In the last few years, the topic of nuclear energy has become increasingly relevant. For the production of atomic energy, it is customary to use a material such as uranium. It is a chemical element belonging to the actinide family.

The chemical activity of this element determines the fact that it is not contained in a free form. For its production, mineral formations called uranium ores are used. They concentrate such an amount of fuel that allows us to consider the extraction of this chemical element as economically rational and profitable. At the moment, in the bowels of our planet, the content of this metal exceeds the reserves of gold in 1000 times(cm. ). In general, deposits of this chemical element in soil, water and rock are estimated at more than 5 million tons.

In the free state, uranium is a gray-white metal, which is characterized by 3 allotropic modifications: rhombic crystal, tetragonal and body-centered cubic lattices. The boiling point of this chemical element is 4200°C.

Uranium is a chemically active material. In air, this element slowly oxidizes, easily dissolves in acids, reacts with water, but does not interact with alkalis.

Uranium ores in Russia are usually classified according to various criteria. Most often they differ in terms of education. Yes, there are endogenous, exogenous and metamorphogenic ores. In the first case, they are mineral formations formed under the influence of high temperatures, humidity and pegmatite melts. Exogenous uranium mineral formations occur in surface conditions. They can form directly on the surface of the earth. This is due to the circulation of groundwater and the accumulation of precipitation. Metamorphogenic mineral formations appear as a result of the redistribution of initially spaced uranium.

According to the level of uranium content, these natural formations can be:

• super-rich (over 0.3%);
• rich (from 0.1 to 0.3%);
• ordinary (from 0.05 to 0.1%);
• poor (from 0.03 to 0.05%);
• off-balance sheet (from 0.01 to 0.03%).

Modern applications of uranium

Today, uranium is most commonly used as a fuel for rocket engines and nuclear reactors. Given the properties of this material, it is also intended to increase the power of a nuclear weapon. This chemical element has also found its application in painting. It is actively used as yellow, green, brown and black pigments. Uranium is also used to make cores for armor-piercing projectiles.

Uranium ore mining in Russia: what is needed for this?

The extraction of radioactive ores is carried out by three main technologies. If ore deposits are concentrated as close as possible to the surface of the earth, then it is customary to use open technology for their extraction. It involves the use of bulldozers and excavators that dig large holes and load the resulting minerals into dump trucks. Then it goes to the processing complex.

With a deep occurrence of this mineral formation, it is customary to use underground mining technology, which provides for the creation of a mine up to 2 kilometers deep. The third technology differs significantly from the previous ones. In-situ leaching for the development of uranium deposits involves drilling wells through which sulfuric acid is pumped into the deposits. Next, another well is drilled, which is necessary for pumping the resulting solution to the surface of the earth. Then it goes through a sorption process, which allows collecting salts of this metal on a special resin. The last stage of the SPV technology is the cyclic treatment of the resin with sulfuric acid. Thanks to this technology, the concentration of this metal becomes maximum.

Deposits of uranium ores in Russia

Russia is considered one of the world leaders in the extraction of uranium ores. Over the past few decades, Russia has consistently been in the top 7 leading countries in this indicator.

The largest deposits of these natural mineral formations are:

The largest uranium mining deposits in the world - leading countries

Australia is considered the world leader in uranium mining. More than 30% of all world reserves are concentrated in this state. The largest Australian deposits are Olympic Dam, Beaverley, Ranger and Honeymoon.

Australia's main competitor is Kazakhstan, which contains almost 12% of the world's fuel reserves. Canada and South Africa each contain 11% of the world's uranium reserves, Namibia - 8%, Brazil - 7%. Russia closes the top seven with 5%. The leaderboard also includes countries such as Namibia, Ukraine and China.

The world's largest uranium deposits are:

Field	The country	Start processing
Olympic Dam	Australia	1988
Rossing	Namibia	1976
MacArthur River	Canada	1999
Inkai	Kazakhstan	2007
Dominion	South Africa	2007
Ranger	Australia	1980
Kharasan	Kazakhstan	2008

Reserves and production volumes of uranium ore in Russia

Explored reserves of uranium in our country are estimated at more than 400,000 tons. At the same time, the indicator of predicted resources is more than 830 thousand tons. As of 2017, there are 16 uranium deposits operating in Russia. Moreover, 15 of them are concentrated in Transbaikalia. The Streltsovskoye ore field is considered the main deposit of uranium ore. In most domestic deposits, mining is carried out by the mine method.

• Uranus was discovered in the 18th century. In 1789, the German scientist Martin Klaproth managed to produce metal-like uranium from ore. Interestingly, this scientist is also the discoverer of titanium and zirconium.
• Uranium compounds are actively used in the field of photography. This element is used to color positives and enhance negatives.
• The main difference between uranium and other chemical elements is natural radioactivity. Uranium atoms tend to change independently over time. At the same time, they emit rays invisible to the human eye. These rays are divided into 3 types - gamma, beta, alpha radiation (see).

Uranium (U) is an element with atomic number 92 and atomic weight 238.029. It is a radioactive chemical element of group III periodic system Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev belongs to the actinide family. Uranium is a very heavy (2.5 times heavier than iron, more than 1.5 times heavier than lead), silvery-white glossy metal. In its pure form, it is slightly softer than steel, malleable, flexible, and has slight paramagnetic properties.

Natural uranium consists of a mixture of three isotopes: 238U (99.274%) with a half-life of 4.51∙109 years; 235U (0.702%) with a half-life of 7.13∙108 years; 234U (0.006%) with a half-life of 2.48∙105 years. The last isotope is not primary, but radiogenic; it is part of the 238U radioactive series. The uranium isotopes 238U and 235U are the progenitors of two radioactive series. The final elements of these series are the lead isotopes 206Pb and 207Pb.

Currently, 23 artificial radioactive isotopes of uranium with mass numbers from 217 to 242 are known. Among them, 233U with a half-life of 1.62∙105 years is the longest-lived one. It is obtained as a result of neutron irradiation of thorium, capable of fission under the influence of thermal neutrons.

Uranium was discovered in 1789 by the German chemist Martin Heinrich Klaproth as a result of his experiments with the mineral pitchblende. The name of the new element was in honor of the recently discovered (1781) planet Uranus by William Herschel. For the next half century, the substance obtained by Klaproth was considered a metal, but in 1841 this was refuted by the French chemist Eugene Melchior Peligot, who proved the oxide nature of uranium (UO2) obtained by the German chemist. Peligo himself managed to obtain metallic uranium by reducing UCl4 with metallic potassium, as well as to determine atomic weight new element. The next in the development of knowledge about uranium and its properties was D. I. Mendeleev - in 1874, based on the theory he developed about the periodization of chemical elements, he placed uranium in the farthest cell of his table. The atomic weight of uranium (120) previously determined by Peligo was doubled by the Russian chemist, the correctness of such assumptions was confirmed twelve years later by the experiments of the German chemist Zimmermann.

For many decades, uranium was of interest only to a narrow circle of chemists and natural scientists, its use was also limited - the production of glass and paints. Only with the discovery of the radioactivity of this metal (in 1896 by Henri Becquerel) did the industrial processing of uranium ores begin in 1898. Much later (1939) the phenomenon of nuclear fission was discovered, and since 1942 uranium has become the main nuclear fuel.

The most important property of uranium is that the nuclei of some of its isotopes are capable of fission upon capture of neutrons, as a result of such a process a huge amount of energy is released. This property of element No. 92 is used in nuclear reactors that serve as energy sources, and also underlies the action of the atomic bomb. Uranium is used in geology to determine the age of minerals and rocks in order to determine the sequence of geological processes (geochronology). Due to the fact that rocks contain different concentrations of uranium, they have different radioactivity. This property is used in the selection of rocks by geophysical methods. This method is most widely used in petroleum geology for well logging. Uranium compounds were used as paints for painting on porcelain and for ceramic glazes and enamels (colored in colors: yellow, brown, green and black, depending on the degree of oxidation), for example, sodium uranate Na2U2O7 was used as a yellow pigment in painting.

