration, a decrease or increase in the strength of sound, the level of illumination, the level of gravity, etc. Sensitivity thresholds for each individual. Their value depends on many factors. The nature of the activity, profession, motives, interests, degree of training have a special influence on the increase in sensitivity.

Changes in the strength and nature of the active stimulus noticed by a person are called the differential threshold, or "threshold of discrimination." The amount of difference between the signal, at which the accuracy and speed of discrimination reach a maximum, is called the operational threshold. The operational threshold of sensations is 10-15 times higher than the differential one.

Allocate also time threshold is a measure of the duration and exposure of the stimulus necessary for the occurrence of sensation.

Latent threshold- the reaction period, the length of time from the moment the signal is given to the moment the sensation occurs.

Feeling refers to a more complex psychological process - perception. Perception is a holistic reflection of objects and phenomena of the objective world with their direct impact at a given moment on the senses.

Kinds. There are perceptions:

• auditory,
• visual,
• tactile,
• olfactory,
• taste,
• kinesthetic (motor).

Perception visible movement determined by data on the spatial position of objects, i.e. associated with the visual perception of the degree of remoteness of the object and the assessment of the direction in which this or that object is located.

Perception space is based on the perception of the shape and size of objects through the synthesis of visual, tactile, muscle sensations, as well as on the perception of the distance and volume of objects, which is provided by human binocular vision.

Perception flow of time is that the perception of time does not change the apparent physical stimulus. Of course, time itself is calculated in seconds, minutes, that is, it can be measured, but there is no specific object whose energy would affect a certain time receptor (as smell, light, etc. do). To date, scientists have not been able to discover a mechanism that converts physical time intervals into the corresponding sensory signals. However, it has been reliably established that everyone has a “biological clock”: heart rate and metabolic processes help us navigate in time. If a person wakes up at the same time on an alarm clock for several months, then soon the body is tuned to wake up at a certain hour without additional stimulus.

The perception of time is changed by some medications that affect the rhythm of the body. Caffeine speeds up time, quinine and alcohol slow it down. Drugs (hashish, marijuana, etc.) can either speed up or slow down subjective time. Time, saturated in the past with experiences, emotions, activities, is remembered as longer, and a long period of life, filled with uninteresting events and everyday life, is remembered as quickly past.

With a sharp emotional or physical overwork, there is often an increase in susceptibility to ordinary external stimuli. Sounds are deafening, light is blinding, odors "eat in", causing acute irritation. These changes in perception are called hyperesthesia.

hypothesia- the opposite state, expressed in a decrease in susceptibility to external stimuli. Hypothesia is associated with mobile or immobile stimuli, unchanging content (stable hallucinations) and constantly changing: in the form of various events played out like in a theater or cinema (stage-like hallucinations).

It is worth distinguishing from hallucinations illusions (from Latin Illusio - “deception”) - erroneous perceptions of real-life phenomena or things. Illusions are divided into affective, pareidolic and verbal (verbal).

Perceptual Properties. Researchers distinguish five main properties (qualities) of perception: constancy, integrity, meaningfulness, selectivity and apperception.

constancy- stability, constancy of images of perception. This is largely a manifestation of the influence of our past experience. The skydiver knows that the forest is green, so even from a great height he perceives it as such. The law of constancy: a person considers familiar objects around him as unchanged.

Integrity- every object and situation is perceived as a stable systemic whole, even when parts of this whole cannot be observed (for example, the opposite part of a building). This becomes possible because the image that is formed in the process of reflecting reality has a high redundancy, i.e. some set of the image contains information not only about itself, but also about other components, as well as about the image as a whole. If we see only the head and shoulders of the interlocutor, then we can complete the position of his arms and torso.

meaningfulness- As a rule, a person perceives only what he understands. It has been experimentally proven that meaningful words are remembered much faster and more accurately than a meaningless set of letters or syllables.

Selectivity is manifested in the preferential selection of some objects in comparison with others.

Apperception- this is the dependence of perception on past experience, on the general mental state of a person, on his individual abilities. When there is a dependence of perception on stable personality traits (beliefs, worldview, etc.), such apperception is called stable. There is also a temporal apperception, in which there are situationally arising mental states personality (strong emotions, attitude action, etc.).

Basic properties of sensation and perception. The concept of sensation Sensation is the simplest mental process consisting in the reflection of individual properties of objects and phenomena of the material world, as well as the internal states of the body with the direct impact of stimuli on the corresponding receptors. A prerequisite for the emergence of sensation is the direct impact of an object or phenomenon on our senses. The sense organ is an anatomical and physiological apparatus located on the periphery of the body or in the internal organs; ...

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GOU SPO

Sokolsky College of Education

abstract

Subject: "Psychology"

Subject: "Sensation and Perception"

Plan

1. The concept of sensation and perception 3

2. Classification of sensations and perceptions 9

3. Basic properties of sensation and perception 20

4. Studying the features of perception 25

References 28

1. The concept of sensation and perception

Sensation and perception are cognitive processes by which a person receives and comprehends information, displays the objective world, transforming it into his own image.

1.1. The concept of sensation

Feeling - this is the simplest mental process, consisting in the reflection of individual properties of objects and phenomena of the material world, as well as the internal states of the body with the direct impact of stimuli on the corresponding receptors.

The human brain is constantly receiving signals from outside world, internal and the state of the organism itself. These signals reflect the properties and states of both the external world and the internal environment of the body. Thanks to these signals, a person learns the world and is aware of its own internal state. But the flow of these signals is very wide. They need to be reworked and only respond to significant ones. For this, a person hassensory-perceptual systemresponsible for receiving and processing information, mnemonic system(memory), which is responsible for storing information,intelligent system(thinking and imagination), which is responsible for processing information.

A prerequisite for the emergence of sensation is the direct impact of an object or phenomenon on our senses.

Sense organ - anatomical and physiological apparatus located on the periphery of the body or in internal organs; specialized for receiving the impact of certain stimuli from the external and internal environment and processing them into sensations.

I.P. Pavlov suggested calling them analyzers . Any analyzer consists of 3 departments: receptor (from the Latin word " rĕ ceptor » - receiving), converting the energy of external influence into nerve signals (primary analysis and signal coding); conducting nerve pathways (sensory nerves), through which the encoded signals are transmitted to the brain, andthink tanksin the cortex of the cerebral hemispheres and spinal cord, where the processing of nerve impulses (secondary processing) takes place.

Analyzers are external and internal.

For external analyzers receptors are brought to the surface of the body - the eye, ear, etc. Internal analyzers have receptors located in internal organs and tissues. It occupies a peculiar position motor analyzer.

The main part of each sense organ - sensory cells - receptors , sensory nerve endings. They perceive and transform stimuli (stimulus actions). Each receptor is adapted to receive only certain types of exposure (light, sound, etc.), i.e. has a specific excitability to certain physical and chemical agents.

Feeling occurs when stimulus (auditory, visual, etc.) affects the sense organs, resulting in nerve impulses (excitation in the sense organ), which arrive through the nerve pathways to the corresponding parts of the cerebral cortex or spinal cord, and are subjected to the finest analysis there. This is how the feeling arises.

Consequently, the process of perception and transformation of stimuli (actions of the stimulus) of both the external world and those coming from the internal environment of the body, by sensory receptor cells in psychology, is described as sensation.

Thanks to this process, we learn the properties of the surrounding world: size, shape, color, density, softness, temperature, smell, taste of objects and phenomena around us, we catch various sounds, comprehend movement and space, etc. We also learn about changes in our own body: the position of the body in space, the state of the internal organs.

As a result of the impact of the stimulus, sensation images are born that performregulatory, educational and emotional function.Sensation is the basis for the formation of more complex images of the external world - images of perception.

The scheme of the mental process - sensations is presented in Fig. 1.

Fig.1. Scheme of the mental process - sensations

1.2. The concept of perception

Perception - a holistic reflection of objects, situations and phenomena of the objective world, emerging when exposed directly to physical stimulireceptor surfacessense organs. As a result of perception, a person has an image of perception, that is, an image of an object or phenomenon of the surrounding world at the moment of contact with it by a person.

The ability to feel is given to us and to all living beings with a nervous system from birth. The ability to perceive the world in the form of images is endowed only by man and higher animals, it develops and improves in their life experience.

Research by psychophysiologists shows that perception is a very complex process that requires significant analytical and synthetic work.

The image of perception is always based on sensations, however, the image of perception is not just the sum of sensations, the image of perception is holistic and meaningful. So, for example, a person hears noise outside the window. The image of perception will be based on sound sensations, but a person hears not just a set of sounds of a certain frequency, he can name the nature of the noise, based on his personal experience, what kind of noise it is: the sound of rain or the noise of foliage, the noise of a passing car or broken glass.

Perception (or perception) isset of processes, with the help of which a person forms his own model objectively existing external world. A person begins to receive knowledge about the surrounding object at the first contact with it, while first images of sensations are formed, and on their basis - images of perception. Sensation and perception are two links in the whole chain of cognition of the world, other links are memory, thinking, etc. All these processes are inextricably linked, but each has its own characteristics.

If the result of a sensation is some feeling (for example, sensations of brightness, loudness, salty, pitch, balance, etc.), then as a result of perception, a wholeimage of an object or phenomenon.For example, when perceiving a pear, a person receives not separate isolated visual, gustatory, olfactory and other sensations, but a single image of a pear, with its inherent shape, color, smell, taste, etc.

Perception is closely related to the activity that a person performs, therefore, motor components are an important part of the imagination (feeling objects and moving the eyes when perceiving specific objects; singing and pronouncing the corresponding sounds when reproducing speech, etc.).

Actions to identify objects or phenomena are called perceptual actions. Therefore, it is most correct to designate perception as the perceiving (perceptual) activity of the subject.

There are four levels of perceptual action: detection, discrimination, identification and recognition. With detection development of any sensory process begins. This is a response to a stimulus. As a result of the following operation - distinctions – a preceptive image of the standard is formed. In parallel with the formation of a perceptual image, the implementation of identification begins. To do this, using identification there is a comparison of the directly perceived object with the image stored in memory. Identification involves the assignment of an object to a certain class of objects that were previously perceived. Perception is a whole system of perceptual actions, the mastery of which requires special education and development.

When perceiving, from the entire set of properties that an object possesses, the most significant ones are singled out and compared with the already existing past experience. The process of perceiving an object consists of the following perceptual actions:

Search for an object;

Highlighting the most characteristic features object;

Object identification, i.e. assigning it to any class (piece of furniture, natural phenomenon, etc.).

As a result of perceptual actions, a so-called perceptual image is formed in a person. This image is the more complex, the more complex the perceived object, while the perceptual images of the same phenomena in different people can differ significantly. It depends both on the individual characteristics of people, their experience, and on the laws of the process of perception itself, the environment in which it occurs.

Modern ideas about the process of perception are rooted in two opposing theories. One of them is known astheory of gestalt (image).

