1. Introduction.

2. Poisonous substances.

3. Inorganic substances in the service of the military.

4. The contribution of Soviet chemists to the victory of the Second World War.

5. Conclusion.

6. Literature.

Introduction.

We live in the world various substances. In principle, a person does not need so much to live: oxygen (air), water, food, basic clothing, housing. However, a person learning the world, receiving more and more new knowledge about him, constantly changes his life.

In the second half of the 19th century chemical science reached a level of development that made it possible to create new, never before in nature coexisting substances. However, while creating new substances that should serve for the good, scientists also created substances that became a threat to humanity.

I thought about this when I studied the history of World War I, I learned that in 1915. The Germans used poisonous gas attacks to win on the French front. What was left for the rest of the countries to do in order to save the life and health of the soldiers?

First of all - to create a gas mask, which was successfully completed by N.D. Zelinsky. He said: "I invented it not to attack, but to protect young lives from suffering and death." Well, then, like a chain reaction, new substances began to be created - the beginning of the era of chemical weapons.

How does it feel about this?

On the one hand, substances "stand" on the protection of countries. Without many chemicals, we can no longer imagine our lives, because they are created for the benefit of civilization (plastics, rubber, etc.). On the other hand, some substances can be used for destruction, they carry "death".

The purpose of my essay: to expand and deepen knowledge about the use of chemicals.

Tasks: 1) Consider how chemicals are used in military affairs.

2) Get acquainted with the contribution of scientists to the victory of the Second World War.

organic matter

In 1920 - 1930. there was a threat of unleashing the second world war. The major world powers were feverishly arming, Germany and the USSR made the greatest efforts for this. German scientists have created a new generation of poisonous substances. However, Hitler did not dare to unleash a chemical war, probably realizing that its consequences for relatively small Germany and vast Russia would be incommensurable.

After World War II, the chemical arms race continued at a higher level. Currently, developed countries do not produce chemical weapons, but huge stocks of deadly poisonous substances have accumulated on the planet, which poses a serious danger to nature and society.

Mustard gas, lewisite, sarin, soman, V-gases, hydrocyanic acid, phosgene, and another product, which is usually depicted in the VX font, have been adopted and stored in warehouses. Let's consider them in more detail.

a) Sarin is a colorless or yellow liquid with almost no smell, which makes it difficult to detect it by external signs. It belongs to the class of nerve agents. Sarin is intended primarily for air contamination with vapors and fog, that is, as an unstable agent. In a number of cases, however, it can be used in a drop-liquid form to infect the area and the military equipment located on it; in this case, the persistence of sarin can be: in summer - several hours, in winter - several days.

Sarin causes damage through the respiratory system, skin, gastrointestinal tract; through the skin it acts in drop-liquid and vapor states, without causing local damage to it. The degree of sarin damage depends on its concentration in the air and the time spent in the contaminated atmosphere.

Under the influence of sarin, the affected person experiences salivation, profuse sweating, vomiting, dizziness, loss of consciousness, attacks of severe convulsions, paralysis and, as a result of severe poisoning, death.

Sarin formula:

b) Soman is a colorless and almost odorless liquid. Belongs to the class of nerve agents. In many ways, it is very similar to sarin. The persistence of soman is somewhat higher than that of sarin; on the human body, it acts about 10 times stronger.

Soman formula:

(CH3)3C - CH (CH3) -

c) V-gases are low volatile liquids with a very high boiling point, so their resistance is many times greater than that of sarin. Like sarin and soman, they are classified as nerve agents. According to the foreign press, V-gases are 100-1000 times more toxic than other nerve agents. They are highly effective when acting through the skin, especially in the drop-liquid state: contact with human skin of small drops of V-gases, as a rule, causes the death of a person.