Biological properties

Uranium is a fairly common element in the biological environment; some types of fungi and algae are considered to be concentrators of this metal, which are included in the chain of the biological cycle of uranium in nature according to the scheme: water - aquatic plants - fish - man. Thus, with food and water, uranium enters the body of humans and animals, and more precisely, into the gastrointestinal tract, where about a percent of the incoming readily soluble compounds and no more than 0.1% of sparingly soluble compounds are absorbed. In the respiratory tract and lungs, as well as in the mucous membranes and skin, this element enters with air. In the respiratory tract, and especially the lungs, absorption is much more intense: easily soluble compounds are absorbed by 50%, and sparingly soluble by 20%. Thus, uranium is found in small amounts (10-5 - 10-8%) in the tissues of animals and humans. In plants (in the dry residue), the concentration of uranium depends on its content in the soil, so at a soil concentration of 10-4%, the plant contains 1.5∙10-5% or less. The distribution of uranium in tissues and organs is uneven, the main places of accumulation are bone tissues (skeleton), liver, spleen, kidneys, as well as lungs and broncho-pulmonary lymph nodes (when sparingly soluble compounds enter the lungs). Uranium (carbonates and complexes with proteins) is quickly eliminated from the blood. On average, the content of the 92nd element in the organs and tissues of animals and humans is 10-7%. For example, the blood of cattle contains 1∙10-8 g/ml of uranium, while human blood contains 4∙10-10 g/g. Cattle liver contains 8∙10-8 g/g, in humans in the same organ 6∙10-9 g/g; the spleen of cattle contains 9∙10-8 g/g, in humans - 4.7∙10-7 g/g. In the muscle tissues of cattle, it accumulates up to 4∙10-11 g/g. In addition, in the human body, uranium is contained in the lungs in the range of 6∙10-9 - 9∙10-9 g/g; in the kidneys 5.3∙10-9 g/g (cortical layer) and 1.3∙10-8 g/g (medulla); in bone tissue 1∙10-9 g/g; in the bone marrow 1∙10-8 g/g; in hair 1.3∙10-7 g/g. The uranium in the bones causes constant irradiation of bone tissue (the period of complete removal of uranium from the skeleton is 600 days). Least of all this metal in the brain and heart (about 10-10 g / g). As mentioned earlier, the main ways in which uranium enters the body are water, food and air. The daily dose of metal entering the body with food and liquids is 1.9∙10-6 g, with air - 7∙10-9 g. However, every day uranium is excreted from the body: with urine from 0.5∙10-7 g up to 5∙10-7 g; with feces from 1.4∙10-6 g to 1.8∙10-6 g. Losses with hair, nails and dead skin flakes - 2∙10-8 g.

Scientists suggest that uranium in scanty amounts is necessary for the normal functioning of the human body, animals and plants. However, its role in physiology has not yet been elucidated. It has been established that the average content of the 92nd element in the human body is about 9∙10-5 g (International Commission on Radiation Protection). True, this figure varies somewhat for different regions and territories.

Despite its as yet unknown but definite biological role in living organisms, uranium remains one of the most dangerous elements. First of all, this is manifested in the toxic effect of this metal, which is due to its chemical properties, in particular, the solubility of compounds. So, for example, soluble compounds (uranyl and others) are more toxic. Most often, poisoning with uranium and its compounds occurs at enrichment plants, enterprises for the extraction and processing of uranium raw materials, and other production facilities where uranium is involved in technological processes.

Penetrating into the body, uranium affects absolutely all organs and their tissues, because the action occurs at the cell level: it inhibits the activity of enzymes. The kidneys are primarily affected, which manifests itself in a sharp increase in sugar and protein in the urine, subsequently developing oliguria. The gastrointestinal tract and liver are affected. Uranium poisoning is divided into acute and chronic, the latter developing gradually and may be asymptomatic or with mild manifestations. However, later chronic poisoning leads to hematopoietic disorders, nervous system and other serious health problems.

A ton of granite rock contains approximately 25 grams of uranium. The energy that can be released during the combustion of these 25 grams in a reactor is comparable to the energy that is released during the combustion of 125 tons of coal in the furnaces of powerful thermal boilers! Based on these data, it can be assumed that in the near future granite will be considered one of the types of mineral fuel. In total, the relatively thin twenty-kilometer surface layer of the earth's crust contains approximately 1014 tons of uranium, when converted into an energy equivalent, a simply colossal figure is obtained - 2.36.1024 kilowatt-hours. Even all the developed, explored and prospective deposits of combustible minerals taken together are not capable of providing even a millionth of this energy!

It is known that uranium alloys subjected to heat treatment are characterized by high yield strength, creep and increased corrosion resistance, less propensity to change products under temperature fluctuations and under the influence of irradiation. Based on these principles, at the beginning of the 20th century and up to the thirties, uranium in the form of carbide was used in the production of tool steels. In addition, he went to replace tungsten in some alloys, which was cheaper and more affordable. In the production of ferrouranium, the share of U was up to 30%. True, in the second third of the 20th century, such use of uranium came to naught.

As you know, in the bowels of our Earth there is a constant process of decay of urn isotopes. So, scientists have calculated that the instantaneous release of the energy of the entire mass of this metal, enclosed in the earth's shell, would warm up our planet to a temperature of several thousand degrees! However, such a phenomenon, fortunately, is impossible - after all, heat is released gradually - as the nuclei of uranium and its derivatives undergo a series of long-term radioactive transformations. The duration of such transformations can be judged from the half-lives of natural uranium isotopes, for example, for 235U it is 7108 years, and for 238U - 4.51109 years. However, uranium heat significantly warms the Earth. If there were as much uranium in the entire mass of the Earth as in the upper twenty-kilometer layer, then the temperature on the planet would be much higher than now. However, as one moves toward the center of the Earth, the concentration of uranium decreases.

In nuclear reactors, only a small part of the loaded uranium is processed, this is due to the slagging of the fuel with fission products: 235U burns out, the chain reaction gradually fades. However, fuel rods are still filled with nuclear fuel, which must be reused. To do this, the old fuel elements are dismantled and sent for processing - they are dissolved in acids, and the uranium is extracted from the resulting solution by extraction, the fission fragments that need to be disposed of remain in the solution. Thus, it turns out that the uranium industry is practically waste-free chemical production!

Plants for the separation of uranium isotopes occupy an area of ​​several tens of hectares, approximately the same order of magnitude and the area of ​​porous partitions in the separation cascades of the plant. This is due to the complexity of the diffusion method for separating uranium isotopes - after all, in order to increase the concentration of 235U from 0.72 to 99%, several thousand diffusion steps are needed!

Using the uranium-lead method, geologists managed to find out the age of the most ancient minerals, while studying meteorite rocks, they managed to determine the approximate date of the birth of our planet. Thanks to the "uranium clock" determined the age of the lunar soil. Interestingly, it turned out that for 3 billion years there has been no volcanic activity on the Moon and natural satellite The earth remains a passive body. After all, even the youngest pieces of lunar matter have lived longer than the age of the most ancient terrestrial minerals.

History

The use of uranium began a very long time ago - as early as the 1st century BC, natural uranium oxide was used to make a yellow glaze used in the coloring of ceramics.

In modern times, the study of uranium proceeded gradually - in several stages, with a continuous increase. The beginning was the discovery of this element in 1789 by the German natural philosopher and chemist Martin Heinrich Klaproth, who restored the golden-yellow “earth” mined from Saxon resin ore (“uranium pitch”) to a black metal-like substance (uranium oxide - UO2). The name was given in honor of the most distant planet known at that time - Uranus, which in turn was discovered in 1781 by William Herschel. At this, the first stage in the study of a new element (Klaproth was sure that he had discovered a new metal) ends, there comes a break of more than fifty years.

The year 1840 can be considered the beginning of a new milestone in the history of uranium research. It was from this year that a young chemist from France, Eugene Melchior Peligot (1811-1890), took up the problem of obtaining metallic uranium, soon (1841) he succeeded - metallic uranium was obtained by reducing UCl4 with metallic potassium. In addition, he proved that the uranium discovered by Klaproth was in fact just its oxide. The Frenchman also determined the estimated atomic weight of the new element - 120. Then again there is a long break in the study of the properties of uranium.

Only in 1874 new assumptions about the nature of uranium appear: Dmitry Ivanovich Mendeleev, following the theory he developed on the periodization of chemical elements, finds a place for a new metal in his table, placing uranium in the last cell. In addition, Mendeleev increases the previously assumed atomic weight of uranium by two, without making a mistake in this either, which was confirmed by the experiments of the German chemist Zimmermann 12 years later.

Since 1896, discoveries in the field of studying the properties of uranium “fell down” one after another: in the year mentioned above, quite by accident (when studying the phosphorescence of potassium uranyl sulfate crystals), 43-year-old physics professor Antoine Henri Becquerel discovers Becquerel Rays, later renamed radioactivity by Marie Curie . In the same year, Henri Moissan (again a chemist from France) develops a method for obtaining pure metallic uranium.

In 1899, Ernest Rutherford discovered the inhomogeneity of the radiation of uranium preparations. It turned out that there are two types of radiation - alpha and beta rays, different in their properties: they carry different electric charge, have different path lengths in matter and their ionizing ability is also different. A year later, gamma rays were also discovered by Paul Villard.

Ernest Rutherford and Frederick Soddy jointly developed the theory of uranium radioactivity. Based on this theory, in 1907 Rutherford undertook the first experiments to determine the age of minerals in the study of radioactive uranium and thorium. In 1913, F. Soddy introduced the concept of isotopes (from the ancient Greek iso - “equal”, “same”, and topos - “place”). In 1920, the same scientist suggested that isotopes could be used to determine the geological age of rocks. His assumptions turned out to be correct: in 1939, Alfred Otto Karl Nier created the first equations for calculating age and used a mass spectrometer to separate isotopes.