Adherents of this concept believed that the nervous system of animals and humans perceives not individual external stimuli, but their complexes. So, for example, the shape, color and movement of an object are perceived as a whole, and not separately. Contrary to this theory behaviorists proved that there really are onlyelementary (single-modal) sensory functions,and attributed the ability to synthesize only the brain. Modern science is trying to reconcile these two extreme points of view. It is assumed that perception is initially quite complex, but the "integrity of the image" is still a product of the synthesizing activity of the cerebral cortex. In principle, we can talk about the gradual convergence of these two approaches.

2. Classification of sensations and perceptions

2.1. Types of sensations

Feelings can be grouped according to various criteria. There are several bases for classifying sensations:

• Classification by modality;
• By the participation of sensations in the construction of the image and the regulation of human behavior;
• Genetic classification.

It has long been customary to distinguish (by modality - the number of sensory organs) five main types of sensations: olfactory, gustatory, tactile, visual, auditory. This classification of sensations according to the main modalities is considered correct, although not exhaustive. B.G. Ananiev talks about 11 types of sensations, A.R. Luria believes that the classification of sensations can be carried out according to two main features - systematic and genetic.

Systematic classification sensations, proposed by the English physiologist C. Sherrington, is shown in Fig.2. He divided sensations into three main types:interoceptive, proprioceptive and exteroceptive.

Fig.2. Classification of sensations

Interoceptive Feel - signal status internal processes body, thanks to receptors located on the walls of the stomach and intestines, heart, circulatory system and other internal organs.

proprioceptive sensations- transmit signals about the position of the body in space. This is a sense of balance or static sensation, as well as a motor or kinesthetic sensation. Peripheral receptors are located in muscles and joints (tendons, ligaments), and balance sensation receptors are located in the semicircular canals of the inner ear.

Exteroceptive Feel - bring information from the outside world and are the main group of sensations that connects a person with the external environment. This subgroup is usually divided into two subgroups: contact and distant sensations.

contact sensationsare caused by the direct impact of the object on the senses (for example, taste and touch).

distant sensationsreflect the qualities of objects located at some distance from the senses (auditory and visual). Olfactory sensations occupy an intermediate position between contact and distant sensations.

Let us consider in more detail the main types of sensations.

visual sensationsare sensations of light and color. Visual sensations arise as a result of exposure to light rays ( electromagnetic waves range from 380 to 770 millimicrons) on the sensitive part of our eye (light waves are refracted in the lens and reflected in the retina of the eye).

Everything we see has some color.achromatic sensations– reflection of shades of black (white, black and grey).Chromatic sensations- a reflection of the color scheme with all shades. Color sensations can correspond to a certain emotional tone: green - soothes; red - excites, causes anxiety; black is depressing.

auditory sensations occur with the help of the organ of hearing. Auditory sensations are the result of exposure to sound waves receptors, which have an oscillation frequency (from 16 to 20,000 Hz), amplitude (range) and oscillation shape. Therefore, auditory sensations reflect the pitch of the sound (determined by the frequency of oscillations), loudness (determined by the amplitude) and timbre (determined by the form of sound vibrations), duration (sounding time) and the tempo-rhythmic pattern of reproduced sounds.

There are three types of auditory sensations:speech, music and noises.

Speech - the ability to distinguish speech sounds, phonetic hearing, emotional mood.

Musical - the ability to distinguish the quality of sound. In these types of sensations, the sound analyzer identifies four qualities: sound power (loud-weak), height (high Low), timbre (the peculiarity of a voice or musical instrument),sound duration(playing time) andtempo-rhythmic featuressuccessive sounds.

Ear for musicis brought up and formed, as well as speech hearing.

Noises (rustle, knock, creak, etc.)can cause a certain emotional mood in a person (the sound of rain, the rustle of leaves, the howling of the wind), sometimes they serve as a signal of approaching danger (the hissing of a snake, the menacing barking of a dog, the rumble of a moving train) or joy (the clatter of a child’s feet, the steps of an approaching loved one, the thunder of fireworks) .

Olfactory sensations. The ability to smell is called the sense of smell. Olfactory sensations arise as a result of particles of odorous substances entering the olfactory receptors located in the nasal cavity, along with the air that we inhale.

Olfactory sensations arise from a combination of six basic odors: fruity, floral, resinous, spicy, putrid, burnt.

At modern man olfactory sensations play a relatively minor role. But deaf-blind people use their sense of smell, as sighted people use their sight with hearing: they identify familiar places by smell, recognize familiar people, receive danger signals, etc.

Olfactory sensations help to recognize the quality of food, warn a person about an air environment dangerous for the body (the smell of gas, burning), the incense of objects has big influence on the emotional state of a person.

Taste sensationsoccur when substances dissolved in water or saliva enter the receptors (taste buds of the tongue). There are four types of basic taste sensations:sweet, bitter, sour, salty.The variety of taste depends on the nature of the combinations of these sensations: bitter-salty, sour-sweet, etc. The areas of the tongue are sensitive differently: the tip of the tongue is best sensitive to sweet, the edges of the tongue are sensitive to sour, and its base is sensitive to bitter.

Taste sensations are related to the need for food. With hunger - sensitivity increases (even tasteless food seems tastier in a state of hunger); when saturated, it decreases.

Taste sensations are closely related to olfactory ones. If you exclude the sense of smell, then the taste of tea, coffee and quinine seems to be the same.

Tactile sensations- (sensations of touch, pressure, texture, vibration). They cover the entire human body. On the surface of the skin there are different types of nerve endings, each of which gives the sensation of touch. The sensitivity of different parts of the skin to each type of irritation is different. The largest accumulations of tactile cells are observed on the palm, fingertips and lips.

Temperature sensations(sensation of heat or cold) are associated with the regulation of heat exchange between the body and the environment. The distribution of heat and cold receptors on the body is uneven. The back is most sensitive to cold, the chest is the least sensitive.

Motor (or kinesthetic) sensationsare sensations of movement and position of body parts in space. Thanks to the activity of the motor analyzer, a person gets the opportunity to coordinate and control his movements. The receptors for motor sensations are located in the muscles and tendons, as well as in the fingers, tongue and lips, since it is these organs that carry out precise and subtle working and speech movements.

Without motor sensations, we could not normally perform movements, since the adaptation of actions to the external world and to each other requires signaling about every smallest detail of the act of movement.

tactile sensations- a combination of tactile and motor sensationswhen touching objectsthat is, when touched by a moving hand. The sense of touch reflects the shape and spatial arrangement of objects. touch has great importance in labor activity person, especially when performing various operations that require precision.

In people deprived of sight, touch is one of the most important means of orientation and cognition. As a result of practice, it reaches great perfection. Such people can thread a needle, do modeling, simple design, even sewing, cooking.

Feelings of balance (static sensations)reflect the position occupied by our body in space. When we first sit on a two-wheeled bicycle, stand on skates, roller skates, water skis, the most difficult thing is to keep our balance and not fall. The sense of balance is given to us by an organ located in the inner ear. It looks like a snail shell and is called labyrinth. When the position of the body changes, a special fluid (lymph) oscillates in the labyrinth of the inner ear, calledvestibular apparatus.The organs of balance are closely connected with other internal organs.

The vestibular apparatus gives signals about the movement and position of the head. If the labyrinth is damaged, a person can neither stand, nor sit, nor walk, he will fall all the time.

Organic sensations (interoceptive)arise from receptors located in the internal organs, and signal the functioning of the latter. These sensations form the organic feeling (well-being) of a person. Organic sensations include hunger, thirst, satiety, as well as complexes of pain and sexual sensations. As a rule, they are not realized until there is a significant violation of the normal state of the body.

If they were not there, we could not recognize any disease in time and help our body cope. with her.

Pain(feeling of pain) have a protective meaning: they signal to a person about the trouble that has arisen in his body. If there was no sensation of pain, a person would not even feel serious injuries.

Pain sensations are of a different nature. First, there are “pain points” (special receptors) located on the surface of the skin and in the internal organs and muscles. Mechanical damage to the skin, muscles, diseases of internal organs give a feeling of pain. Secondly, sensations of pain arise under the action of a superstrong stimulus on any analyzer. A blinding light, a deafening sound, extreme cold, or thermal radiation, a very pungent odor and cause a painful sensation.

Genetic classification of sensations, proposed by the English neurologist H. Head, allows us to distinguish two types of sensitivity: 1)protopathic(more primitive), which includes organic feelings (thirst, hunger, etc.) and 2) epicretic (higher, more differentiated and localized), which includes the main types of human sensations.

2.2. Types of perception

Perceptions, like sensations, can be classified in a variety of ways.

So, according to the predominant role of one or another modality,visual, auditory, tactile, olfactory and taste perception.

There is a classification of types of perception according to the forms of existence of matter. Stand out:perception of time, space, movement, which are considered particularly complex forms of perception.

The classification of the main types of perception is shown in Fig.3.

Fig.3. Classification of the main types of perception

In addition, depending on the characteristics of the object of perception,perception of objects, speech perception (written and oral) or music and perception of a person by a person(This type of perception is called "social perception").

Consider complex types of perception.

Perception of spaceexists and functions in a person almost always, because the images themselves are oriented in space.

Perception of spaceincludes as a starting point an assessment of the position of one's own body. Visual perception of the spatial properties of objects includes such spatial characteristics as direction, distance, size, depth, shape and volume. At remoteness objects of great importance is the relative position of chiaroscuro, which depend on the location of objects. Using chiaroscuro, a person determines the position of an object in space. When perceived volume or depth objects the main role is played by binocular vision (visual perception with two eyes). The most stable and informative is the form of the object. Perception forms requires the selection of an object from the background, for this it is necessary to select the contour (the boundaries of the spatial elements of the figure, which differ in brightness, color, texture).

The auditory, vestibular, olfactory and other sensory systems are also involved in the holistic perception of space in addition to the visual one.

Perception of timeis an extremely complex and permanent type of perception, because acts as one of the dimensions of any mental image. The complexity of studying the perception of time lies in the fact that time is not perceived by us as a phenomenon of the material world, it does not have an obvious physical stimulus (such as light for visual perception, sound for auditory).We judge its course only by certain signs.

The most elementary forms are the processes of perception of duration and sequence, which are based on elementary rhythmic phenomena known as the "biological clock". These include rhythmic processes occurring in the neurons of the cortex and subcortical formations. For example, the alternation of sleep and rest. On the other hand, we perceive time when doing some work, i.e. when certain neural processes take place that ensure our work. Depending on the duration of these processes, the alternation of excitation and inhibition, we obtain certain information about time.

From this we can conclude that in the study of time perception it is necessary to take into account two main aspects: the perception of time duration and the perception of time sequence.

Estimation of the duration of a time interval largely depends on what events it was filled with. If there are many events and they are interesting, time passed quickly. And, conversely, if there are few events and they are not interesting, then time dragged on slowly. Estimating the length of time also depends on emotional experiences. If events cause positive attitude to yourself, time seems to go by quickly. Conversely, negative experiences lengthen the time period.

characteristic feature time is its irreversibility. We can return to the place in space where we left, but we cannot return the time that has passed.