d) Mustard is a dark brown oily liquid with a characteristic odor reminiscent of the smell of garlic or mustard. Belongs to the class of skin-abscess agents. Mustard evaporates slowly from infected areas; its durability on the ground is: in summer - from 7 to 14 days, in winter - a month or more. Mustard gas has a multilateral effect on the body: in a drop-liquid and vapor state it affects the skin and eyes, in a vapor state it affects the respiratory tract and lungs, and when it enters with food and water, it affects the digestive organs. The action of mustard gas does not appear immediately, but after some time, called the period of latent action. When it comes into contact with the skin, drops of mustard gas are quickly absorbed into it without causing pain. After 4 - 8 hours, redness appears on the skin and itching is felt. By the end of the first and the beginning of the second day, small bubbles form, but then they merge into single large bubbles filled with an amber-yellow liquid, which becomes cloudy over time. The appearance of blisters is accompanied by malaise and fever. After 2-3 days, the blisters break through and expose ulcers underneath that do not heal for a long time. If an infection gets into the ulcer, then suppuration occurs and the healing time increases to 5-6 months. The organs of vision are affected by vaporous mustard gas even in its negligible concentrations in the air and the exposure time is 10 minutes. The period of latent action in this case lasts from 2 to 6 hours; then signs of damage appear: a feeling of sand in the eyes, photophobia, lacrimation. The disease can last 10-15 days, after which recovery occurs. The defeat of the digestive system is caused by eating food and water contaminated with mustard gas. In severe cases of poisoning, after a period of latent action (30 - 60 minutes), signs of damage appear: pain in the pit of the stomach, nausea, vomiting; then come general weakness, headache, weakening of reflexes; discharge from the mouth and nose acquires a fetid odor. In the future, the process progresses: paralysis is observed, there is a sharp weakness and exhaustion. With an unfavorable course, death occurs on the 3rd - 12th day as a result of a complete breakdown and exhaustion.

With severe lesions, it is usually not possible to save a person, and if the skin is damaged, the victim loses his ability to work for a long time.

Mustard formula:

CI–CH2–CH2

CI–CH2–CH2

e) hydrocyanic acid - a colorless liquid with a peculiar odor reminiscent of the smell of bitter almonds; in low concentrations, the smell is difficult to distinguish. Hydrocyanic acid evaporates easily and acts only in the vapor state. Refers to the general poisonous agents. Characteristic signs of hydrocyanic acid damage are: a metallic taste in the mouth, throat irritation, dizziness, weakness, nausea. Then painful shortness of breath appears, the pulse slows down, the poisoned person loses consciousness, and sharp convulsions occur. Spasms are observed rather not for long; they are replaced by complete relaxation of the muscles with loss of sensitivity, a drop in temperature, respiratory depression, followed by its stop. Cardiac activity after respiratory arrest continues for another 3-7 minutes.

Hydrocyanic acid formula:

f) Phosgene is a colorless, volatile liquid with the smell of rotten hay or rotten apples. It acts on the body in a vapor state. Belongs to the class of OV suffocating action.

Phosgene has a latency period of 4 - 6 hours; its duration depends on the concentration of phosgene in the air, the time spent in the contaminated atmosphere, the state of the person, and the cooling of the body. When inhaling phosgene, a person feels a sweetish unpleasant taste in the mouth, then coughing, dizziness and general weakness appear. Upon leaving the contaminated air, the signs of poisoning quickly disappear, and a period of so-called imaginary well-being begins. But after 4-6 hours, the affected person experiences a sharp deterioration in his condition: bluish coloration of the lips, cheeks, and nose quickly develops; there are general weakness, headache, rapid breathing, severe shortness of breath, excruciating cough with liquid, frothy, pinkish sputum, indicating the development of pulmonary edema. The process of phosgene poisoning reaches its climax within 2-3 days. With a favorable course of the disease, the state of health of the affected person will gradually begin to improve, and in severe cases, death occurs.

Phosgene formula:

e) Lysergic acid dimethylamide is a psychochemical poison. When ingested, after 3 minutes, mild nausea and dilated pupils appear, and then - hallucinations of hearing and vision, lasting for several hours

Inorganic substances in military affairs.