In 1934, Enrico Fermi conducted a series of experiments on the bombardment of chemical elements with neutrons - particles discovered by J. Chadwick in 1932. As a result of this operation, previously unknown radioactive substances appeared in uranium. Fermi and other scientists who participated in his experiments suggested that they had discovered transuranium elements. For four years, attempts were made to detect transuranium elements among the products of neutron bombardment. It all ended in 1938, when the German chemists Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann found that, capturing a free neutron, the nucleus of the 235U uranium isotope is divided, and a sufficiently large energy is released (per one uranium nucleus), mainly due to kinetic energy fragments and radiation. To advance further, the German chemists failed. Lisa Meitner and Otto Frisch were able to substantiate their theory. This discovery was the origin of the use of intra-atomic energy, both for peaceful and military purposes.

Being in nature

Average content of uranium in earth's crust(Clark) 3∙10-4% by mass, which means that it is more in the bowels of the earth than silver, mercury, bismuth. Uranium is a characteristic element for the granite layer and sedimentary shell of the earth's crust. So, in a ton of granite - about 25 grams of element No. 92. In total, in a relatively thin, twenty-kilometer, top layer The earth contains more than 1000 tons of uranium. In acid igneous rocks 3.5∙10-4%, in clays and shales 3.2∙10-4%, especially enriched in organic matter, in basic rocks 5∙10-5%, in ultrabasic rocks of the mantle 3∙10-7% .

Uranium migrates vigorously in cold and hot, neutral and alkaline waters in the form of simple and complex ions, especially in the form of carbonate complexes. An important role in the geochemistry of uranium is played by redox reactions, all because uranium compounds, as a rule, are highly soluble in waters with an oxidizing environment and poorly soluble in waters with reducing environment(hydrogen sulfide).

More than a hundred known mineral ores uranium, they are different in chemical composition, origin, concentration of uranium, out of the whole variety, only a dozen are of practical interest. The main representatives of uranium, which have the greatest industrial importance, in nature can be considered oxides - uraninite and its varieties (nasturan and uranium black), as well as silicates - coffinite, titanates - davidite and brannerite; aqueous phosphates and uranyl arsenates - uranium mica.

Uraninite - UO2 is present mainly in the ancient - Precambrian rocks in the form of clear crystalline forms. Uraninite forms isomorphic series with thorianite ThO2 and yttrocerianite (Y,Ce)O2. In addition, all uraninites contain radiogenic decay products of uranium and thorium: K, Po, He, Ac, Pb, as well as Ca and Zn. Uraninite itself is a high-temperature mineral, characteristic of granite and syenite pegmatites in association with complex uranium niob-tantalum-titanates (columbite, pyrochlore, samarskite, and others), zircon, and monazite. In addition, uraninite occurs in hydrothermal, skarn, and sedimentary rocks. Large deposits of uraninite are known in Canada, Africa, the United States of America, France and Australia.

Nasturan (U3O8), also known as uranium pitch or pitchblende, which forms cryptocrystalline collomorphic aggregates, is a volcanogenic and hydrothermal mineral, present in Paleozoic and younger high- and medium-temperature formations. The constant companions of pitchblende are sulfides, arsenides, native bismuth, arsenic and silver, carbonates and some other elements. These ores are very rich in uranium, but extremely rare, often accompanied by radium, this is easily explained: radium is a direct product of the isotopic decay of uranium.

Uranium blacks (loose earthy aggregates) are represented mainly in young - Cenozoic and younger formations, characteristic of hydrothermal uranium sulfide and sedimentary deposits.

Uranium is also extracted as a by-product from ores containing less than 0.1%, for example, from gold-bearing conglomerates.

The main deposits of uranium ores are located in the USA (Colorado, North and South Dakota), Canada (provinces of Ontario and Saskatchewan), South Africa (Witwatersrand), France (Central Massif), Australia (Northern Territory) and many other countries. In Russia, the main uranium-ore region is Transbaikalia. About 93% of Russian uranium is mined at the deposit in the Chita region (near the city of Krasnokamensk).

Application

Modern nuclear energy is simply unthinkable without element No. 92 and its properties. Although not so long ago - before the launch of the first nuclear reactor, uranium ores were mined mainly to extract radium from them. Small amounts of uranium compounds have been used in some dyes and catalysts. In fact, uranium was considered an element that had almost no industrial value, and how dramatically the situation changed after the discovery of the ability of uranium isotopes to fission! This metal instantly received the status of strategic raw material No. 1.

Nowadays, the main field of application of metallic uranium, as well as its compounds, is fuel for nuclear reactors. Thus, a low-enriched (natural) mixture of uranium isotopes is used in stationary nuclear power plant reactors, while highly enriched uranium is used in nuclear power plants and fast neutron reactors.

The uranium isotope 235U has the greatest application, because it is possible for a self-sustaining nuclear chain reaction, which is not typical for other uranium isotopes. Thanks to this property, 235U is used as a fuel in nuclear reactors, as well as in nuclear weapons. However, the isolation of the 235U isotope from natural uranium is a complex and costly technological problem.

The most abundant uranium isotope in nature, 238U, can fission when bombarded with high-energy neutrons. This property of this isotope is used to increase the power of thermonuclear weapons - neutrons generated by a thermonuclear reaction are used. In addition, the plutonium isotope 239Pu is obtained from the 238U isotope, which in turn can also be used in nuclear reactors and in the atomic bomb.

Recently, the uranium isotope 233U, artificially obtained in reactors from thorium, has been widely used; it is obtained by irradiating thorium in the neutron flux of a nuclear reactor:

23290Th + 10n → 23390Th -(β–)→ 23391Pa –(β–)→ 23392U

233U is fissioned by thermal neutrons, in addition, expanded reproduction of nuclear fuel can occur in reactors with 233U. So, when a kilogram of 233U burns out in a thorium reactor, 1.1 kg of new 233U should accumulate in it (as a result of the capture of neutrons by thorium nuclei). In the near future, the uranium-thorium cycle in thermal neutron reactors is the main competitor of the uranium-plutonium cycle for breeding nuclear fuel in fast neutron reactors. Reactors using this nuclide as fuel already exist and operate (KAMINI in India). 233U is also the most promising fuel for gas-phase nuclear rocket engines.

Other artificial uranium isotopes do not play a significant role.

After the “necessary” isotopes 234U and 235U are extracted from natural uranium, the remaining raw material (238U) is called “depleted uranium”, it is half as radioactive as natural uranium, mainly due to the removal of 234U from it. Since the main use of uranium is energy production, for this reason, depleted uranium is a low-use product with low economic value. However, due to its low price, as well as its high density and extremely high capture cross section, it is used for radiation shielding and as ballast in aerospace applications such as aircraft control surfaces. In addition, depleted uranium is used as ballast in space descent vehicles and racing yachts; in high speed gyroscope rotors, large flywheels, oil drilling.

However, the best-known use of depleted uranium is its use in military applications - as cores for armor-piercing projectiles and modern tank armor, such as the M-1 Abrams tank.

Lesser known applications of uranium are mainly associated with its compounds. So a small addition of uranium gives a beautiful yellow-green fluorescence to glass, some uranium compounds are photosensitive, for this reason uranyl nitrate was widely used to enhance negatives and stain (tint) positives (photographic prints) brown.

Carbide 235U alloyed with niobium carbide and zirconium carbide is used as fuel for nuclear jet engines. Alloys of iron and depleted uranium (238U) are used as powerful magnetostrictive materials. Sodium uranate Na2U2O7 was used as a yellow pigment in painting, earlier uranium compounds were used as paints for painting on porcelain and for ceramic glazes and enamels (colored in colors: yellow, brown, green and black, depending on the degree of oxidation).

Production

Uranium is obtained from uranium ores, which differ significantly in a number of characteristics (according to the conditions of formation, by "contrast", by the content of useful impurities, etc.), the main of which is the percentage of uranium. According to this feature, five grades of ores are distinguished: very rich (contain over 1% uranium); rich (1-0.5%); medium (0.5-0.25%); ordinary (0.25-0.1%) and poor (less than 0.1%). However, even from ores containing 0.01-0.015% uranium, this metal is extracted as a by-product.

Over the years of development of uranium raw materials, many methods have been developed for separating uranium from ores. This is due both to the strategic importance of uranium in some areas, and to the diversity of its natural manifestations. However, despite all the variety of methods and raw material base, any uranium production consists of three stages: preliminary concentration of uranium ore; leaching of uranium and obtaining sufficiently pure uranium compounds by precipitation, extraction or ion exchange. Further, depending on the purpose of the resulting uranium, the enrichment of the product with the 235U isotope follows, or immediately the reduction of elemental uranium.

So, initially the ore is concentrated - the rock is crushed and filled with water. In this case, the heavier elements of the mixture precipitate faster. In rocks containing primary uranium minerals, their rapid precipitation occurs, since they are very heavy. When ores containing secondary uranium minerals are concentrated, waste rock is precipitated, which is much heavier than secondary minerals, but can contain very useful elements.

Uranium ores are almost not enriched, except for the organic method of radiometric sorting, based on the γ-radiation of radium, which always accompanies uranium.