In addition to the established order or sequence of preceding and subsequent events, we use temporal localization, i.e. we know that such and such an event must occur at a given time. Time localization is possible because we use certain time intervals (day, week, month, year). The existence of these intervals is possible because a certain change of events alternates in them, for example, sunset and sunrise.

Since time is a directed quantity, a vector, its unambiguous definition implies not only a system of units of measurement (second, minute, hour, month, century), but also a constant starting point from which the count is kept. At this time, time is radically different from space. In space, all points are equal, in time there must be one privileged point. The natural starting point in time is the present, which divides time into the past that precedes it and the future that follows. The starting point for a particular person is his birth, and for humanity - a certain generally accepted point, for example, the birth of Jesus Christ.

Movement perception- this is a reflection of changes in the position of an object in space and time, while the direction and speed of movement are perceived. When perceiving movement, one can distinguish the perception of the form of movement (rectilinear, circular, arcuate, etc.), amplitude (small, medium, large), direction (up, down, forward, backward, right, left), duration (short-term, long-term ), speed and acceleration (fast, slow, smooth, intermittent, etc.), the nature of the movement (turn, flexion, extension, etc.).

Perception of movement is possible only with the interaction of a complex of analyzers - visual, auditory, vestibular, motor, etc.

However, not every real movement is perceived, and vice versa, a person sees movement where it is not in reality (illusions of movement). An example is the stroboscopic movement, on the principle of which the impression of movement in the cinema is based, when, with a quick change of still pictures, reflecting the phases of the object's movements, the illusion of the movement of the object arises.

3. Basic properties of sensations and perception

3.1. Properties of sensations

All sensations can be characterized in terms of their properties. The main properties include:quality, intensity, duration, spatial localization, absolute and relative threshold.

Quality - this is a property that characterizes the basic information reflected by this sensation, distinguishing it from other types of sensations and varying within this type of sensation. For example, taste sensations provide information about certain chemical characteristics of an object: sweet or sour, bitter or salty; the sense of smell also provides us with information about the chemical characteristics of the object, but of a different kind: a floral smell, the smell of almonds, the smell of hydrogen sulfide, etc .; auditory sensations provide information about the pitch, timbre and volume of sound, etc.

Feeling intensityis his quantitative characteristic and depends on the strength of the acting stimulus and the functional state of the receptor, which determines the degree of readiness of the receptor to perform its functions. For example, if you have a runny nose, the intensity of perceived odors may be distorted.

Duration of sensationis its temporal characteristic of sensation. It is also determined by the functional state of the sense organ, but mainly by the time of action of the stimulus and its intensity.

It should be noted that sensations have a so-called latent (hidden) period, i. when a stimulus is applied to the sense organ, the sensation does not occur immediately, but after some time. The latent period of various types of sensations is not the same, so for tactile sensations it is 130 ms, for pain - 370 ms, and for taste - only 50 ms.

Spatial localizationirritant. The analysis carried out by the receptors gives us information about the localization of the stimulus in space, i.e. we can tell where the light is coming from, where the heat is coming from, or what part of the body is affected by the stimulus.

These described properties of sensations to one degree or another reflectquality characteristicssensations. However, no less important arequantitative parametersbasic characteristics of sensations, in other words,degree of sensitivity.

There are two types of sensitivity:absolute sensitivity and sensitivity to difference.

Under absolute sensitivityimply the ability to sense weak stimuli, and bysensitivity to difference- the ability to perceive differences between stimuli.

Sensitivity thresholdsThese are her limits. Our sensitivity range is limited by the lower and upper absolute thresholds.

The minimum value of the stimulus at which a sensation first occurs is calledabsolute lower threshold of sensation.

Stimuli, the strength of which lies below the absolute threshold of sensation, do not give sensations, but this does not mean that they do not have any effect on the body. So sound stimuli lying below the absolute threshold of sensation can cause a change in the electrical activity of the brain and dilation of the pupil.

Along with the lower one, there is alsoupper absolute threshold, i.e. the maximum intensity of the stimulus at which sensation is still possible. Above the upper threshold, pain occurs or the sensation disappears.

The absolute lower threshold of sensation characterizesabsolute sensitivity level of this analyzer.

Different analyzers have different sensitivities.

Between the absolute sensitivity and the threshold value there is inverse relationship: the lower the threshold value, the higher the sensitivity of this analyzer.

Another characteristic of sensitivity is sensitivity to discrimination. It is also called relative or differential, because. is sensitivity to a change in stimulus.

The smallest difference between two stimuli that causes a barely perceptible difference in sensations is calledthreshold of discrimination or difference threshold.

The threshold for distinguishing sensations is determined by the ratio

∆I / I = const (the Bouguer-Weber law),

where ΔI - the amount by which the original stimulus that has already generated the sensation must be changed in order for the person to notice that he has really changed; I - the magnitude of the current stimulus.

Moreover, the value characterizing the discrimination threshold is constant for a particular analyzer. For the visual analyzer, this ratio is approximately 1/1000, for the auditory - 1/10, for the tactile - 1/30.

3.2. Perceptual Properties

Activity, objectivity, integrity, constancy and structure, meaningfulness, selectivity - these are the main properties of the image that develop in the process and result of perception.

Activity - consists, first of all, in the participation of effector components in the process of perception, acting in the form of movement of receptor apparatuses and movements of the body or its parts in space.

Subject - This is the ability of a person to perceive the world not in the form of a set of sensations that are not connected with each other, but in the form of objects separated from each other that have properties that cause these sensations.

Integrity. This means that perception always grasps the integral image of the object. However, this visual ability is not innate. This is indicated by data on the perception of people who were blind in infancy, who regained their sight in adulthood: in the first days after the operation, they see not objects, but only vague outlines, spots of varying brightness and size. In this case, single sensations are noted, but there is no perception: people do not see integral objects. After a few weeks, their visual perception was formed, but it remained limited to what they had previously learned through touch. Thus, perception is formed in the process of practice; it is a system of perceptual actions that must be mastered.

constancy is defined as the ability to perceive objects relatively constant in shape, color and size, a number of other parameters, regardless of the changing physical conditions of perception. The source of constancy is the active actions of the perceptual system (the system of analyzers that provide the act of perception). Repeated perception of the same objects under different conditions makes it possible to single out their permanent, invariant structure. Constancy is an acquired property, not an innate one. It is broken when a person enters an unfamiliar environment.

Structurality. Perception is not a simple sum of sensations. In fact, we perceive a generalized structure. For example, when listening to music, we perceive not individual sounds, but a melody, and we recognize it when it is performed both by an orchestra, and on the piano, and vocally, although individual sound sensations are different.

Meaningfulness. Although perception arises from the direct action of a stimulus on the sense organs, perceptual images always have a certain semantic meaning.Perception is closely connected with thinking, with understanding the essence of objects.Consciously perceiving an object means mentally naming it, i.e. attribute to a specific group, class, generalize it into a word. Even when we see an unfamiliar object, we try to establish in it a resemblance to familiar ones.

Selectivity. It manifests itself in the preferential selection of some objects in comparison with others.

The described properties of perception from birth are not inherent in a person; they gradually take shape in life experience, partly being a natural consequence of the work of analyzers, the synthetic activity of the brain.

4. Studying the features of perception

As we found out, the reception of information by a person begins with a feeling. And, if sensation is a reflection of individual properties of objects and phenomena of the surrounding reality, then perception is a visual-figurative reflection of the objects and phenomena of reality acting at the moment on the senses in the aggregate of their various properties and characteristics. The product of perception is always a more or less complex image of an object or phenomenon.

Let's look at this with examples.

1. Glass with hot tea.

Let's see how perception happens.

From external stimuli in the receptors of the eye, nose, fingertips, nerve impulses arise, which travel through the sensory nerves to the brain, and visual sensations are formed there - the color of strongly brewed tea, the transparency of a glass; olfactory sensations - the smell of tea; temperature and tactile sensations - the smooth surface of the glass and high temperature (tea is hot); tactile sensations- when touching an object - the shape of a glass.

The information provided is then evaluated. According to modern concepts, information in the central nervous system is evaluated according to two main features: physical properties signals and the significance of the messages they contain. The most significant features are selected. And there is a distinction, i.e. the image of a glass with tea is formed.

Then the object of perception is identified -comparison of a directly perceived object (a glass of tea) with"reference" images stored in memory, and object identification, i.e. assigning it to a certain class, perceived earlier - the subject of dishes.

The final phase of the recognition (and perception) process is decoding, which basically consists in the “translation” of perceived signs into those units of inner speech that are directly related to representations and thinking.

Perception, thus, acts as a meaningful (including decision-making) and signified (associated with speech) synthesis of various sensations received from a holistic object.As a result, we get the perception of a glass of hot, strongly brewed tea.

2. A record of various sounds

When listening to a record, auditory perception arises. Auditory perception deals with the sequence of stimuli occurring over time. Our hearing perceives tones and noises.

Sounds, acting on the organ of hearing, cause irritation of the receptors and there are auditory sensations.

If, when listening to a record, we feel the correct rhythmic vibrations of the air, and the frequency of these vibrations determines the pitch, and the amplitude determines the intensity of the sound, then these are tones. These sensations of tones are transmitted to the brain, analyzed, compared with the rhythmic-melodic (musical) code system that has developed in the human mind, and we perceive these sounds as a melody, for example, of a song.

If we hear not rhythmic, but other sounds, then we feel different noises, while different loudness. Noise sensations are also transmitted to the brain, analyzed, compared with the phonemic system of codes (sound codes of the language), recognized and we perceive them, for example, as the noise of the sea, wind, tree leaves, thunder, etc.

3.Photography

When looking at a photograph, we have visual sensations of objects depicted in it, painted in different colors; when touched, tactile sensations arise - the paper is smooth, and when touched - tactile sensations - the shape is rectangular.

Everything happens similarly to the previous examples. And as a result, we perceive it as a photograph with, for example, red roses depicted on it.

Photography as a way of depicting and as a means of fixing the reflection of real objects is objectively a planar image, and yet we are able to correctly perceive the image of an object - due to the fact that the spatial relationship of objects is captured in a photograph in a similar way to human vision.

When perceiving an object, its photograph without a functional background turns out to be the most effective; a soft image that retains all halftone transitions is perceived worse than a high-contrast photograph.

Bibliography

1. A.V. Antonov Information: perception and understanding. Kyiv: Naukova Dumka, 1988.

2. Maklakov A.G. General psychology: Textbook for universities. - St. Petersburg: Peter, 2008.

3. Nemov R.S. Psychology. General Basics Psychology: Proc. for stud. higher ped. textbook institutions.- M.: Humanit. ed. center VLADOS, 2000.

5. Psychology / ed. I.V. Dubrovina. - Moscow: Academy, 2002.

6. Psychology for university students / ed. E.I. Rogov. - Moscow: ICC "MarT"; Rostov n / a: Publishing Center "Mart", 2004.

7. S.L. Rubinshtein Fundamentals of general psychology. - M., 2000.

8. L.D. Stolyarenko Psychology: Textbook for universities. - St. Petersburg: Leader, 2007.

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Feeling- this is a reflection of the individual properties of objects and phenomena that directly affect the senses at a given moment.