The Germans first used chemical weapons on April 22, 1915. near the city of Ypres: launched a gas attack against the French and British troops. Of the 6 thousand metal cylinders, 180 tons were produced. chlorine across a front width of 6 km. Then they used chlorine as an agent against the Russian army. As a result of the first gas balloon attack alone, about 15,000 soldiers were hit, of which 5,000 died from suffocation. To protect against chlorine poisoning, bandages soaked in a solution of potash and baking soda began to be used, and then a gas mask in which sodium thiosulfate was used to absorb chlorine.

Later, stronger poisonous substances containing chlorine appeared: mustard gas, chloropicrin, cyanogen chloride, asphyxiating gas phosgene, etc.

The reaction equation for obtaining phosgene:

CI2 + CO = COCI2.

Upon penetration into the human body, phosgene undergoes hydrolysis:

COCI2 + H2O = CO2 + 2HCI,

which leads to the formation of hydrochloric acid, which inflames the tissues of the respiratory organs and makes breathing difficult.

Phosgene is also used for peaceful purposes: in the production of dyes, in the fight against pests and diseases of agricultural crops.

bleach(CaOCI2) is used for military purposes as an oxidizing agent during degassing, which destroys chemical warfare agents, and for peaceful purposes - for bleaching cotton fabrics, paper, for water chlorination, and disinfection. The use of this salt is based on the fact that when it interacts with carbon monoxide (IV), free hypochlorous acid is released, which decomposes:

2CaOCI2 + CO2 + H2O = CaCO3 + CaCI2 + 2HOCI;

Oxygen at the time of release vigorously oxidizes and destroys toxic and other toxic substances, has a bleaching and disinfecting effect.

Oxyliquite is an explosive mixture of any combustible porous mass with liquid oxygen. They were used during the First World War instead of dynamite.

The main condition for choosing a combustible material for oxyliquite is its sufficient friability, which contributes to better impregnation with liquid oxygen. If the combustible material is poorly impregnated, then after the explosion, part of it will remain unburned. An oxyliquite cartridge is a long pouch filled with combustible material into which an electric fuse is inserted. As a combustible material for oxyliquites, sawdust, coal, and peat are used. The cartridge is loaded immediately before being placed into the hole by immersing it in liquid oxygen. Cartridges were sometimes prepared in this way during the Great Patriotic War, although trinitrotoluene was mainly used for this purpose. Currently, oxyliquites are used in the mining industry for blasting.

Considering properties sulfuric acid, it is important about its use in the production of explosives (TNT, HMX, picric acid, trinitroglycerin) as a dewatering agent as part of a nitrating mixture (HNO3 and H2 SO4).

Ammonia solution(40%) is used for degassing equipment, transport, clothing, etc. in the conditions of the use of chemical weapons (sarin, soman, tabun).

Based nitric acid a number of strong explosives are obtained: trinitroglycerin, and dynamite, nitrocellulose (pyroxylin), trinitrophenol (picric acid), trinitrotoluene, etc.

ammonium chloride NH4CI is used to fill smoke bombs: when an incendiary mixture ignites, ammonium chloride decomposes, forming thick smoke:

NH4CI = NH3 + HCI.

Such checkers were widely used during the Great Patriotic War.

Ammonium nitrate is used for the production of explosives - ammonites, which also include other explosive nitro compounds, as well as combustible additives. For example, ammonal contains trinitrotoluene and aluminum powder. The main reaction that occurs during its explosion:

3NH4NO3 + 2AI = 3N2 + 6H2O + AI2O3 + Q.

The high heat of combustion of aluminum increases the energy of the explosion. Aluminum nitrate mixed with trinitrotoluene (tol) gives the explosive ammotol. Most explosive mixtures contain an oxidizing agent (metal or ammonium nitrates, etc.) and combustibles (diesel fuel, aluminum, wood flour, etc.).

barium, strontium and lead nitrates used in pyrotechnics.

Considering the application nitrates, you can tell about the history of the production and use of black, or smoky, gunpowder - an explosive mixture of potassium nitrate with sulfur and coal (75% KNO3, 10% S, 15% C). The combustion reaction of black powder is expressed by the equation:

2KNO3 + 3C + S = N2 + 3CO2 + K2S + Q.