The next step in uranium production is leaching, so the uranium goes into solution. Basically, ores are leached with solutions of sulfuric, sometimes nitric acids or soda solutions with the transfer of uranium into an acidic solution in the form of UO2SO4 or complex anions, and into a soda solution in the form of a 4-complex anion. The method in which sulfuric acid is used is cheaper, however, it is not always applicable - if the raw material contains tetravalent uranium (uranium resin), which does not dissolve in sulfuric acid. In such cases, alkaline leaching is used or the tetravalent uranium is oxidized to the hexavalent state. The use of caustic soda (caustic soda) is useful when leaching ore containing magnesite or dolomite, which require too much acid to dissolve.

After the leaching stage, the solution contains not only uranium, but also other elements, which, like uranium, are extracted with the same organic solvents, precipitate on the same ion-exchange resins, and precipitate under the same conditions. In such a situation, for the selective separation of uranium, one has to use many redox reactions in order to exclude an undesirable element at different stages. One of the advantages of ion exchange and extraction methods is that uranium is quite completely extracted from poor solutions.

After all these operations, uranium is transferred to a solid state - into one of the oxides or into UF4 tetrafluoride. Such uranium contains impurities with a large thermal neutron capture cross section - lithium, boron, cadmium, and rare earth metals. In the final product, their content should not exceed hundred-thousandths and millionths of a percent! To do this, the uranium is dissolved again, this time in nitric acid. Uranyl nitrate UO2(NO3)2 during extraction with tributyl phosphate and some other substances is additionally purified to the required conditions. This substance is then crystallized (or precipitated) and gently ignited. As a result of this operation, uranium trioxide UO3 is formed, which is reduced with hydrogen to UO2. At temperatures from 430 to 600 ° C, uranium oxide reacts with dry hydrogen fluoride and turns into UF4 tetrafluoride. Already from this compound, metallic uranium is usually obtained with the help of calcium or magnesium by conventional reduction.

Physical properties

Metallic uranium is very heavy, it is two and a half times heavier than iron, and one and a half times heavier than lead! This is one of the most heavy elements that are stored in the bowels of the Earth. With its silvery-white color and brilliance, uranium resembles steel. pure metal plastic, soft, has a high density, but at the same time it is easy to process. Uranium is electropositive, has insignificant paramagnetic properties - the specific magnetic susceptibility at room temperature is 1.72 10 -6, It has low electrical conductivity but high reactivity. This element has three allotropic modifications: α, β and γ. The α-form has a rhombic crystal lattice with the following parameters: a = 2.8538 Å, b = 5.8662 Å, c = 469557 Å. This form is stable in the temperature range from room temperature to 667.7°C. The density of uranium in the α-form at 25°C is 19.05±0.2 g/cm 3 . The β-form has a tetragonal crystal lattice, is stable in the temperature range from 667.7° C to 774.8° C. The parameters of the quadrangular lattice: a = 10.759 Å, b = 5.656 Å. γ-form with body-centered cubic structure, stable from 774.8°C to melting point (1132°C).

You can see all three phases in the process of uranium reduction. For this, a special apparatus is used, which is a seamless steel pipe, which is lined with calcium oxide, it is necessary that the steel of the pipe does not interact with uranium. A mixture of uranium and magnesium (or calcium) tetrafluoride is loaded into the apparatus, after which it is heated to 600 ° C. When this temperature is reached, an electric fuse is turned on, it instantly flows exothermic reduction reaction, while the loaded mixture completely melts. Liquid uranium (temperature 1132 ° C) due to its weight completely sinks to the bottom. After complete deposition of uranium on the bottom of the apparatus, cooling begins, uranium crystallizes, its atoms line up in a strict order, forming a cubic lattice - this is the γ-phase. The next transition occurs at 774°C - the crystal lattice of the cooling metal becomes tetragonal, which corresponds to the β-phase. When the temperature of the ingot drops to 668° C, the atoms rearrange their rows again, arranged in waves in parallel layers - the α-phase. There are no further changes.

The main parameters of uranium always refer to the α-phase. Melting point (tmelt) 1132°C, boiling point of uranium (tboil) 3818°C. Specific heat at room temperature 27.67 kJ/(kg K) or 6.612 cal/(g°C). The specific electrical resistance at a temperature of 25 ° C is approximately 3 10 -7 ohm cm, and already at 600 ° C 5.5 10 -7 ohm cm. The thermal conductivity of uranium also varies depending on temperature: for example, in the range of 100-200 ° C, it is 28.05 W / (m K) or 0.067 cal / (cm sec ° C), and when it rises to 400 ° C, it increases up to 29.72 W / (m K) 0.071 cal / (cm sec ° C). Uranium has superconductivity at 0.68 K. The average Brinell hardness is 19.6 - 21.6·10 2 MN / m 2 or 200-220 kgf / mm 2.

Many mechanical properties of the 92nd element depend on its purity, on the modes of thermal and mechanical processing. So for cast uranium ultimate tensile strength at room temperature 372-470 MN/m 2 or 38-48 kgf/mm 2 , the average value of the modulus of elasticity 20.5·10 -2 MN/m2 or 20.9·10 -3 kgf/mm 2 . The strength of uranium increases after quenching from β- and γ-phases.

Irradiation of uranium with a neutron flux, interaction with water that cools fuel elements made of metallic uranium, and other factors of operation in powerful thermal neutron reactors - all this leads to changes in the physical and mechanical properties of uranium: the metal becomes brittle, creep develops, deformation of products from metallic uranium occurs . For this reason, uranium alloys are used in nuclear reactors, for example, with molybdenum, such an alloy is resistant to water, strengthens the metal, while maintaining a high-temperature cubic lattice.

Chemical properties

Chemically, uranium is a very active metal. In air, it oxidizes with the formation of an iridescent film of UO2 dioxide on the surface, which does not protect the metal from further oxidation, as happens with titanium, zirconium and a number of other metals. With oxygen, uranium forms UO2 dioxide, UO3 trioxide and a large number of intermediate oxides, the most important of which is U3O8, these oxides are similar in properties to UO2 and UO3. In the powdered state, uranium is pyrophoric and can ignite with slight heating (150 ° C and above), combustion is accompanied by a bright flame, eventually forming U3O8. At a temperature of 500-600 ° C, uranium interacts with fluorine to form green needle-shaped crystals that are slightly soluble in water and acids - uranium tetrafluoride UF4, as well as UF6 - hexafluoride (white crystals that sublimate without melting at a temperature of 56.4 ° C). UF4, UF6 are examples of the interaction of uranium with halogens to form uranium halides. Uranium easily combines with sulfur, forming a number of compounds, of which the most important is US - nuclear fuel. Uranium reacts with hydrogen at 220°C to form UH3 hydride, which is chemically very active. Upon further heating, UH3 decomposes into hydrogen and powdered uranium. Interaction with nitrogen occurs at higher temperatures - from 450 to 700 ° C and atmospheric pressure, U4N7 nitride is obtained, with an increase in nitrogen pressure at the same temperatures, UN, U2N3 and UN2 can be obtained. At higher temperatures (750-800 °C), uranium reacts with carbon to form monocarbide UC, dicarbide UC2, and U2C3. Uranium interacts with water to form UO2 and H2, and with cold water slower, but more active with hot. In addition, the reaction proceeds with steam at temperatures from 150 to 250 °C. This metal dissolves in hydrochloric HCl and nitric HNO3 acids, less actively in highly concentrated hydrofluoric acid, slowly reacts with sulfuric H2SO4 and orthophosphoric H3PO4 acids. The products of reactions with acids are tetravalent salts of uranium. From inorganic acids and salts of some metals (gold, platinum, copper, silver, tin and mercury), uranium is able to displace hydrogen. Uranium does not interact with alkalis.

In compounds, uranium is able to exhibit the following oxidation states: +3, +4, +5, +6, sometimes +2. U3+ in natural conditions does not exist and can only be obtained in the laboratory. Pentavalent uranium compounds are for the most part unstable and decompose fairly easily into quaternary and hexavalent uranium compounds, which are the most stable. Hexavalent uranium is characterized by the formation of the uranyl ion UO22+, the salts of which are colored in yellow and are highly soluble in water and mineral acids. An example of compounds of hexavalent uranium is uranium trioxide or uranium anhydride UO3 (orange powder), which has the character of an amphoteric oxide. When dissolved in acids, salts are formed, for example, uranium chloride UO2Cl2. Under the action of alkalis on solutions of uranyl salts, salts of uranic acid H2UO4 - uranates and diuranic acid H2U2O7 - diuranates are obtained, for example, sodium uranate Na2UO4 and sodium diuranate Na2U2O7. Quadrivalent uranium salts (uranium tetrachloride UCl4) are green and less soluble. At long stay in air, compounds containing tetravalent uranium are usually unstable and turn into hexavalent ones. Uranyl salts such as uranyl chloride decompose in the presence of bright light or organics.

The content of the article

URANUS, U (uranium), a metallic chemical element of the actinide family, which includes Ac, Th, Pa, U, and the transuranium elements (Np, Pu, Am, Cm, Bk, Cf, Es, Fm, Md, No, Lr). Uranium has become famous for its use in nuclear weapons and nuclear power. Uranium oxides are also used to color glass and ceramics.

Finding in nature.