Perception- this is a reflection of objects and phenomena in general with their direct impact on the senses.

Feeling- this is, for example, a picture that we see, a smell that we feel, a touch, and so on. But perception is everything. If, for example, we felt the roughness of the surface, saw a wooden structure, tapped it with our knuckles and heard a knock characteristic of wood, then these will all be sensations. And our mind, synthesizing all these sensations, perceives the entire school desk. Now I think everything is clear

Sensitivity thresholds

For a sensation to arise, it is necessary for the irritation to reach a certain strength. To understand this in practice, it is enough to pour a couple of grains of sugar into a glass of water. The dose is too small, you will not feel the sweet taste. Gradually add sugar until you finally feel a slight sweetish aftertaste. Now it is enough to calculate the ratio of the amount of water to the amount of sugar. This will be the lower threshold of sensitivity.

Lower threshold of sensitivity- This is the minimum amount of stimulus that causes a barely noticeable sensation.

Upper threshold of sensitivity- this is the greatest value of the stimulus at which this sensation is still preserved.

It will be difficult to find the upper threshold of sensitivity with the help of sugar, so I will give another example. You enter a dark, unlit room. Very, very dark. Nothing is visible at all. And then it slowly starts to light up. When you start to barely distinguish objects in the room, this will be the lower threshold. When the light blinds you so that you can no longer see anything, this will mean that the upper threshold of sensitivity has been crossed.

In addition to the upper and lower thresholds, there is also a distinction threshold.

The discrimination threshold is the minimum difference between two stimuli that causes a barely perceptible difference in sensations.

Types of sensations

I. According to the nature of the reflection and the location of the receptors, the following sensations are distinguished:

1. Exteroceptive sensations - sensations associated with receptors located on the surface of the body. These include: visual, auditory, olfactory, gustatory and skin.
2. Interoreceptive (organic) - sensations associated with receptors located in the internal organs. Organic sensations do not give precise localization, however, with their strong negative impact, they can disorganize a person's consciousness.
3. Proprioceptive sensations are kinesthetic (motor) and static sensations, the receptors of which are located in the muscles, ligaments and vestibular apparatus. Feel own movements and spatial position of the body.

II. Depending on the type of analyzer, the following types of sensations are distinguished: visual, auditory, skin, olfactory, gustatory, kinesthetic, static, vibrational, organic and pain. Sensations are also divided into distant, in which the sources are located at some distance from the surface of the human body (for example, visual and auditory sensations) and contact, resulting from the touch of certain objects on the surface of the human skin (for example, tactile and taste sensations).

The following types of sensory disturbances are distinguished:

1. Senestopathy - a variety of unpleasant, painful sensations in various parts bodies and in internal organs, which do not have objective reasons for their occurrence. It can be pressure, murmuring, bursting, heat, cold, burning, transfusion, bursting, constriction, and so on. Senestopathies can be limited or widespread, located in one place for short-term episodes, starting from the age of 5-7 years, more often projecting into the abdominal cavity.
2. Hypesthesia - a decrease in the strength of sensations, a decrease in sensitivity to external stimuli. Sounds become muffled, the light seems dim, the brightness of colors fades.
3. Hyperesthesia - exacerbation of sensations, increased sensitivity to common stimuli. For example, hyperosmia is an acute perception of ordinary odors; hyperacusis - high sensitivity to ordinary sounds.
4. Paresthesia is a disorder in which there are sensations in the form of numbness, crawling, tingling in the absence of real stimuli.

Allocate the main perceptual properties:

1. Objectivity presupposes meaningfulness and integrity of images. Objects have not only color, shape, size, but also a certain functional value. For example, a piano is a musical instrument, a knife is a cutlery, boots are shoes.
2. Integrity. Separate components of the whole can act simultaneously or sequentially, but the object or phenomenon is perceived as a whole. So, listening to an orchestra, we perceive not individual instruments, not individual sounds, but the melody as a whole. The integrity of the image is formed on the basis of generalization of knowledge about the individual properties of the object.
3. Constancy - the relative constancy of the perceived shape, color, size of an object, regardless of significant changes in the objective conditions of perception. For example, a cat on a tree, on the ground, in the dark will still be recognized as a cat.
4. Generalization - the assignment of single objects to a certain class of objects that are homogeneous with it in some way.
5. Meaningfulness - provides awareness of what is perceived by a person, how the perceived correlates with his knowledge and past experience. Perceptual images have a certain meaning, even when he sees an unfamiliar object, he tries to catch in it a resemblance to familiar objects.
6. Selectivity - the selection of some objects in comparison with others, associated with the activity and personal experience of a person. So, the actor and any outsider will pay attention to the unfolding events in the performance in different ways.

Perception also has some other properties:

1. volume - is determined by the number of objects that a person can perceive simultaneously (or sequentially per unit of time);
2. speed (or speed) - is determined by the time required to perform certain perceptual actions: detection, discrimination and identification. It is determined by the complexity of the perceived object, the experience of its perception, the speed of sensations, the psychophysiological state of a person;
3. accuracy is the correspondence of the perceptual image that has arisen, the features of the perceived object and the task facing the person;
4. completeness - the degree of such compliance;
5. reliability is the possible duration of perception with the required accuracy and the probability of adequate perception of the object under given conditions and for a given time.

Main sensation properties, most commonly used:

• quality,
• intensity,
• duration,
• spatial localization,
• absolute threshold,
• relative threshold.

Quality of feeling

Characteristics of not only sensations, but in general all characteristics can be divided into qualitative and quantitative. For example, the title of a book or its author are qualitative characteristics; the weight of a book or its length are quantitative. The quality of sensation is a property that characterizes the basic information displayed by this sensation, which distinguishes it from other sensations. One can also say this: the quality of sensation is a property that cannot be measured with the help of numbers, compared with some kind of numerical scale.

For a visual sensation, the quality can be the color of the perceived object. For taste or smell, the chemical characteristic of an object: sweet or sour, bitter or salty, floral smell, almond smell, hydrogen sulfide smell, etc.

Sometimes the quality of sensation is understood as its modality (auditory sensation, visual or otherwise). This also makes sense, because often in a practical or theoretical sense one has to talk about sensations in general. For example, during the experiment, a psychologist can ask the subject a general question: "Tell me about your feelings during ..." And then the modality will be one of the main properties of the described sensations.

Feeling intensity

Perhaps the main quantitative characteristic of sensation is its intensity. In fact, it is of great importance for us whether we listen to quiet music or loud, it is light in the room or we can hardly see our hands.

It is important to understand that the intensity of sensation depends on two factors, which can be described as objective and subjective:

• the strength of the acting stimulus (its physical characteristics),
• the functional state of the receptor on which the stimulus acts.

The more significant physical parameters stimulus, the more intense the sensation. For example, the higher the amplitude of a sound wave, the louder the sound appears to us. And the higher the sensitivity of the receptor, the more intense the sensation. For example, being in a dark room after a long stay and going out into a moderately lit room, you can "go blind" from bright light.

Duration of sensation

The duration of sensation is another important characteristic of sensation. It, as the name implies, denotes the time of existence of the sensation that has arisen. Paradoxically, but the duration of sensation is also influenced by objective and subjective factors.

The main factor, of course, is objective - the longer the action of the stimulus, the longer the sensation. However, the duration of sensation is also affected by the functional state of the sense organ, and some of its inertness.

Suppose the intensity of some stimulus first gradually increases, then gradually decreases. For example, it can be a sound signal - from zero strength it grows to a clearly audible one, and then decreases again to zero strength. We do not hear a very weak signal - it is below the threshold of our perception. Therefore, in this example, the duration of the sensation will be less than the objective duration of the signal. At the same time, if our hearing had previously perceived strong sounds for a long period and did not have time to “depart” yet, then the duration of the sensation of a weak signal will be even less, because the perception threshold is high.

After the beginning of the impact of the stimulus on the sense organ, the sensation does not occur immediately, but after some time. The latent period of different types of sensations is not the same. For tactile sensations - 130 ms, for pain - 370 ms, for taste - only 50 ms. The sensation does not arise simultaneously with the beginning of the action of the stimulus and does not disappear simultaneously with the termination of its action. This inertia of sensations is manifested in the so-called aftereffect. The visual sensation, as you know, has some inertia and does not disappear immediately after the cessation of the action of the stimulus that caused it. The trace from the stimulus remains in the form of a consistent image.

Spatial localization of sensation

A person exists in space, and the stimuli that act on the sense organs are also located at certain points in space. Therefore, it is important not only to perceive the sensation, but also to spatially localize it. The analysis carried out by the receptors gives us information about the localization of the stimulus in space, that is, we can tell where the light comes from, the heat comes from, or which part of the body is affected by the stimulus.

Absolute threshold of sensation

The absolute threshold of sensation is those minimum physical characteristics of the stimulus, starting from which a sensation arises. Stimuli, the strength of which lies below the absolute threshold of sensation, do not give sensations. By the way, this does not mean at all that they do not have any effect on the body. G. V. Gershuni's studies have shown that sound stimuli below the threshold of sensation can cause a change in the electrical activity of the brain and even dilation of the pupil. The zone of influence of irritants that do not cause sensations was called by G.V. Gershuni "subsensory area".

There is not only a lower absolute threshold, but also the so-called upper one - the value of the stimulus at which it ceases to be perceived adequately. Another name for the upper absolute threshold is the pain threshold, because when we overcome it, we experience pain: pain in the eyes when the light is too bright, pain in the ears when the light is too bright. loud sound etc. However, there are some physical characteristics of stimuli that are not related to the intensity of exposure. Such, for example, is the frequency of sound. We do not perceive either very low frequencies or very high ones: the approximate range is from 20 to 20,000 Hz. However, ultrasound does not cause us pain.

Relative threshold of sensation

The relative threshold of sensation is also an important characteristic. Can we distinguish between the weight of a pood weight and a balloon? Can we tell the weight of two sticks of sausage that look the same in the store? It is often more important to evaluate not an absolute characteristic of a sensation, but just a relative one. This kind of sensitivity is called relative, or difference.

It is used both to compare two different sensations, and to determine changes in one sensation. Suppose we heard a musician play two notes on his instrument. Were the pitches of these notes the same? or different? Was one sound louder than the other? or was not?

The relative sensation threshold is the minimum difference in the physical characteristics of the sensation that will be noticeable. Interestingly, for all types of sensation there is a general pattern: the relative threshold of sensation is proportional to the intensity of sensation. For example, if you need to add three grams (no less) to a load of 100 grams (no less) to feel the difference, then you need to add six grams to a load of 200 grams for the same purpose.

Studies have shown that for a particular analyzer this ratio of the relative threshold to the intensity of the stimulus is a constant. In the visual analyzer, this ratio is approximately 1/1000. In the auditory - 1/10. Tactile has 1/30.

Development of sensations

Sensations can and should develop, and this process begins immediately after the birth of a child. Experiments and simple observations show that already after a short time after birth, the child begins to respond to stimuli of all kinds.