The two reaction products are gases, and potassium sulfide is a solid that forms smoke after the explosion. The source of oxygen during the combustion of gunpowder is potassium nitrate. If a vessel, for example, a tube sealed at one end, is closed by a movable body - the core, then it is ejected under the pressure of powder gases. This shows the propelling action of gunpowder. And if the walls of the vessel in which the gunpowder is located are not strong enough, then the vessel is torn under the action of powder gases into small fragments that scatter around with enormous kinetic energy. This is the blasting action of gunpowder. The resulting potassium sulfide - soot - destroys the barrel of the weapon, therefore, after a shot, a special solution is used to clean the weapon, which includes ammonium carbonate.

For six centuries, the dominance of black powder in military affairs continued. For such a long period of time, its composition has not changed much, only the method of production has changed. Only in the middle of the last century, instead of black powder, they began to use new explosives with greater destructive power. They quickly replaced black powder from military equipment. Now it is used as an explosive in mining, in pyrotechnics (rockets, fireworks), and also as hunting gunpowder.

Phosphorus(white) is widely used in military affairs as an incendiary substance used to equip aerial bombs, mines, shells. Phosphorus is highly flammable and releases a large amount of heat during combustion (the combustion temperature of white phosphorus reaches 1000 - 1200°C). When burning, phosphorus melts, spreads and, if it comes into contact with the skin, causes burns and ulcers that do not heal for a long time.

When phosphorus is burned in air, phosphoric anhydride is obtained, the vapors of which attract moisture from the air and form a veil of white fog, consisting of tiny droplets of a solution of metaphosphoric acid. Its use as a smoke-forming substance is based on this property.

Based on ortho - and metaphosphoric acid the most toxic organophosphorus poisonous substances (sarin, soman, VX - gases) of nerve-paralytic action have been created. A gas mask serves as protection against their harmful effects.

Graphite due to its softness, it is widely used to obtain lubricants used in conditions of high and low temperatures. The extreme heat resistance and chemical inertness of graphite make it possible to use it in nuclear reactors on nuclear submarines in the form of bushings, rings, as a thermal neutron moderator, and as a structural material in rocket technology.

soot(carbon black) is used as a rubber filler used to equip armored, aviation, automobile, artillery and other military equipment.

Activated carbon- a good adsorbent of gases, therefore it is used as an absorber of poisonous substances in filtering gas masks. During the First World War, there were great human losses, one of the main reasons was the lack of reliable personal protective equipment against poisonous substances. N.D. Zelinsky proposed the simplest gas mask in the form of a bandage with coal. Later, together with engineer E.L. Kumant, he improved simple gas masks. They offered insulating rubber gas masks, thanks to which the lives of millions of soldiers were saved.

carbon monoxide (II) (carbon monoxide) belongs to the group of general poisonous chemical weapons: it combines with blood hemoglobin, forming carboxyhemoglobin. As a result, hemoglobin loses its ability to bind and carry oxygen, oxygen starvation sets in and the person dies from suffocation.

In a combat situation, when in a flamethrower-incendiary fire zone, in tents and other rooms with stove heating, when shooting in enclosed spaces, carbon monoxide poisoning can occur. And since carbon monoxide (II) has high diffusion properties, conventional filter gas masks are not able to purify the air contaminated with this gas. Scientists have created an oxygen gas mask, in special cartridges of which mixed oxidizers are placed: 50% manganese (IV) oxide, 30% copper (II) oxide, 15% chromium (VI) oxide and 5% silver oxide. Airborne carbon monoxide (II) is oxidized in the presence of these substances, for example:

CO + MnO2 = MnO + CO2.

The person who is stricken carbon monoxide, fresh air, heart remedies, sweet tea are needed, in severe cases - oxygen breathing, artificial respiration.

Carbon monoxide (IV)(carbon dioxide) 1.5 times heavier than air, does not support combustion processes, is used to extinguish fires. The carbon dioxide fire extinguisher is filled with sodium bicarbonate solution, and in glass ampoule contains sulfuric or hydrochloric acid. When the fire extinguisher is put into working condition, the reaction begins to proceed:

2NaHCO3 + H2SO4 = Na2SO4 + 2H2O + 2CO2 .

eye-catching carbon dioxide envelops the fire center with a dense layer, stopping the access of atmospheric oxygen to the burning object. During the Great Patriotic War, such fire extinguishers were used to protect residential buildings in cities and industrial facilities.