The content of uranium in the earth's crust is 0.003%, it occurs in the surface layer of the earth in the form of four types of deposits. Firstly, these are veins of uraninite, or uranium pitch (uranium dioxide UO 2), very rich in uranium, but rare. They are accompanied by deposits of radium, since radium is a direct product of the isotopic decay of uranium. Such veins are found in Zaire, Canada (Great Bear Lake), the Czech Republic and France. The second source of uranium is conglomerates of thorium and uranium ore, together with ores of other important minerals. Conglomerates usually contain sufficient quantities of gold and silver to extract, and uranium and thorium become accompanying elements. Large deposits of these ores are found in Canada, South Africa, Russia and Australia. The third source of uranium is sedimentary rocks and sandstones rich in the mineral carnotite (potassium uranyl vanadate), which contains, in addition to uranium, a significant amount of vanadium and other elements. Such ores are found in the western states of the United States. Iron-uranium shales and phosphate ores constitute the fourth source of deposits. Rich deposits are found in the shales of Sweden. Some phosphate ores in Morocco and the United States contain significant amounts of uranium, and phosphate deposits in Angola and the Central African Republic are even richer in uranium. Most lignites and some coals usually contain uranium impurities. Uranium-rich lignite deposits have been found in North and South Dakota (USA) and bituminous coals in Spain and the Czech Republic.

Opening.

Uranium was discovered in 1789 by the German chemist M. Klaproth, who named the element in honor of the discovery of the planet Uranus 8 years earlier. (Klaproth was the leading chemist of his time; he also discovered other elements, including Ce, Ti, and Zr.) In fact, the substance obtained by Klaproth was not elemental uranium, but an oxidized form of it, and elemental uranium was first obtained by the French chemist E. .Peligot in 1841. From the moment of discovery until the 20th century. uranium was not as important as it is now, although many of its physical properties, as well as atomic mass and density were determined. In 1896, A. Becquerel found that uranium salts have radiation that illuminates a photographic plate in the dark. This discovery stimulated chemists to research in the field of radioactivity, and in 1898 the French physicists, the spouses P. Curie and M. Sklodowska-Curie, isolated salts of the radioactive elements polonium and radium, and E. Rutherford, F. Soddy, C. Faience and other scientists developed the theory of radioactive decay, which laid the foundations of modern nuclear chemistry and nuclear energy.

First applications of uranium.

Although the radioactivity of uranium salts was known, its ores in the first third of this century were used only to obtain the accompanying radium, and uranium was considered an undesirable by-product. Its use was concentrated mainly in the technology of ceramics and in metallurgy; Uranium oxides were widely used to color glass in colors from pale yellow to dark green, which contributed to the development of inexpensive glass production. Today, products from these industries are identified as fluorescent under ultraviolet light. During the First World War and shortly thereafter, uranium in the form of carbide was used in the manufacture of tool steels, similarly to Mo and W; 4–8% uranium replaced tungsten, which was limited in production at the time. To obtain tool steels in 1914–1926, several tons of ferrouranium were produced annually, containing up to 30% (mass.) U. However, this use of uranium did not last long.

Modern use of uranium.

The uranium industry began to take shape in 1939, when fission of the uranium isotope 235 U was carried out, which led to technical implementation controlled fission chain reactions of uranium in December 1942. This was the birth of the era of the atom, when uranium turned from an insignificant element into one of the most important elements in the life of society. The military importance of uranium for the production of the atomic bomb and its use as fuel in nuclear reactors created a demand for uranium that increased astronomically. An interesting chronology of the growth in uranium demand is based on the history of deposits in the Great Bear Lake (Canada). In 1930, resin blende, a mixture of uranium oxides, was discovered in this lake, and in 1932 a technology for purifying radium was established in this area. From each ton of ore (tar blende), 1 g of radium was obtained and about half a ton of a by-product - uranium concentrate. However, radium was scarce and its extraction was stopped. From 1940 to 1942, development was resumed and uranium ore was shipped to the United States. In 1949 a similar purification of uranium, with some modifications, was applied to produce pure UO 2 . This production has grown and is now one of the largest uranium productions.

Properties.

Uranium is one of the heaviest elements found in nature. Pure metal is very dense, ductile, electropositive with low electrical conductivity and highly reactive.

Uranium has three allotropic modifications: a-uranium (orthorhombic crystal lattice), exists in the range from room temperature to 668 ° C; b- uranium (a complex crystal lattice of a tetragonal type), stable in the range of 668–774 ° С; g- uranium (body-centered cubic crystal lattice), stable from 774 ° C up to the melting point (1132 ° C). Since all isotopes of uranium are unstable, all of its compounds exhibit radioactivity.

Isotopes of uranium

238 U, 235 U, 234 U are found in nature in a ratio of 99.3:0.7:0.0058, and 236U in trace amounts. All other isotopes of uranium from 226 U to 242 U are obtained artificially. The isotope 235 U is of particular importance. Under the action of slow (thermal) neutrons, it is divided with the release of enormous energy. Complete fission of 235 U results in the release of a "thermal energy equivalent" of 2h 10 7 kWh/kg. The fission of 235 U can be used not only to produce large amounts of energy, but also to synthesize other important actinide elements. Uranium of natural isotopic composition can be used in nuclear reactors to produce neutrons produced by the fission of 235 U, while excess neutrons not required by the chain reaction can be captured by another natural isotope, which leads to the production of plutonium:

When bombarded with 238 U by fast neutrons, the following reactions occur:

According to this scheme, the most common isotope 238 U can be converted into plutonium-239, which, like 235 U, is also capable of fission under the action of slow neutrons.

Currently received big number artificial isotopes of uranium. Among them, 233 U is especially notable in that it also fissions when interacting with slow neutrons.

Some other artificial isotopes of uranium are often used as radioactive labels (tracers) in chemical and physical research; it is first of all b- emitter 237 U and a- emitter 232 U.

Connections.

Uranium, a highly reactive metal, has oxidation states from +3 to +6, is close to beryllium in the activity series, interacts with all non-metals and forms intermetallic compounds with Al, Be, Bi, Co, Cu, Fe, Hg, Mg, Ni, Pb, Sn and Zn. Finely divided uranium is especially reactive, and at temperatures above 500°C it often enters into reactions characteristic of uranium hydride. Lumpy uranium or shavings burn brightly at 700–1000°C, while uranium vapors burn already at 150–250°C; uranium reacts with HF at 200–400°C, forming UF 4 and H 2 . Uranium slowly dissolves in concentrated HF or H 2 SO 4 and 85% H 3 PO 4 even at 90 ° C, but easily reacts with conc. HCl and less active with HBr or HI. The reactions of uranium with dilute and concentrated HNO 3 proceed most actively and rapidly with the formation of uranyl nitrate ( see below). In the presence of HCl, uranium rapidly dissolves in organic acids, forming organic salts U 4+ . Depending on the degree of oxidation, uranium forms several types of salts (the most important among them with U 4+, one of them UCl 4 is an easily oxidized green salt); uranyl salts (UO 2 2+ radical) of the UO 2 (NO 3) 2 type are yellow and fluoresce green. Uranyl salts are formed by dissolving amphoteric oxide UO 3 (yellow color) in an acidic medium. In an alkaline environment, UO 3 forms uranates of the Na 2 UO 4 or Na 2 U 2 O 7 type. The latter compound ("yellow uranyl") is used for the manufacture of porcelain glazes and in the production of fluorescent glasses.

Uranium halides were widely studied in the 1940s–1950s, as they were the basis for the development of methods for separating uranium isotopes for an atomic bomb or a nuclear reactor. Uranium trifluoride UF 3 was obtained by reduction of UF 4 with hydrogen, and uranium tetrafluoride UF 4 is obtained in various ways by reactions of HF with oxides such as UO 3 or U 3 O 8 or by electrolytic reduction of uranyl compounds. Uranium hexafluoride UF 6 is obtained by fluorination of U or UF 4 with elemental fluorine or by the action of oxygen on UF 4 . Hexafluoride forms transparent crystals with a high refractive index at 64°C (1137 mmHg); the compound is volatile (sublimes at 56.54 ° C under normal pressure conditions). Uranium oxohalides, for example, oxofluorides, have the composition UO 2 F 2 (uranyl fluoride), UOF 2 (uranium oxide difluoride).

Under normal conditions, the radioactive element uranium is a metal having a large atomic (molecular) mass - 238.02891 g / mol. According to this indicator, he ranks second, because. only plutonium is heavier than it. Obtaining uranium is associated with the successive implementation of a number of technological operations:

• rock concentration, its crushing and precipitation of heavy fractions in water
• concentrate leaching or oxygen purge
• transfer of uranium to a solid state (oxide or tetrafluoride UF 4)
• obtaining uranyl nitrate UO 2 (NO 3) 2 by dissolving raw materials in nitric acid
• crystallization and calcination to obtain oxide UO 3
• reduction with hydrogen to obtain UO 2
• obtaining tetrafluoride UF 4 by adding gaseous hydrogen fluoride
• reduction of uranium metal with magnesium or calcium

uranium minerals

The most common U minerals are:

• Nasturan (uraninite) - the most famous oxide, which is called "heavy water"
• Carnotite
• Tuyamunit
• Thorbernite
• Samarskit
• brannerite
• Casolite
• slander

Uranium production

According to the Russian company Rosatom, one of the world leaders in the global uranium market, over 3,000 tons of uranium were mined on the planet in 2014. At the same time, according to representatives of the mining division of this state corporation, the volume of Russian reserves of this metal is 727.2 thousand tons (3rd place in the world), which guarantees an uninterrupted supply of the necessary raw materials for many decades.