Sensations of different modalities have different dynamics in development, the degree of their maturity in different periods is different. Immediately after birth, the child's skin sensitivity is most developed. Perhaps this is due to the fact that in the process of phylogenesis this sensitivity is the oldest.

When observing a newborn, you can notice that the baby is trembling due to the difference in the mother's body temperature and air temperature. A newborn child also reacts to simple touches. The lips and the entire area of ​​the mouth are most sensitive at this age. Obviously, this is due to the need to eat. Newborns also experience pain.

Already in the first days after birth, the child has a highly developed taste sensitivity. Newborn children react differently to the introduction of a solution of quinine or sugar into their mouth. A few days after birth, the baby distinguishes mother's milk from sweetened water, and the latter from plain water.

Olfactory sensitivity, especially related to nutrition, is very well developed in newborns. Newborn babies determine by the smell of their mother's milk whether the mother is in the room or not. If a child has been fed mother's milk for the first week, then he will turn away from cow's milk as soon as he smells it.

Olfactory sensations have a long way to go. Even at the age of four or five, a child's sense of smell is far from perfect.

Vision and hearing in their development go through a more complex path, which includes a number of stages. These bodies are much more complex, they are busy processing huge amounts of information and therefore require a high level of organization of functioning.

In fact, so to speak, people are born blind and deaf. In the first days after birth, a typical baby does not respond to sounds, even very loud ones. The ear canal of a newborn is filled with amniotic fluid, which resolves only after a few days. Usually the child begins to react to sounds during the first week, sometimes this period is delayed up to two or three weeks.

When a child begins to hear, his reactions to sound have the character of a general motor excitation, in particular:

• child throws up arms
• wiggles his legs,
• lets out a loud scream.

Sensitivity to sound gradually increases in the first weeks of life.

After two or three months, the child begins to find the direction to the source of the sound. Outwardly, this is manifested in the fact that he turns his head towards this source. Starting from the third or fourth month, some children begin to respond to singing and music.

As soon as the child begins to hear normally, he gradually develops speech hearing. He begins to distinguish his mother's voice from the voices of other people. Already in the first months of life, the cooing of the child in its timbre begins to correlate with the mother's voice.

In his explicit reactions, the child first of all begins to react to the intonation of speech. This is observed in the second month of life, when the gentle tone has a calming effect on the child.

In the future, it is possible to detect the child's reaction to the perception of the rhythmic side of speech and the general sound pattern of words.

Pretty accurate discrimination of speech sounds, creating necessary minimum for the formation of one's own speech, comes only by the end of the first year of life. From this moment, the development of speech hearing proper begins. The ability to distinguish vowels occurs earlier than the ability to distinguish consonants.

The child's vision develops even more slowly. The absolute sensitivity to light in newborns is very low, but increases markedly in the first days of life. From the moment the visual sensations appear, the child reacts to light with various motor reactions.

Color differentiation grows slowly. It is not until the fifth month that color discrimination usually sets in, after which the child begins to show interest in brightly chromatic objects.

Another obstacle that a child must overcome is a mismatch in eye movements. The child begins to feel light, but at first cannot see objects. One eye may look in one direction, the other in the other, or may be closed altogether. The child begins to control the movement of the eyes only by the end of the second month of life.

In the third month, the child begins to distinguish between objects and faces. At the same time, a long process of development of the perception of space, the forms of objects, their sizes and distances begins.

In the process of developing sensations of all modalities, one more circumstance is important - one must learn to distinguish between sensations. Although by the end of the first year the absolute sensitivity reaches a high level, the discrimination of sensations is improved during the school years.

It is also important to note that in the dynamics of the development of sensation, individual differences are of great importance: genetic characteristics, the health of the child, the presence of a rather rich environment for sensations. The process of developing sensations within certain (not very large) limits can be controlled: with the help of regular training, acquaintance with new stimuli. The development of hearing in infancy can be a good start for a further musical career.

The development of perception is a process of qualitative modification of the processes of perception as the organism grows and individual experience accumulates. It is typical for a person that the most significant changes in perception occur in the first years of a child's life. At the same time, the assimilation of sensory standards and techniques for examining stimuli, developed by society, plays a decisive role. Already before reaching the age of six months, in conditions of interaction with adults, active search actions arise: the child looks to see, grasps and feels objects with his hand. On this basis, intersensory connections are formed between various receptor systems (visual, auditory, tactile). So the child becomes able to perceive complex complex stimuli, recognize and differentiate them. At the age of 6–12 months, the motor system develops rapidly, and objective actions and manipulations act as the leading activity, which requires constant perception. At the same time, reproducing movements that model the features of perceived objects become the main way of perception. In the future, the development of perception occurs in the closest connection with the development of various types of children's activities (play, visual, constructive, and elements of labor and educational). After reaching the age of four, it acquires relative independence.

Physiological basis of perception

The activity of perception as a mental process is provided by the processes taking place in the sense organs, nerve fibers and the central nervous system.

Under the action of stimuli in the endings of the nerves present in the sense organs, nervous excitation occurs, which is transmitted along the conductive pathways to the nerve centers and, ultimately, to the cerebral cortex. Here, nervous excitation enters the projection (sensory) zones of the cortex, which thus represent the central projection of the nerve endings present in the sense organs. Different projection zones are associated with different sense organs, and depending on which organ the projection zone is associated with, certain sensory information is formed.

The mechanism described up to this point is the mechanism for the emergence of sensations. These sensations - almost literally - are a reflection of the surrounding reality. Just as the surrounding objects are reflected in a mirror or in a photograph, the same objects are reflected in the projection zones, only in the form of nervous excitations, from point to point.

With sensations, the process of perception only begins. Own physiological mechanisms of perception are included in the process of forming a holistic image of an object at subsequent stages, when the excitation from the projection zones is transmitted to the integrative zones of the cerebral cortex, where the formation of images of phenomena is completed. real world. Therefore, the integrative zones of the cerebral cortex, which complete the process of perception, are often called perceptual zones. Their function differs significantly from the functions of the projection zones.

The difference in the work of the projection and integrative zones is found when the activity of one or another zone is disturbed in a person. If the work of the visual projection zone is disturbed, the so-called central blindness occurs, that is, if the periphery - the sense organs - is in full working order, the person is completely deprived of visual sensations, he sees nothing at all. If the integrative zone is affected (while the projection zone is preserved), the person sees separate light spots, some contours, but does not understand what he sees. He ceases to comprehend what affects him, he does not even recognize well-known objects and people.

A similar picture is observed in other modalities. In violation of the auditory integrative zones, people cease to understand human speech. Such diseases are called agnostic disorders (disorders leading to the impossibility of cognition), or agnosia,

Perception is closely related to motor activity, emotional experiences, thought processes, and this further complicates the understanding of the physiological foundations of perception. Having begun in the sense organs, nervous excitations caused by external stimuli pass to the nerve centers, where they cover various zones of the cortex and interact with other nervous excitations. This whole complex network of excitations grows. Interacting excitations widely cover different areas of the cortex.

In the process of perception, temporal neural connections are of great importance. Just as a pen and a piece of paper help count as a column, so temporary neural connections provide the perception with the ability to make hypotheses, which are necessary for a deep analysis of the perceived situation. Temporary neural connections that provide the process of perception can be of two types:

• connections formed within the same analyzer,
• interanalyzer connections.

The first type of connections takes place when a complex stimulus of one modality is exposed to the body. For example, such an irritant is a melody, which is a kind of combination of individual sounds that affect the auditory analyzer. This whole complex acts as one complex stimulus. In this case, neural connections are formed not only in response to the stimuli themselves, but also to their relationship - temporal, spatial, etc. (the so-called reflex to the relationship). As a result, the process of integration, or complex synthesis, takes place in the cerebral cortex.

Interanalyzer nerve connections are formed under the influence of a complex stimulus. These are connections within different analyzers, the emergence of which I.M. Sechenov explained by the existence of associations (visual, kinesthetic, tactile, etc.). These associations in a person are necessarily accompanied by an auditory image of the word, due to which perception acquires a holistic character.

Thanks to the connections formed between analyzers, we reflect in perception such properties of objects or phenomena for the perception of which there are no specially adapted analyzers (for example, the size of an object, specific gravity).

Thus, the complex process of constructing a perception image is based on systems of intra-analyzer and inter-analyzer connections that provide the best conditions for seeing stimuli and taking into account the interaction of the properties of an object as a complex whole. But besides this, different parts of the brain directly and indirectly influence the process of perception. Even, for example, the frontal lobes have some participation in the processes of perception, ensuring the purposefulness of this process.

In psychopathology, sensory disorders are identified, which include: hyperesthesia, hypoesthesia, anesthesia, paresthesia and senestopathy, as well as a phantom symptom.

1. Hyperesthesia is a violation of sensitivity, which is expressed in the super-strong perception of light, sound, smell. It is typical for conditions after somatic diseases, traumatic brain injury. Patients may perceive the rustling of leaves in the wind as rumbling iron, and natural light as very bright.
2. Hypothesia - decreased sensitivity to sensory stimuli. The environment is perceived as faded, dull, indistinguishable. This phenomenon is typical of depressive disorders.
3. Anesthesia - most often the loss of tactile sensitivity, or the functional loss of the ability to perceive taste, smell, individual objects, is typical for dissociative (hysterical) disorders.
4. Paresthesia - a feeling of tingling, burning, crawling. Usually in zones corresponding to the zones of Zakharyin - Ged. Typical for somatoform mental disorders and somatic diseases. Paresthesias are due to the peculiarities of blood supply and innervation, which differ from senestopathies. The heaviness under the right hypochondrium has long been familiar to me, and occurs after fatty foods, but sometimes it spreads into pressure over the right collarbone and into the right shoulder joint.
5. Senestopathy - complex unusual sensations in the body with experiences of movement, transfusion, flow. Often frivolous and expressed in unusual metaphorical language, for example, patients talk about the movement of a tickle inside the brain, the transfusion of fluid from the throat to the genitals, stretching and constriction of the esophagus. I feel, says patient S., that ... as if the veins and vessels were empty, and air is being pumped through them, which must necessarily enter the heart and it will stop. Sort of like swelling under the skin. And then pushes of bubbles and boiling of blood.
6. Phantom syndrome is noted in persons with loss of limbs. The patient represses the absence of a limb and seems to feel pain or movement in the missing limb. Often such experiences arise after awakening and are supplemented by dreams in which the patient sees himself with a missing limb.

Perceptual disturbances in various mental illnesses have different causes and different forms of manifestation. With local lesions of the brain, one can distinguish:

1. Elementary and sensory disorders (violation of the sense of height, color perception, etc.). These disorders are associated with lesions of the subcortical levels of the analyzer systems.
2. Complex gnostic disorders reflecting impairment different types perception (perception of objects, spatial relations). These disorders are associated with damage to the cortical areas of the brain.

Gnostic disorders differ depending on the lesion of the analyzer, while they are divided into visual, auditory and tactile agnosia.