Carbon monoxide (IV) in liquid form is a good agent used in the fire extinguishing of jet engines installed on modern military aircraft.

Silicon, being a semiconductor, finds wide application in modern military electronics. It is used in the manufacture solar panels, transistors, diodes, particle detectors in radiation monitoring and radiation reconnaissance devices.

Liquid glass(saturated solutions of Na2SiO3 and K2SiO3) - a good flame retardant impregnation for fabrics, wood, paper.

The silicate industry produces various types of optical glasses used in military instruments (binoculars, periscopes, rangefinders); cement for the construction of naval bases, mine launchers, protective structures.

In the form of glass fibers, glass goes to production fiberglass used in the manufacture of missiles, submarines, instruments.

When studying metals, consider their use in military affairs

Due to their strength, hardness, heat resistance, electrical conductivity, ability to be machined, metals are widely used in military affairs: in aircraft and rocket building, in the manufacture of small arms and armored vehicles, submarines and naval ships, shells, bombs, radio equipment, etc. .d.

Aluminum has a high corrosion resistance to water, but has a low strength. In aircraft and rocket manufacturing, aluminum alloys with other metals are used: copper, manganese, zinc, magnesium, and iron. Appropriately heat treated, these alloys offer strength comparable to that of medium alloy steel.

For example, the once most powerful Saturn-5 rocket in the United States, which was used to launch spaceships Apollo series, made of aluminum alloy (aluminum, copper, manganese). The bodies of combat intercontinental ballistic missiles "Titan-2" are made of aluminum alloy. The propeller blades of airplanes and helicopters are made of an alloy of aluminum with magnesium and silicon. This alloy can work under vibration loads and has very high corrosion resistance.

Thermite (mixtureFe3 O4 cpowderAI) used to make incendiary bombs and shells. When this mixture is ignited, a violent reaction occurs with the release of a large number heat:

8AI + 3Fe3O4 = 4AI2O3 + 9Fe + Q.

The temperature in the reaction zone reaches 3000°C. At such a high temperature, the armor of tanks melts. Thermite shells and bombs have great destructive power.

Sodium as a coolant is used to remove heat from valves in aircraft engines, as a coolant in nuclear reactors (in an alloy with potassium).

sodium peroxide Na2O2 is used as an oxygen regenerator in military submarines. Solid sodium peroxide, which fills the regeneration system, interacts with carbon dioxide:

2Na2O2 + 2CO2 = 2Na2CO3 + O2 .

This reaction underlies modern insulating gas masks (IP), which are used in conditions of lack of oxygen in the air, the use of chemical warfare agents. Isolating gas masks are in service with the crews of modern naval ships and submarines; it is these gas masks that ensure the crew's exit from a flooded tank.

Sodium hydroxide used to prepare electrolyte for alkaline batteries, which are equipped with modern military radio stations.

Lithium used in the manufacture of tracer bullets and projectiles. Lithium salts give them a bright blue-green trail. Lithium is also used in nuclear and thermonuclear technology.

lithium hydride served American pilots during World War II as a portable source of hydrogen. In case of accidents over the sea, under the action of water, lithium hydride tablets instantly decomposed, filling life-saving equipment with hydrogen - inflatable boats, rafts, vests, signal balloons-antennas:

LiH + H2O = LiOH + H2.

Magnesium used in military equipment in the manufacture of lighting and signal rockets, tracer bullets, shells and incendiary bombs. When magnesium is ignited, a very bright, dazzling white flame, due to which it is possible to illuminate a significant part of the territory at night.

Lightweight and durable magnesium alloys with copper, aluminum, titanium, silicon, are widely used in rocket, machine and aircraft construction. Of these, they prepare the landing gear and landing gear for military aircraft, individual parts for missile bodies.

Iron and its alloys (cast iron and steel) widely used for military purposes. When creating modern weapons systems, various grades of alloyed steels are used.