The main chemical properties of uranium are presented in the table:

The element U, like curium and plutonium, is an artificial element of the actinide family. Its chemical properties are in many ways similar to those of tungsten, molybdenum and chromium. Uranium is characterized by variable valency, as well as a tendency to form (UO 2) + 2 - uranyl, which is a complex ion.

Uranium enrichment methods

As you know, natural U contains 3 isotopes:

• 238U (99.2745%)
• 235U (0.72%)
• 234U (0.0055%)

Uranium enrichment is understood as an increase in the proportion of the 235U isotope in the metal - the only one that is capable of an independent nuclear chain reaction.

To understand how uranium is enriched, it is necessary to take into account the degree of its enrichment:

• content 0.72% - can be used in some power reactors
• 2-5% - used in most power reactors
• up to 20% (low enriched) - for experimental reactors
• more than 20% (highly enriched or weapons-grade) - nuclear reactors, weapons.

How is uranium enriched? There are many methods for enriching uranium, but the following are the most applicable:

• electromagnetic - acceleration elementary particles in a special accelerator and their twisting in a magnetic field
• aerodynamic - blowing gaseous uranium through special nozzles
• gas centrifugation - the uranium gas in the centrifuge moves and by inertia pushes heavy molecules to the walls of the centrifuge
• gas diffusion method of uranium enrichment - "sifting" of light isotopes of uranium through small pores of special membranes

The main scope of uranium is fuel for nuclear reactors, reactors nuclear power plants, nuclear power plants. In addition, the 235U isotope is used in nuclear weapons, while the unenriched metal with a high proportion of 238U makes it possible to obtain secondary nuclear fuel - plutonium.

Where did uranium come from? Most likely, it appears during supernova explosions. The fact is that for the nucleosynthesis of elements heavier than iron, there must be a powerful neutron flux, which occurs just during a supernova explosion. It would seem that later, when condensing from the cloud of new star systems formed by it, uranium, having gathered in a protoplanetary cloud and being very heavy, should sink into the depths of the planets. But it's not. Uranium is a radioactive element and it releases heat when it decays. The calculation shows that if uranium were evenly distributed throughout the entire thickness of the planet, at least with the same concentration as on the surface, then it would release too much heat. Moreover, its flow should decrease as uranium is consumed. Since nothing of the kind is observed, geologists believe that at least a third of uranium, and perhaps all of it, is concentrated in the earth's crust, where its content is 2.5∙10 -4%. Why this happened is not discussed.

Where is uranium mined? Uranium on Earth is not so small - in terms of prevalence, it is in 38th place. And most of all this element is in sedimentary rocks - carbonaceous shales and phosphorites: up to 8∙10 -3 and 2.5∙10 -2%, respectively. In total, the earth's crust contains 10 14 tons of uranium, but the main problem is that it is very scattered and does not form powerful deposits. About 15 uranium minerals are of industrial importance. This is uranium pitch - its base is tetravalent uranium oxide, uranium mica - various silicates, phosphates and more complex compounds with vanadium or titanium based on hexavalent uranium.

What are Becquerel rays? After the discovery of X-rays by Wolfgang Roentgen, the French physicist Antoine-Henri Becquerel became interested in the glow of uranium salts, which occurs under the action of sunlight. He wanted to understand if there were X-rays here too. Indeed, they were present - the salt illuminated the photographic plate through the black paper. In one of the experiments, however, the salt was not illuminated, and the photographic plate still darkened. When a metal object was placed between the salt and the photographic plate, the darkening under it was less. Consequently, the new rays did not arise at all due to the excitation of uranium by light and did not partially pass through the metal. They were called at first "Becquerel rays". Subsequently, it was found that these are mainly alpha rays with a small addition of beta rays: the fact is that the main isotopes of uranium emit an alpha particle during decay, and the daughter products also experience beta decay.

How high is the radioactivity of uranium? Uranium has no stable isotopes, they are all radioactive. The longest-lived is uranium-238 with a half-life of 4.4 billion years. The next is uranium-235 - 0.7 billion years. Both of them undergo alpha decay and become the corresponding isotopes of thorium. Uranium-238 makes up over 99% of all natural uranium. Because of its long half-life, the radioactivity of this element is low, and besides, alpha particles are not able to overcome the stratum corneum on the surface of the human body. They say that IV Kurchatov, after working with uranium, simply wiped his hands with a handkerchief and did not suffer from any diseases associated with radioactivity.

Researchers have repeatedly turned to the statistics of diseases of workers in uranium mines and processing plants. For example, here is a recent article by Canadian and American experts who analyzed the health data of more than 17,000 workers at the Eldorado mine in the Canadian province of Saskatchewan for the years 1950-1999 ( environmental research, 2014, 130, 43–50, DOI:10.1016/j.envres.2014.01.002). They proceeded from the fact that radiation has the strongest effect on rapidly multiplying blood cells, leading to the corresponding types of cancer. Statistics also showed that mine workers have a lower incidence of various types of blood cancer than the average Canadian. At the same time, the main source of radiation is considered not uranium itself, but the gaseous radon generated by it and its decay products, which can enter the body through the lungs.

Why is uranium harmful?? It, like other heavy metals, is highly toxic and can cause kidney and liver failure. On the other hand, uranium, being a dispersed element, is inevitably present in water, soil and, concentrating in the food chain, enters the human body. It is reasonable to assume that in the process of evolution, living beings have learned to neutralize uranium in natural concentrations. The most dangerous uranium is in water, so the WHO set a limit: at first it was 15 µg/l, but in 2011 the standard was increased to 30 µg/g. As a rule, there is much less uranium in water: in the USA, on average, 6.7 μg / l, in China and France - 2.2 μg / l. But there are also strong deviations. So in some areas of California it is a hundred times more than the standard - 2.5 mg / l, and in southern Finland it reaches 7.8 mg / l. Researchers are trying to understand whether the WHO standard is too strict by studying the effect of uranium on animals. Here is a typical job BioMed Research International, 2014, ID 181989; DOI:10.1155/2014/181989). French scientists fed rats for nine months with water supplemented with depleted uranium, and in a relatively high concentration - from 0.2 to 120 mg / l. The lower value is water near the mine, while the upper one is not found anywhere - the maximum concentration of uranium, measured in the same Finland, is 20 mg / l. To the surprise of the authors - the article is titled: "The unexpected absence of a noticeable effect of uranium on physiological systems ..." - uranium had practically no effect on the health of rats. The animals ate well, put on weight properly, did not complain of illness and did not die of cancer. Uranium, as it should be, was deposited primarily in the kidneys and bones, and in a hundredfold smaller amount - in the liver, and its accumulation, as expected, depended on the content in the water. However, this did not lead to renal failure, or even to the noticeable appearance of any molecular markers of inflammation. The authors suggested starting a review of the strict WHO guidelines. However, there is one caveat: the effect on the brain. There was less uranium in the brains of rats than in the liver, but its content did not depend on the amount in water. But uranium affected the work of the antioxidant system of the brain: the activity of catalase increased by 20%, glutathione peroxidase increased by 68–90%, while the activity of superoxide dismutase fell by 50% regardless of the dose. This means that uranium clearly caused oxidative stress in the brain and the body reacted to it. Such an effect - a strong effect of uranium on the brain in the absence of its accumulation in it, by the way, as well as in the genital organs - was noticed earlier. Moreover, water with uranium at a concentration of 75–150 mg/l, which researchers from the University of Nebraska fed to rats for six months ( Neurotoxicology and Teratology, 2005, 27, 1, 135–144; DOI:10.1016/j.ntt.2004.09.001) affected the behavior of animals, mainly males, released into the field: they crossed the lines, stood up on their hind legs, and brushed their fur, unlike the control ones. There is evidence that uranium also leads to memory impairment in animals. The change in behavior correlated with the level of lipid oxidation in the brain. It turns out that rats from uranium water became healthy, but stupid. These data will still be useful to us in the analysis of the so-called Persian Gulf syndrome (Gulf War Syndrome).

Does uranium pollute shale gas mining sites? It depends on how much uranium is in the gas-containing rocks and how it is associated with them. For example, Associate Professor Tracy Bank of the University at Buffalo has explored the Marcelus Shale, which stretches from western New York State through Pennsylvania and Ohio to West Virginia. It turned out that uranium is chemically bound precisely with the source of hydrocarbons (recall that related carbonaceous shales have the highest uranium content). Experiments have shown that the solution used for fracturing the seam perfectly dissolves uranium. “When the uranium in these waters is on the surface, it can cause pollution of the surrounding area. It does not carry a radiation risk, but uranium is a poisonous element,” Tracy Bank notes in a university press release dated October 25, 2010. Detailed articles on the risk of environmental pollution with uranium or thorium during the extraction of shale gas have not yet been prepared.