Agnosia is a disorder of recognition of objects, phenomena, parts of one's own body, their defects, while maintaining the consciousness of the external world and self-consciousness, as well as in the absence of violations of the peripheral and conductive parts of the analyzers. Agnosia may result from the destruction of certain cortical areas (encephalitis, tumor, vascular process, etc.), as well as due to neurodynamic disorders.

Visual agnosias are divided into:

1. object agnosia (patients do not recognize objects and their images);
2. agnosia for colors and fonts;
3. optical-spatial agnosia (the understanding of the symbolism of the drawing, which reflects the spatial qualities of the drawing, is violated, the ability to convey the spatial features of the object in the drawing disappears: further, closer, more-less, top-bottom, etc.).

With auditory disorders, there is a decrease in the ability to differentiate sounds and understand speech (patients cannot remember two or more sound standards), arrhythmia (they cannot correctly assess rhythmic structures, the number of sounds and the order of alternations), a violation of the intonation side of speech (patients do not distinguish intonations and they have inexpressive speech).

Tactile agnosia is a violation of the recognition of objects when they are felt while maintaining tactile sensitivity (study with eyes closed).

3. Illusions - an erroneous, false perception of a really existing object, object or phenomenon.

Physiological - based on the normal operation of the analyzers. When we see moving clouds and the moon, it seems to us that the moon is moving and the background is stable. (Houses-street).

Physical - based on the laws of physics. Spoon in a glass. Muller-Luer illusions are directly related to the perception of a person by a person: if the observed person has his arms raised, he seems taller than the one with lowered shoulders, although their torso sizes are the same.

Illusion of Danzio (the segment in the corner seems larger)

Poggendorff illusion (A is an extension of C, but A seems to be an extension of B)

Affective - with emotional overstrain. Child-fear of the dark-cloak-man.

Interpretive - with personality and pathocharacterological disorders. In the group they say-hears their name.

Paraeidolic - visual illusions with fantastic content. In the drawing of the carpet he sees an animal.

4. Hallucinations - false perceptions that arise in the content of consciousness without external stimuli, i.e. without a real object is a delusion of perception.

Classification

• Simple: Visual (photopsy - flashing flies before the eyes); Auditory (acthemas - Door creak, noise of steps; Phonemes - simple speech hallucinations in the form of speech sounds, syllables).
• Complex: Auditory (Voices in the form of an order - imperative, insulting, laudatory); Visual (scene-like, zoopsychic); Tactile; Olfactory.
• True - in objective space, are perceived clearly, brightly, are not accompanied by a sense of danger, there is no criticism.
• False (pseudohallucinations) - Kandinsky described, in the subjective space, they are not perceived clearly, not brightly, muffled, accompanied by a sense of danger, there is formal criticism.
• Psychosensory disorders - distortion of the perception of objects: Metamorphopsia (doubling the object, increasing the size); Autometamorphopsia - violation of the body scheme; Violation of the perception of time (intoxication with cannabinoids).
• depersonalization - a disorder in the perception of one's own personality;
• poverty of participation - loss of perception of complex emotions;
• derealization is a distorted perception of the world around. This also includes symptoms of "already seen" (de ja vu), "never seen" (ja mais vu);

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Every day we experience great amount sensations: we smell, we distinguish colors, temperature, brightness of light and much more. What is this feature of our body and how does the brain function in this case? How is sensation different from perception? And why do you need to know all this? In this article, we will answer these questions.

What is the sensation

Sensation (sensory experience) is a mental process, which is a mental reflection of individual properties and conditions of the external environment that affect our senses. Simply put, it is the body's detection of external or internal stimulation. For example, eyes detect light waves, ears detect sound waves.

The process of sensation consists of three successive stages:

1. Sensory receptors detect stimuli (stimuli).
2. Sensory stimuli are converted into electrical impulses (action potentials) that must be decoded by the brain.
3. Electrical impulses travel through neurons to certain parts of the brain, where the impulses are decoded into information (perception comes into play).

For example, when soft tissue is touched, mechanoreceptors (sensory receptors on the skin) indicate that your skin has been touched. This sensory information is then converted into neural information through a process called transduction. Next, the neural information moves along the nerve pathways to the appropriate part of the brain, where sensations are perceived as touching the tissue.

Many psychologists have asked the question "How to measure the intensity of sensation?". The answer has not yet been found, but thresholds have been identified:

1. Absolute Threshold: The minimum amount of stimulation that a person can detect 50% of the time. This is the point at which something becomes tangible to our senses. For example, the quietest sound we can hear, or the slightest touch we can feel. Anything below this threshold goes unnoticed.
2. Difference threshold (or simply noticeable difference) is the minimum difference that must occur between two stimuli for the body to be identified as two separate sensations 50% of the time. Here's an example: you hear the sound of a radio in the next room, and then you realize that someone has added the sound. The delta threshold is the sum of the changes required to know that a change has occurred. However, the distinction itself is not absolute. Imagine that you are holding a suitcase weighing 5 kilograms in your hand. If you add 1 kilogram, you will feel the difference. But if it weighs 50 and add 1 kilogram to it, you will hardly notice it. Therefore, we need to talk about the percentage, and not about the absolute ratio. In the first case, the difference is 20%, and in the other 2%.
3. The end threshold is the maximum amount of stimulation a person can feel.

There are several theories that will help us better understand the concept of sensation.

Signal Detection Theory

You must have been in a crowded room, where many people were talking at the same time. Situations like these can make it difficult to focus on a single stimulus, such as a conversation you're having with a friend.

We often face this difficult task of focusing our attention on certain things, while at the same time trying to ignore the flow of information entering the senses. When we try to counter this, we make a conscious decision about what is important to us and what is background noise. This concept is called signal detection theory because we want to focus on one thing while ignoring everything else.

Sensory adaptation

Have you ever wondered why we immediately notice some smells or sounds, and then after a while we seem to stop noticing them, and they fade into the background? Once we become accustomed to perfume or the ticking of a clock, we stop recognizing them. This process is called sensory adaptation: perhaps the logic of evolution here is that if the stimulus does not change, then why should we constantly feel it?

Why and how to train sensations?

If you train the sensations, you will significantly pump. As you may know, information that is best remembered is that associated with the senses: for example, English words you need to write, make bright, maybe even “smell”. And memory, in turn, is closely related to . In short, by consciously feeling, you develop many cognitive skills.

There is one simple but very effective exercise. Its essence is to allocate five minutes to train one of the senses:

• Vision: pay attention only to what you see. Look at the object, its shape, curves, highlights.
• Smell: open the refrigerator, take out food one by one and smell it. It is best to do this, of course, alone. Try to compare smells, analyze them. We remind you once again: try to turn off all other feelings.
• Hearing: Start picking up all the sounds you hear. Compare them, try to switch from one to another.
• Touch: touch various objects - paper, table, blanket. Try to understand the difference in sensations, linger in this moment.
• Taste: Try different foods (little by little). Do not swallow immediately, try to understand all the shades of taste. Compare varieties of cheese, bread or meat.

You may ask: “Why is there no training of sensations in everyday life?”. The thing is, we don't do it consciously. Feelings are only trained if you pay attention to them. Everything else seems to be "passed by the ears."

What is perception

Now let's find out what perception is and try to understand how and in what way it differs from sensation.

Perception (perception) - sensory knowledge of objects of the surrounding world, subjectively presented as direct, immediate. If sensation is used to detect sound waves, then perception uses the brain to interpret the sound of a guitar, for example. How we perceive our surroundings is what distinguishes us from animals and from each other.

To consider the phenomenon of perception, we need to talk about theories that are either directly or indirectly related to it.

Gestalt principle

The German word "gestalt" roughly translates to "whole" or "form", and Gestalt psychologists believe that the whole is greater than the sum of its parts. According to the theory, in order to interpret what we receive with our senses, we try to organize this information into certain groups. This allows information to be interpreted in the future without unnecessary repetition.

For example, when you see one dot, you perceive it as such, but when you see five dots together, you group them by saying "row of dots." Without such a tendency, our perception of the same series will be considered as "dot, dot, dot, dot, dot." At the same time, the processing process itself will increase by about five times in time, and also reduces perceptual ability.

Persistence Perception

Imagine if every time an object changes in perception, we would have to completely recycle it. For example, as you approach a building, with every step you take, you would have to re-evaluate the size of the building because it got bigger.

Fortunately, this does not happen. Because of our ability to maintain consistency in our perception, we roughly estimate the height of a building no matter how far away we are from it. Perceptual persistence refers to our ability to see things differently without overthinking the properties of an object. Usually they talk about three constants: size, shape, brightness.

Size constancy refers to our ability to see objects as maintaining the same size, even at a distance. This is true for all our senses. As we move away from the speaker, the song becomes softer. We understand this and perceive the sound to be about the same loud.

Everyone saw a round plate. However, when we look at it from an angle, it looks more like an ellipse. The constancy of shape allows us to perceive this plate as round, although the angle from which we look seems to distort the shape.

Luminance constancy refers to our ability to recognize that a color stays the same no matter how it looks at different levels. That navy blue shirt you wore to the beach suddenly "turns" black when you walk into a dark room. Without color permanence, we will constantly reinterpret color and be amazed at the miraculous transformation that is constantly "happening" to our clothes.

Perception training

To train perception, you must first be aware of your feelings and sensations. And for this, a list of questions is best suited. Write them down on a piece of paper and ask yourself several times a day:

• How accurate is my perception?
• Is there a lot of subjective and emotional partiality in me now?
• Am I afraid to see what is really happening?
• How do I perceive the world in its movements, colors, shapes and smells?
• How much information from the senses can I absorb at the same time?
• Is my perception holistic?
• Is my consciousness looking deep or skimming the surface?

The answers to these questions that you will give every day will significantly change your attitude to perception, and therefore pump it.

The difference between sensation and perception

These are very similar concepts, which, however, are very different. So let's find out exactly what.

We have five different sensory organs (in classical terms): eyes, nose, ears, tongue, and skin. They are responsible for perceiving stimuli around. The signals we receive from the environment are called sensations. Simply put, sensations are what our senses perceive and transmit to the brain. When the brain receives a stimulus, it converts it into feelings, taste, sound, sight and smell. In this connection perception can even be called a sixth sense: it is how we form an opinion about something that is happening around us.

Perception is absolutely personal experience while sensations are objective. We may be cold (sensation), but we force ourselves to believe that we are warm (perception). Perception is a psychological concept, sensation is a physiological one.

Two different people can have completely opposite perceptions with the same sensations: the taste of food, the perception of a masterpiece of art, and so on.

In this regard, I want to take out one lesson: your level of happiness and success in life depends on perception. It doesn’t matter what life circumstances you are in now: learn to perceive them in such a way that they evoke a desire to learn and develop. Remember that when two people look through the bars, one sees dirt and the other stars. We are biological beings and are highly dependent on the conditions of life, but we have been given incredible power to change our perception in such a way that in any situation we can be satisfied with life and be happy. Or maybe deliberately cause a state of dissatisfaction, if it motivates us to become better.