Molybdenum gives steel high hardness, strength and toughness. The following fact is known: the armor of British tanks participating in the battles of the First World War was made of but brittle manganese steel. German artillery shells freely pierced a massive shell of such steel 7.5 cm thick. But as soon as only 1.5-2% molybdenum was added to the steel, the tanks became invulnerable with an armor plate thickness of 2.5 cm. Molybdenum steel is used to manufacture tank armor , ship hulls, gun barrels, guns, aircraft parts.

Cobalt used in the creation of heat-resistant steels, which are used in the manufacture of parts for aircraft engines, rockets.

Chrome imparts hardness and wear resistance to steel. Chromium is alloyed with spring and spring steels used in automotive, armored, space-rocket and other types. military equipment.

The contribution of chemists to the victory in the Second World War.

The merits of scientists in the pre-war and present times are great, I will focus on the contribution of scientists to the victory of the Second World War. Since the work of scientists not only helped the victory, but also laid the foundation for a peaceful existence in the post-war period.

Scientists and chemists took an active part in ensuring the victory over fascist Germany. They developed new methods for the production of explosives, rocket fuel, high-octane gasolines, rubbers, armor steel, light alloys for aviation, and medicines.

The volume of production of chemical products by the end of the war approached the pre-war level: in 1945 it amounted to 92% of the 1940 figures.

Academician Alexander Erminingeldovich Arbuzov- the founder of one of the newest areas of science - the chemistry of organophosphorus compounds. His work was inextricably linked with the famous Kazan School of Chemists. Arbuzov's research was entirely devoted to the needs of defense and medicine. So, in March 1943, the optical physicist S.I. Vavilov wrote to Arbuzov: “I am writing to you with a big request to prepare in your laboratory 15 g of 3,6-diaminophtolimide. It turned out that this preparation, received from you, has valuable properties in relation to fluorescence and adsorption, and now we need it for the manufacture of a new defense optical device.” The drug was, it was used in the manufacture of optics for tanks. It had great importance to detect the enemy at a distance. In the future, A.E. Arbuzov also carried out other orders from the Optical Institute for the manufacture of various reagents.

An entire epoch in the history of domestic chemistry is associated with the name of Academician Nikolai Dmitrievich Zelinsky. Back in the first world war he created a gas mask. In the period 1941-1945. N.D. Zelinsky headed the scientific school, whose research was aimed at developing methods for obtaining high-octane fuel for aviation, monomers for synthetic rubber.

The contribution of Academician Nikolai Nikolaevich Semyonov to ensuring victory was determined by the theory of branched chain reactions he developed, which made it possible to control chemical processes: accelerate reactions up to the formation of an explosive avalanche, slow down and even stop them at any intermediate station. In the early 40s. N.N. Semyonov and his collaborators investigated the processes of explosion, combustion, detonation. The results of these studies, in one form or another, were used during the war in the production of cartridges, artillery shells, explosives, incendiary mixtures for flamethrowers. The results of research on the reflection and collision of shock waves during explosions were used already in the first period of the war in the creation of cumulative shells, grenades and mines to fight enemy tanks.

Academician Alexander Evgenievich Fersman did not say that his life is a life story of love for a stone. The pioneer and tireless researcher of apatites on Kola Peninsula, radium ores in Ferghana, sulfur in the Karakum, tungsten deposits in Transbaikalia, one of the founders of the industry of rare elements, from the first days of the war he actively joined in the process of transferring science and industry to a military footing. He performed special work on military engineering geology, military geography, on the manufacture of strategic raw materials, camouflage paints. In 1941, at an anti-fascist rally of scientists, he said: “The war required an enormous amount of the main types of strategic raw materials. A number of new metals were required for aviation, for armor-piercing steel, magnesium, strontium for lighting rockets and torches were required, more iodine was required ... And we are responsible for providing strategic raw materials, we must help with our knowledge to create better tanks, aircraft, in order to free all peoples from the invasion of the Nazi gang.