Why is uranium needed? Previously, it was used as a pigment for the manufacture of ceramics and colored glass. Now uranium is the basis of nuclear energy and nuclear weapons. In doing so, it uses unique property- the ability of the nucleus to divide.

What is nuclear fission? The disintegration of the nucleus into two unequal large pieces. It is precisely because of this property that during nucleosynthesis due to neutron irradiation, nuclei heavier than uranium are formed with great difficulty. The essence of the phenomenon is as follows. If the ratio of the number of neutrons and protons in the nucleus is not optimal, it becomes unstable. Usually such a nucleus ejects either an alpha particle - two protons and two neutrons, or a beta particle - a positron, which is accompanied by the transformation of one of the neutrons into a proton. In the first case, an element of the periodic table is obtained, spaced two cells back, in the second - one cell forward. However, the uranium nucleus, in addition to emitting alpha and beta particles, is capable of fission - decaying into the nuclei of two elements in the middle of the periodic table, for example, barium and krypton, which it does, having received a new neutron. This phenomenon was discovered shortly after the discovery of radioactivity, when physicists exposed everything they had to the newly discovered radiation. Here is how Otto Frisch, a participant in the events, writes about this (Uspekhi fizicheskikh nauk, 1968, 96, 4). After the discovery of beryllium rays - neutrons - Enrico Fermi irradiated them, in particular, uranium to cause beta decay - he hoped to get the next, 93rd element, now called neptunium, at his expense. It was he who discovered a new type of radioactivity in irradiated uranium, which he associated with the appearance of transuranium elements. In this case, slowing down neutrons, for which the beryllium source was covered with a layer of paraffin, increased this induced radioactivity. The American radiochemist Aristide von Grosse suggested that one of these elements was protactinium, but he was wrong. But Otto Hahn, who was then working at the University of Vienna and considered protactinium discovered in 1917 to be his brainchild, decided that he was obliged to find out what elements were obtained in this case. Together with Lise Meitner, in early 1938, Hahn suggested, based on the results of experiments, that whole chains of radioactive elements are formed, arising from multiple beta decays of uranium-238 nuclei that absorbed a neutron and its daughter elements. Soon Lise Meitner was forced to flee to Sweden, fearing possible reprisals from the Nazis after the Anschluss of Austria. Hahn, continuing his experiments with Fritz Strassmann, discovered that among the products there was also barium, element number 56, which could not have been obtained from uranium in any way: all chains of uranium alpha decays end in much heavier lead. The researchers were so surprised by the result that they did not publish it, they only wrote letters to friends, in particular Lise Meitner in Gothenburg. There, at Christmas 1938, her nephew, Otto Frisch, visited her, and, walking in the vicinity of the winter city - he is on skis, his aunt is on foot - they discussed the possibility of the appearance of barium during irradiation of uranium due to nuclear fission (for more on Lise Meitner, see "Chemistry and Life ", 2013, No. 4). Returning to Copenhagen, Frisch, literally on the gangway of a steamer departing for the USA, caught Niels Bohr and informed him about the idea of ​​division. Bor, slapping his forehead, said: “Oh, what fools we were! We should have noticed this sooner." In January 1939, Frisch and Meitner published an article on the fission of uranium nuclei under the action of neutrons. By that time, Otto Frisch had already set up a control experiment, as well as many American groups that received a message from Bohr. They say that physicists began to disperse to their laboratories right during his report on January 26, 1939 in Washington at the annual conference on theoretical physics, when they grasped the essence of the idea. After the discovery of fission, Hahn and Strassman revised their experiments and found, just like their colleagues, that the radioactivity of irradiated uranium is not associated with transuraniums, but with the decay of radioactive elements formed during fission from the middle of the periodic table.

How does a chain reaction work in uranium? Shortly after the possibility of fission of uranium and thorium nuclei was experimentally proven (and there are no other fissile elements on Earth in any significant amount), Niels Bohr and John Wheeler, who worked at Princeton, and also independently the Soviet theoretical physicist Ya. I. Frenkel and the Germans Siegfried Flügge and Gottfried von Droste created the theory of nuclear fission. Two mechanisms followed from it. One is related to the threshold absorption of fast neutrons. According to him, to initiate fission, the neutron must have a fairly high energy, more than 1 MeV for the nuclei of the main isotopes - uranium-238 and thorium-232. At lower energies, the absorption of a neutron by uranium-238 has a resonant character. Thus, a neutron with an energy of 25 eV has a capture cross section that is thousands of times larger than with other energies. In this case, there will be no fission: uranium-238 will become uranium-239, which with a half-life of 23.54 minutes will turn into neptunium-239, the one with a half-life of 2.33 days will turn into long-lived plutonium-239. Thorium-232 will become uranium-233.

The second mechanism is the non-threshold absorption of a neutron, followed by the third more or less common fissile isotope - uranium-235 (as well as plutonium-239 and uranium-233, which are absent in nature): by absorbing any neutron, even a slow one, the so-called thermal, with an energy of for molecules participating in thermal motion - 0.025 eV, such a nucleus will be divided. And this is very good: for thermal neutrons, the capture cross-sectional area is four times higher than for fast, megaelectronvolt ones. This is the significance of uranium-235 for the entire subsequent history of nuclear energy: it is it that ensures the multiplication of neutrons in natural uranium. After hitting a neutron, the uranium-235 nucleus becomes unstable and quickly splits into two unequal parts. Along the way, several (on average 2.75) new neutrons fly out. If they fall into the nuclei of the same uranium, they will cause neutron multiplication in geometric progression- a chain reaction will start, which will lead to an explosion due to the rapid release of a huge amount of heat. Neither uranium-238 nor thorium-232 can work in this way: after all, during fission, neutrons with an average energy of 1-3 MeV are emitted, that is, if there is an energy threshold of 1 MeV, a significant part of the neutrons will certainly not be able to cause a reaction, and there will be no reproduction. This means that these isotopes should be forgotten and neutrons will have to be slowed down to thermal energy so that they interact with uranium-235 nuclei as efficiently as possible. At the same time, their resonant absorption by uranium-238 cannot be allowed: after all, in natural uranium this isotope is slightly less than 99.3% and neutrons more often collide with it, and not with the target uranium-235. And acting as a moderator, it is possible to maintain neutron multiplication at a constant level and prevent an explosion - to control a chain reaction.

The calculation carried out by Ya. B. Zeldovich and Yu. B. Khariton in the same fateful 1939 showed that for this it is necessary to use a neutron moderator in the form of heavy water or graphite and enrich natural uranium with uranium-235 by at least 1.83 times. Then this idea seemed to them pure fantasy: “It should be noted that approximately double the enrichment of those fairly significant amounts of uranium that are necessary to carry out a chain explosion,<...>is an extremely cumbersome task, close to practical impossibility." Now this problem has been solved, and the nuclear industry is mass-producing uranium enriched with uranium-235 up to 3.5% for power plants.

What is spontaneous nuclear fission? In 1940, G. N. Flerov and K. A. Petrzhak discovered that uranium fission can occur spontaneously, without any external influence, although the half-life is much longer than with ordinary alpha decay. Since such fission also produces neutrons, if they are not allowed to fly away from the reaction zone, they will serve as the initiators of the chain reaction. It is this phenomenon that is used in the creation of nuclear reactors.

Why is nuclear power needed? Zel'dovich and Khariton were among the first to calculate the economic effect of nuclear energy (Uspekhi fizicheskikh nauk, 1940, 23, 4). “... At the moment, it is still impossible to make final conclusions about the possibility or impossibility of realizing in uranium nuclear reaction fission with infinitely branching chains. If such a reaction is feasible, then the reaction rate is automatically adjusted to ensure that it proceeds smoothly, despite the huge amount of energy at the disposal of the experimenter. This circumstance is exceptionally favorable for the energy utilization of the reaction. Therefore, although this is a division of the skin of an unkilled bear, we present some numbers that characterize the possibilities for the energy use of uranium. If the fission process proceeds on fast neutrons, therefore, the reaction captures the main isotope of uranium (U238), then<исходя из соотношения теплотворных способностей и цен на уголь и уран>the cost of a calorie from the main isotope of uranium turns out to be about 4000 times cheaper than from coal (unless, of course, the processes of "burning" and heat removal turn out to be much more expensive in the case of uranium than in the case of coal). In the case of slow neutrons, the cost of a "uranium" calorie (based on the above figures) will, taking into account that the abundance of the isotope U235 is 0.007, is already only 30 times cheaper than a "coal" calorie, all other things being equal.

The first controlled chain reaction was carried out in 1942 by Enrico Fermi at the University of Chicago, and the reactor was manually controlled by pushing and pulling out graphite rods as the neutron flux changed. The first power plant was built in Obninsk in 1954. In addition to generating energy, the first reactors also worked to produce weapons-grade plutonium.