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1 . PsichologicalI am the nature of sensation and perception

Feeling- this is the simplest mental process, consisting in the reflection of individual properties of objects and phenomena of the material world, as well as the internal states of the body with the direct impact of material stimuli on the corresponding receptors. "... Matter, acting on our senses, produces a sensation."

The sense organs receive, select, accumulate information and transmit it to the brain, which receives and processes its huge and inexhaustible flow every second. As a result, there is an adequate reflection of the surrounding world and the state of the organism itself. On this basis, nerve impulses are formed that come to the executive organs responsible for regulating body temperature, digestive organs, organs of movement, endocrine glands, for tuning the sense organs themselves, etc. and all this extremely complex work, consisting of many thousands of operations per second, is being done continuously.

“Otherwise, as through sensations, we cannot learn anything about any forms of matter and about any forms of movement ...”. If a person lost all senses, he would not know what is happening around him, he could not communicate with people around him, find food, and avoid dangers. The famous Russian doctor S.P. botney ( 1832-1889) described a rare case when the patient lost all kinds of sensitivity, except for vision in one eye and touch in a small area of ​​\u200b\u200bthe arm. When the patient closed her eye, and no one touched her hand, she fell asleep.

A person needs to receive information about the world around him all the time.

The sensation arises as a result of the conversion of the specific energy of the stimulus that is currently acting on the receptor into the energy of nervous processes. Feeling as a mental phenomenon in the absence of a response of the body or in case of its inadequacy is impossible.

Perception is a sensual reflection of an object or phenomenon of objective reality that affects our senses. The perception of a person is not only a sensual image, but also the awareness of an object that stands out from the environment and opposes the subject. The possibility of perception implies the ability of the subject not only to respond to a sensory stimulus, but also to realize, accordingly, a sensory quality as a property of a particular object. Perception presupposes a rather high development of not only the sensory, but also the motor apparatus. The perception of the spatial arrangement of things is quite obviously formed in the process of real motor mastery of space - first by means of grasping movements, and then movements.

Perception is based on the sensory data of sensations delivered by our sense organs under the influence of external stimuli acting at the moment. An attempt to separate perception from sensation is clearly untenable.

But at the same time, perception is not reduced to a simple sum of sensations. It is always a more or less complex whole, qualitatively different from those elementary sensations that are part of it. Every perception includes a reproduced past experience, and the thinking of the perceiver, and - in a certain sense - also his feelings and emotions. Reflecting objective reality, perception does this not passively, not in a deadly mirror image, because in it the entire mental life of the particular person of the perceiver is simultaneously refracted.

Perception is a form of knowledge of reality.

2 . In andthe senses and perception

Sensations arise as a result of the action of a certain stimulus on the corresponding receptor, the classification of sensations proceeds from the properties of the stimuli that cause them, the receptors that are affected by these stimuli. According to the nature of the reflection and the location of the receptors, it is customary to divide sensations into three groups:

1) exteroceptive, reflecting the properties of objects and phenomena of the external environment and having receptors on the surface of the body;

2) interoceptive, having receptors located in the internal organs and tissues of the body and reflecting the state of the internal organs;

3) proprioceptive, whose receptors are located in muscles and ligaments; they give information about the movement and position of our body.

The subclass of proprioception, which is the sensitivity to movement, is also called kinesthesia, and the corresponding receptors are kinesthetic or kinesthetic.

Exteroceptors can be divided into two groups: contact and distant receptors. Contact receptors transmit irritation upon direct contact with objects that act on them; such are the tactile, taste buds. Distant receptors respond to stimuli emanating from a distant object; disciplinary are visual, auditory, olfactory.

We have named five receptors corresponding to the types of sensations: sight, hearing, smell, touch and taste, identified more Aristotle. In fact, there are many more types of sensations.

The composition of touch, along with tactile sensations, includes a completely independent type of sensations - temperature.

An intermediate position between tactile and auditory sensations is occupied by vibrational sensations. A large role in the overall process of human orientation in the environment is played by sensations of balance and acceleration. Common for different analyzers and pain sensations, signaling the destructive power of the stimulus.

In terms of data modern science, the accepted division of sensations into external (exteroceptors) and internal (interoceptors) is not enough. Some types of sensations can be considered external-internal. These include: temperature and pain, taste and vibration, muscular-articular and static-dynamic.

The most important features of perception:

1) Objectivity of perception

It is expressed in the so-called act of objectification, i.e. in referring information received from the outside world to this world. Without such a reference, perception cannot fulfill its orienting regulatory function in a person's practical activity.

Objectivity plays a special role in the regulation of behavior. We usually define objects not by their appearance, but by how we use them in practice or by their basic properties. And this helps the objectivity of perception.

Objectivity also plays an important role in the further formation of the perceptual processes themselves, i.e. perception processes. When there is a discrepancy with the external world and its reflection, the subject is forced to look for new ways of perception that provide a more correct reflection.

2) Integrity of perception

Unlike sensation, which reflects the individual properties of an object that affects the sense organ, perception is a holistic image of the object. This holistic image is formed on the basis of the generalization of knowledge about the individual properties and qualities of the object, obtained in the form of various sensations.

3) Structural perception

Perception to a large extent does not correspond to our instantaneous sensations and is not a simple sum of them. We perceive a generalized structure actually abstracted from these sensations, which is formed over a period of time.

The sources of integrity and structure of perception lie in the features of the reflected objects themselves, on the one hand, and in the objective activity of a person, on the other. THEM. Sechenov emphasized that the integrity and structure of perception are the result of the reflex activity of analyzers.

4)Constancy of perception

Due to the property of constancy, which consists in the ability of the perceptual system (a perceptual system is a set of analyzers that provides a given act of perception) to compensate for these changes, we perceive the surrounding objects as relatively constant in shape, size, color, etc.

The real source of constancy of perception is the active actions of the perceptual system. From the diverse and changeable stream of movements of the receptor apparatuses and response sensations, the subject singles out a relatively constant, invariant structure of the perceived object. Multiple perception of the same objects under different conditions ensures the invariance of the perceptual image with respect to these changing conditions, as well as the movements of the receptor apparatus itself, therefore, gives rise to the constancy of this image.

The property of constancy is explained by the fact that perception is a kind of self-regulating action that has a feedback mechanism and adjusts to the characteristics of the perceived object and the conditions of its existence. The constancy of perception formed in the process of subject detail is a necessary condition for human life and activity.

5) Meaningfulness of perception

Perceptual images always have a certain semantic meaning. A person's perception is closely connected with thinking, with understanding the essence of an object. To consciously perceive an object means to mentally name it, i.e. to attribute the perceived object to a certain group, class of objects, to generalize it in a word. Perception is not determined simply by a set of stimuli affecting the senses, but is a dynamic search for the best interpretation, explanation of the available data.

3 . Helladaptationand sensory sensitization

Adaptation, or device,- this is a change in the sensitivity of the sense organs under the influence of the action of the stimulus.

Three types of this phenomenon can be distinguished:

1. Adaptation as the complete disappearance of sensation in the process of prolonged action of the stimulus. In case of action constant stimuli the feeling tends to fade away. For example, a light load resting on the skin soon ceases to be felt. The distinct disappearance of olfactory sensations shortly after we enter an atmosphere with an unpleasant odor is also a common fact. Full adaptation of the visual analyzer under the action of a constant and immobile stimulus does not occur. This is due to compensation for the immobility of the stimulus due to the movements of the receptor apparatus itself. Constant voluntary and non-voluntary eye movements ensure the continuity of the visual sensation.

2. Adaptation is also called another phenomenon, close to the one described, which is expressed in the dulling of sensation under the influence of a strong stimulus. For example, when a hand is immersed in cold water, the intensity of the sensation caused by a cold stimulus decreases. When we move from a semi-dark room into a brightly lit space, we are at first blinded and unable to distinguish any details around. After some time, the sensitivity of the visual analyzer decreases sharply, and vision returns to normal. This decrease in the sensitivity of the eyes to intense light stimulation is called light adaptation.

The described two types of adaptation can be combined with the term negative adaptation, since as a result of them the sensitivity of the analyzers decreases.

3. Adaptation is called an increase in sensitivity under the influence of a weak stimulus. This kind of adaptation, which is characteristic of certain types of sensations, can be defined as positive adaptation.

In the visual analyzer, this is thermal adaptation, when the sensitivity of the eye increases under the influence of being in the dark. A similar form of auditory adaptation is silence adaptation. In temperature sensations, positive adaptation is found when a pre-cooled hand feels warm, and a pre-heated hand feels cold when immersed in water of the same temperature.

Studies have shown that some analyzers detect fast adaptation, others slow. For example, touch receptors adapt very quickly. The visual receptor adapts relatively slowly (the time of dark adaptation reaches several tens of minutes), the olfactory and gustatory receptors.

Adaptation helps, by means of the sense organs, to catch weak stimuli and to protect the sense organs from excessive irritation in the event of an extraordinary force of influence.

The phenomenon of adaptation can be explained by those peripheral changes that occur in the functioning of the receptor during prolonged exposure to a stimulus.

The phenomenon of adaptation is also explained by the processes taking place in the central sections of the analyzer. With prolonged stimulation, the cerebral cortex responds with internal protective inhibition, which reduces sensitivity. The development of inhibition causes increased excitation of other organs, which contributes to an increase in sensitivity in new conditions (the phenomenon of successive mutual induction).

The increase in sensitivity as a result of the interaction of analyzers and exercises is called sensitization.

The physiological mechanism for the interaction of sensations is the processes of irradiation and concentration of excitation in the cerebral cortex, where the central sections of the analyzers are represented. As a result of the irradiation of the excitation process, the sensitivity of another analyzer increases. Under the action of a strong stimulus, a process of excitation occurs, which, on the contrary, has a tendency to concentration. According to the law of mutual induction, this leads to inhibition in the central sections of other analyzers and a decrease in the sensitivity of the latter.

Changes in the sensitivity of the analyzers can be caused by exposure to secondary signal stimuli. Thus, the facts of changes in the electrical sensitivity of the eyes and tongue in response to the presentation of the words "sour as a lemon" to the subjects were obtained. These changes were similar to those with actual irritation of the tongue with lemon juice.

Knowing the patterns of changes in the sensitivity of the sense organs, it is possible, by using specially selected side stimuli, to sensitize one or another receptor, i.e. increase its sensitivity.

Sensitization can also be achieved through exercise. It is known, for example, that pitch hearing develops in children who study music.

4. Illusions perceivedand I

Perception is a reflection of objects and phenomena in the totality of their properties and parts with their direct impact on the senses. It includes the past experience of a person in the form of ideas and knowledge.

Illusions of perception (from Latin illusio - error, delusion) - an inadequate reflection of the perceived object and its properties. Sometimes the term “perceptual illusions” refers to the configurations of stimuli themselves that cause such inadequate perception.

Currently, the most studied are the illusory effects observed in the visual perception of two-dimensional contour images. These so-called "optical-geometric illusions" consist in the apparent distortion of the metric relationships between image fragments.

The phenomenon of brightness contrast belongs to another class of perception illusions. So, a gray stripe on a light background seems darker than on a black one.

Many illusions of visible movement are known: autokinetic movement (chaotic movements of an objectively stationary light source observed in complete darkness), stroboscopic movement (the appearance of an impression of a moving object upon the rapid sequential presentation of two stationary stimuli in close spatial proximity), induced movement (apparent movement of an immovable object in direction opposite to the movement of the surrounding background).

Optical illusions (more narrowly - visual illusions) - errors in visual perception caused by inaccuracy or inadequacy of the processes of unconscious correction of the visual image (lunar illusion, incorrect assessment of the length of segments, the magnitude of the angles or color of the depicted object, illusions of movement, "the illusion of the absence of an object" - banner blindness, etc.), as well as physical causes (“flattened moon”, “broken spoon” in a glass of water). The causes of optical illusions are investigated both when considering the physiology of vision, and as part of the study of the psychology of visual perception.

Illusions of perception of non-visual nature include, for example, Charpentier's illusion: from two objects of equal weight, but different sizes, the smaller one seems heavier. There are also various installation illusions, studied in detail by D.N. Uznadze and his students.

Some perception illusions are complex: for example, in a weightless situation, with unusual stimulation of the vestibular apparatus, the assessment of the position of visual and acoustic objects is disturbed. There are also illusions of touch, time, color, temperature, etc.

There is currently no unified theory explaining all the illusions of perception. It is generally accepted that illusory effects, as shown by the German scientist G. Helmholtz, are the result of the work in unusual conditions of the same perception mechanisms that under normal conditions ensure its constancy.

Numerous studies are devoted to the discovery of the determinants of the optical and physiological nature of illusions. Their appearance is explained by the structural features of the eye, the specifics of the processes of encoding and decoding information, the effects of irradiation, contrast, etc. The studies fix the social determinants of the transformation of images - features of the motivational and need spheres, the influence of emotional factors, past experience, the level of intellectual development.

Transformation of images of objective reality occurs under the influence of integral formations of the personality: attitudes, semantic formations, "pictures of the world". By changing the characteristics of the perception of illusions, one can determine the global characteristics and qualities of a person - his state in a situation of perception (fatigue, activity), character and type of personality, status and self-esteem, pathological changes, susceptibility to suggestion.

AT recent times experimental data were obtained, indicating a change in the vision of illusions by the subjects of perception in a situation of actualizing their image of a significant other. In these studies, the emphasis is shifted from the study of the characteristics of perception to the study of the personal qualities of a person.

5. Feeling valueand perception in human life

sensation perception illusory sensitization

Sensation, as such, is a rather complicated mental phenomenon, as it seems at first glance. Despite the fact that this is a fairly well-studied phenomenon, the global nature of its role in the psychology of activity and cognitive processes is underestimated by man. Feelings are widespread ordinary life human, and in the continuous process of cognitive activity for people is the usual primary form of the psychological connection of the organism with the environment. Partial or complete absence of types of sensation (sight, hearing, taste, smell, touch) in a person prevents or hinders its development. Sensations are of great importance for the formation of such cognitive processes as speech, thinking, imagination, memory, attention and perception, as well as for the development of activities as a specific type of human activity aimed at creating objects of material and spiritual culture, transforming one's abilities, preserving and improving nature, and the building of society.

Sensation is the simplest mental process of reflection in the cerebral cortex of individual properties of objects and phenomena of the surrounding world that affect the brain through the corresponding sense organs.

Sensations are considered the simplest of all mental phenomena. The ability to sense is present in all living beings with a nervous system. As for conscious sensations, they exist only in living beings that have a brain and a cerebral cortex. This, in particular, is proved by the fact that when the activity of the higher parts of the central nervous system is inhibited, the work of the cerebral cortex is temporarily turned off in a natural way or with the help of biochemical preparations, a person loses the state of consciousness and, along with it, the ability to have sensations, that is, to feel, to consciously perceive the world. . This happens during sleep, during anesthesia, with painful disturbances of consciousness.

The creative nature of the activity of a living being is manifested in the fact that, thanks to the activity, it goes beyond its limitations, surpasses its own genotypically conditioned capabilities. However, sensations have a huge influence on activity. Without them, any activity is impossible or would be very difficult. If a person completely or partially lacks one of the cognitive processes (hearing, sight, smell, taste, etc.), then this sharply reduces the scope of the chosen profession.

visual sensations

When the action of the cone apparatus is weakened, a person poorly distinguishes or does not distinguish chromatic colors at all. This disease is called "color blindness" (after the English physicist Dalton, who first described it). Color blindness is a serious visual impairment and must be taken into account as a contraindication when choosing driver and operator professions that are associated with color indication.

auditory sensations

The weakening of the activity of the hearing aid affects the choice of active professions, of which auditory sensations are an integral part, for example, teaching, telephonists, salesmen, doctors, lawyers, translators, radio hosts, etc.

Olfactory sensations

This type of sensation influences the choice of profession, where the sense of smell is the main professional tool. It should be noted that there are not many such professions. The brightest of them are a cook, a person involved in testing perfumery products, etc.

vibration sensations

The need for vibration sensitivity increases in activities where vibration becomes a malfunction in the operation of the machine. These are all kinds of technical operators, drivers, mechanics, etc.

Taste sensations

The weakening of the activity of taste sensations is a contraindication when choosing the profession of a cook, for whom sensations of this type are a professional tool.

Skin sensations

In some professions, it is important for a person to know not only the location of individual parts of his body, but also the whole body and be able to perform working movements when the body changes in space (divers, paratroopers, astronauts, pilots, sailors, high-altitude fitters, etc.). Therefore, the weakening of the activity of the corresponding sensations can be a serious limitation of these types of activity.

It should be noted that sensations also greatly affect perception, attention, memory, imagination, thinking and speech; in the absence of sensations, other cognitive processes will be limited or impossible. Perception is not presented without sensations, since it occurs through the influence of our senses on objects and phenomena of the objective world, together with the processes of sensation, perception provides sensory orientation in the surrounding world.

6. Connection of perception and attention

Perception is the mental process of reflecting an object or phenomenon as a whole, in the aggregate of its properties and parts.

As well as sensation, perception arises from the direct impact of objects of the external world at a given moment on the sense organs, but at the same time, perception is not reduced to a simple sum of individual sensations, but represents a qualitatively new stage of sensory cognition. In perception, there is an ordering and unification of individual sensations of the same and different modality into integral images of things and events, with which attention, memory, thinking, and emotions subsequently operate. A person always ascribes sensations to himself, i.e. they are in ourselves, and the perceived properties of objects, their images are localized in space.

Perception involves participation in creating the image of surrounding objects, not only sensations, but also all other mental processes. The dependence of perception on the content of a person's mental life, on the characteristics of his personality, is called apperception. Stimulus signals that are more familiar and more common in life experience are recognized automatically, almost immediately.

If we know little about the perceived object, then our brain acts by hypotheses, which it checks one by one, choosing the most acceptable one. The influence of past experience on the perception process is especially clearly manifested in experiments with distorting glasses: in the first days of the experiment, when the subject saw all objects upside down, the only exceptions were those whose reversed image was contrary to common sense and was physically impossible (for example, a lit candle is always was oriented with the flame upwards).

Perceptions are often classified according to the degree of direction and concentration of consciousness on a particular object (attention). In this case, it is possible to distinguish between unintentional (involuntary) and intentional (voluntary) perceptions. Intentional perception is essentially an observation. The success of an observation largely depends on prior knowledge of the observed object. Purposeful formation of the skill of observation is an indispensable condition for the professional training of a specialist; it also forms an important quality of personality - observation.

Attention is the most important quality that characterizes the process of selecting the necessary information and discarding the superfluous. The fact is that thousands of signals from the outside world enter the human brain every second. If there were no attention (a kind of filter), then our brain could not avoid overload. Attention has certain properties: volume, stability, concentration, selectivity, distribution, switchability and arbitrariness. Violation of each of these properties leads to deviations in human behavior and activity. A small amount of attention is the inability to concentrate on several objects at the same time, to keep them in mind.

The possibility of perception, and therefore of having a point of view or, in a clever way, an assemblage point, is provided with the help of attention. In order to have the opportunity to do something with your attention during life, it is also divided into two parts.

With the help of the first type of attention, a person perceives concrete, dense things, the world of objects, objects. For their perception, a person has five senses - sight, hearing, smell, taste, sensation. The possession of this attention of a person is now taught from childhood.

The second attention is called that part of the spectrum of perception, which relates to the perception of the abstract. Everything that cannot be touched, smelled, picked up can be attributed to the abstract. These are connections, laws, ideas, opportunities, trends, knowledge, beauty, spirit. These abstract things are as real as concrete things, they really exist and work. For example, the possibility of something, it really either exists or it doesn’t, but it’s impossible to give it to a person who does not believe in it. The connection between two people, a thin thread that connects them, really exists, although it is not fixed by devices. Manifestation in the objective world of any law, be it a law gravity or the law of karma - obvious and immutable (under the conditions in which this law operates), but to see this as a general law can only be used using the second attention, an abstract look.

According to modern psychologists, concentration of attention over time facilitates the perception of visual stimuli, as if enhancing their contrast. However, Samuel Ling of the University of New York (New York University), together with his colleagues, conducted experiments that refuted this established opinion.

During his study, Ling showed subjects alternating dark and light stripes, and then asked how they tilted in the picture - to the left or to the right. This task turned out to be all the more difficult, the smaller the contrast between the stripes.

The scientists found that if people specifically focused on certain sets of bands at the start of the experiment, they could do the job even if the contrast was minimal.

However, after completing a series of tasks while focusing on these stripes, the subjects' perception began to gradually deteriorate, and in order to cope with the test, more and more contrast images were required.

Thus, according to Ling's conclusion, as a result of concentration of attention, the perception of images with weak contrast improves only for a while, and then, when considering the previous stimuli, it only worsens.

Bibliography

1) Under the editorship of Academician APN of the USSR A.V. Petrovsky "General psychology" 1986

2) R.S. Nemov "Psychology" 2001

3) V.V. Mironenko, edited by Professor A.V. Petrovsky "Christomatia in Psychology" 1987

4) S.L. Rubinshtein "Fundamentals of General Psychology" 2006

5) Albukhanova-Slavskaya K.A. Activity and consciousness of the individual as a subject of activity // Psychology of the individual in a socialist society: Activity and development of the individual. - M.: Norma, 1994.

6) Antsyferova L.I. Psychology of everyday life, the life world of the individual and the "techniques" of her being. // Psychological journal. - 1993. - v. 14. - No. 2.

7) Galperin P.Ya., Kabylnitskaya S.L. Experimental formation of attention. - M.: MSU, 1994.

8) Rock I. Introduction to visual perception. Book one. - M.: Pedagogy, 1990.

9) Yanchuk V.A. Methodology, theory and method in modern social psychology and personology: an integrative-eclectic approach. - Minsk: Bestprint, 2000.

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