How does a nuclear power plant work? Most reactors now operate on slow neutrons. Enriched uranium in the form of a metal, an alloy, for example with aluminum, or in the form of an oxide is put into long cylinders - fuel elements. They are installed in a certain way in the reactor, and rods from the moderator are introduced between them, which control the chain reaction. Over time, reactor poisons accumulate in the fuel element - uranium fission products, also capable of absorbing neutrons. When the uranium-235 concentration falls below the critical level, the element is decommissioned. However, it contains many fission fragments with strong radioactivity, which decreases over the years, which is why the elements emit a significant amount of heat for a long time. They are kept in cooling pools, and then they are either buried or they try to process them - to extract unburned uranium-235, accumulated plutonium (it was used to make atomic bombs) and other isotopes that can be used. The unused part is sent to the burial grounds.

In so-called fast neutron reactors, or breeder reactors, reflectors of uranium-238 or thorium-232 are installed around the elements. They slow down and send too fast neutrons back to the reaction zone. Slowed down to resonant speeds, neutrons absorb these isotopes, turning into plutonium-239 or uranium-233, respectively, which can serve as fuel for a nuclear power plant. Since fast neutrons do not react well with uranium-235, it is necessary to significantly increase its concentration, but this pays off with a stronger neutron flux. Despite the fact that breeder reactors are considered the future of nuclear energy, since they provide more nuclear fuel than they consume, experiments have shown that they are difficult to control. Now there is only one such reactor left in the world - at the fourth power unit of the Beloyarsk NPP.

How is nuclear energy criticized? If we do not talk about accidents, the main point in the arguments of opponents of nuclear energy today was the proposal to add to the calculation of its effectiveness the costs of protecting the environment after decommissioning the plant and when working with fuel. In both cases, the task of reliable disposal of radioactive waste arises, and these are the costs that the state bears. There is an opinion that if they are shifted to the cost of energy, then its economic attractiveness will disappear.

There is also opposition among supporters of nuclear energy. Its representatives point to the uniqueness of uranium-235, which has no replacement, because alternative isotopes fissile by thermal neutrons - plutonium-239 and uranium-233 - are absent in nature due to a half-life of thousands of years. And they are obtained just as a result of the fission of uranium-235. If it ends, the beautiful will disappear natural source neutrons for a nuclear chain reaction. As a result of such extravagance, mankind will lose the opportunity in the future to involve thorium-232 in the energy cycle, the reserves of which are several times greater than those of uranium.

Theoretically, particle accelerators can be used to obtain a flux of fast neutrons with megaelectronvolt energies. However, if we are talking, for example, about interplanetary flights on an atomic engine, then it will be very difficult to implement a scheme with a bulky accelerator. The exhaustion of uranium-235 puts an end to such projects.

What is weapon-grade uranium? This is highly enriched uranium-235. Its critical mass - it corresponds to the size of a piece of matter in which a chain reaction spontaneously occurs - is small enough to make a munition. Such uranium can be used to make an atomic bomb, as well as a fuse for a thermonuclear bomb.

What disasters are associated with the use of uranium? The energy stored in the nuclei of fissile elements is enormous. Having escaped from control due to an oversight or due to intent, this energy can do a lot of trouble. The two worst nuclear disasters occurred on August 6 and 8, 1945, when the US Air Force dropped atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, killing and injuring hundreds of thousands of civilians. Smaller scale disasters are associated with accidents on nuclear power plants and enterprises of the nuclear cycle. The first major accident happened in 1949 in the USSR at the Mayak plant near Chelyabinsk, where plutonium was produced; liquid radioactive waste got into the river Techa. In September 1957, an explosion occurred on it with the release of a large amount of radioactive substance. Eleven days later, the British plutonium reactor at Windscale burned down, a cloud of explosion products dissipated over Western Europe. In 1979, the reactor at the Trimail Island nuclear power plant in Pennsylvania burned down. The accidents at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant (1986) and the nuclear power plant in Fukushima (2011) led to the most widespread consequences, when millions of people were exposed to radiation. The first littered vast lands, throwing out 8 tons of uranium fuel with decay products as a result of the explosion, which spread throughout Europe. The second polluted and, three years after the accident, continues to pollute the Pacific Ocean in the areas of fisheries. The elimination of the consequences of these accidents was very expensive, and if these costs were decomposed into the cost of electricity, it would increase significantly.

A separate issue is the consequences for human health. According to official statistics, many people who survived the bombing or live in contaminated areas benefited from exposure - the former have a higher life expectancy, the latter have fewer cancers, and experts attribute a certain increase in mortality to social stress. The number of people who died precisely from the consequences of accidents or as a result of their liquidation is estimated at hundreds of people. Opponents of nuclear power plants point out that accidents have led to several million premature deaths in European continent, they are simply invisible against the statistical background.

The withdrawal of lands from human use in accident zones leads to an interesting result: they become a kind of reserves, where biodiversity grows. True, some animals suffer from diseases associated with radiation. The question of how quickly they will adapt to the increased background remains open. There is also an opinion that the consequence of chronic irradiation is “selection for a fool” (see Chemistry and Life, 2010, No. 5): more primitive organisms survive even at the embryonic stage. In particular, in relation to humans, this should lead to a decrease mental ability in the generation born in the contaminated areas shortly after the accident.

What is depleted uranium? This is uranium-238 left over from the extraction of uranium-235. The volumes of waste from the production of weapons-grade uranium and fuel elements are large - in the United States alone, 600 thousand tons of such uranium hexafluoride have accumulated (for problems with it, see "Chemistry and Life", 2008, No. 5). The content of uranium-235 in it is 0.2%. These wastes must either be stored until better times, when fast neutron reactors will be created and it will be possible to process uranium-238 into plutonium, or somehow used.

They found a use for it. Uranium, like other transition elements, is used as a catalyst. For example, the authors of an article in ACS Nano dated June 30, 2014, they write that a uranium or thorium catalyst with graphene for the reduction of oxygen and hydrogen peroxide "has great potential for energy applications." Because of its high density, uranium serves as ballast for ships and counterweights for aircraft. This metal is also suitable for radiation protection in medical devices with radiation sources.

What weapons can be made from depleted uranium? Bullets and cores for armor-piercing projectiles. Here is the calculation. The heavier the projectile, the higher its kinetic energy. But the larger the projectile, the less concentrated its impact. So we need heavy metals with high density. Bullets are made of lead (Ural hunters at one time also used native platinum, until they realized that it was a precious metal), while the cores of the shells were made of a tungsten alloy. Conservationists point out that lead pollutes the soil in places of war or hunting and it would be better to replace it with something less harmful, for example, with the same tungsten. But tungsten is not cheap, and uranium, similar in density to it, is a harmful waste. At the same time, the permissible contamination of soil and water with uranium is approximately twice as high as for lead. This happens because the weak radioactivity of depleted uranium (and it is also 40% less than that of natural uranium) is neglected and a really dangerous chemical factor is taken into account: uranium, as we remember, is poisonous. At the same time, its density is 1.7 times greater than that of lead, which means that the size of uranium bullets can be reduced by half; uranium is much more refractory and harder than lead - when fired, it evaporates less, and when it hits a target, it produces fewer microparticles. In general, a uranium bullet pollutes the environment less than a lead one, however, this use of uranium is not known for certain.

But it is known that depleted uranium plates are used to strengthen the armor of American tanks (this is facilitated by its high density and melting point), and also instead of tungsten alloy in cores for armor-piercing projectiles. The uranium core is also good because uranium is pyrophoric: its hot small particles, formed when they hit the armor, flare up and set fire to everything around. Both applications are considered radiation safe. So, the calculation showed that, even after spending a year without getting out in a tank with uranium armor loaded with uranium ammunition, the crew would receive only a quarter of the allowable dose. And in order to obtain an annual allowable dose, such ammunition must be screwed to the surface of the skin for 250 hours.

Projectiles with uranium cores - for 30-mm aircraft guns or for artillery sub-calibers - were used by the Americans in recent wars, starting with the 1991 Iraq campaign of the year. That year, they poured 300 tons of depleted uranium on Iraqi armored units in Kuwait, and during their retreat, 250 tons, or 780,000 rounds, fell on aircraft guns. In Bosnia and Herzegovina, during the bombing of the army of the unrecognized Republika Srpska, 2.75 tons of uranium were used, and during the shelling of the Yugoslav army in the province of Kosovo and Metohija - 8.5 tons, or 31,000 rounds. Since the WHO had by that time taken care of the consequences of the use of uranium, monitoring was carried out. He showed that one volley consisted of approximately 300 rounds, of which 80% contained depleted uranium. 10% hit the targets, and 82% fell within 100 meters of them. The rest dispersed within 1.85 km. The shell that hit the tank burned down and turned into an aerosol, light targets like armored personnel carriers were pierced through by a uranium shell. Thus, one and a half tons of shells could turn into uranium dust in Iraq at the most. According to experts from the American strategic research center RAND Corporation, more than 10 to 35% of the used uranium has turned into an aerosol. Croatian uranium munitions fighter Asaf Durakovich, who has worked in a variety of organizations from the King Faisal Hospital in Riyadh to the Washington Uranium Medical Research Center, believes that in southern Iraq alone in 1991, 3-6 tons of submicron uranium particles were formed, which scattered over a wide area , that is, uranium pollution there is comparable to Chernobyl.