The largest chemical technologist Semyon Isaakovich Volfkovich studied phosphorus compounds, was director of the Research Institute of Fertilizers and Insecticides. Employees of this institute created phosphorus-sulfur alloys for bottles that served as anti-tank "bombs", made chemical heating pads for fighters, sentinels, developed anti-frostbite, burns, and other medicines necessary for the sanitary service.

Professor of the Military Academy of Chemical Defense Ivan Ludwigovich Knunyants developed reliable personal protective equipment for people from poisonous substances. For these studies in 1941 he was awarded the State Prize of the USSR.

Even before the start of the Great Patriotic War, Professor of the Military Academy of Chemical Defense Mikhail Mikhailovich Dubinin conducted studies of the sorption of gases, vapors and dissolved substances by solid porous bodies. M.M. Dubinin is a called authority on all major issues related to the anti-chemical protection of the respiratory system.

From the very beginning of the war, scientists were tasked with developing and organizing the production of drugs to combat infectious diseases, primarily typhus, which is carried by lice. Under the direction of Nikolai Nikolaevich Melnikov the production of dust was organized, as well as various antiseptics for wooden aircraft.

Academician Alexander Naumovich Frumkin- one of the founders of the modern theory of electrochemical processes, the founder of the school of electrochemists. He studied the issues of protecting metals from corrosion, developed a physico-chemical method for fixing soils for airfields, and a recipe for fire-retardant impregnation of wood. Together with employees, he developed electrochemical fuses. He said: “There is no doubt that chemistry is one of the essential factors on which the success depends. modern war. The production of explosives, high-quality steels, light metals, fuels - all these are various applications of chemistry, not to mention special forms of chemical weapons. In modern warfare, German chemistry has given the world so far one "novelty" - this is the massive use of stimulants and narcotic substances that are given to German soldiers before they are sent to certain death. Soviet chemists call on scientists from all over the world to use their knowledge to fight fascism.

Academician Sergey Semenovich Nametkin, one of the founders of petrochemistry, successfully worked in the field of synthesis of new organometallic compounds, poisonous and explosive substances. During the war, he worked on chemical defense issues. , development of the production of motor fuels and oils.

Research Valentin Alekseevich Kargin covered a wide range of topics physical chemistry, electrochemistry and physicochemistry of macromolecular compounds. During the war, V.A. Kargin developed special materials for the manufacture of clothing that protects against the action of toxic substances, the principle and technology of a new method for processing protective fabrics, chemical compositions making felted shoes waterproof, special types rubber for combat vehicles of our army.

Professor, Head of the Military Academy of Chemical Protection and Head of Department analytical chemistry Yuri Arkadyevich Klyachko organized a battalion from the academy and was the head of the combat section on the nearest approaches to Moscow. Under his leadership, work was launched to create new means of chemical defense, including research on smoke, antidotes, and flamethrowers.

On June 17, 1925, 37 states signed the Geneva Protocol, an international agreement on the prohibition of the use of asphyxiating, poisonous or other similar gases in war. By 1978, the document was signed by almost all countries.

Conclusion.

Chemical weapons, of course, must be destroyed, and if it is possible quickly, it is a deadly weapon against humanity. People also remember how Nazis killed hundreds of thousands of people in concentration camps in gas chambers, how American troops tested chemical weapons during the Vietnam War.

The use of chemical weapons today is prohibited by international agreement. In the first half of the XX century. poisonous substances were either drowned in the sea or buried in the ground. What this is fraught with, no need to explain. Now toxic substances are burned, but this method also has its drawbacks. When burning in a conventional flame, their concentration in the exhaust gases is tens of thousands of times higher than the maximum allowable. Relative safety is provided by high-temperature afterburning of exhaust gases in a plasma electric furnace (a method adopted in the USA).

Another approach to the destruction of chemical weapons is the preliminary neutralization of toxic substances. The resulting non-toxic masses can be burned or processed into solid insoluble blocks, which are then buried in special burial grounds or used in road construction.

At present, the concept of destroying poisonous substances directly in ammunition is being widely discussed, and it is proposed to process non-toxic reaction masses into commercial chemical products. But the destruction of chemical weapons and scientific research in this area require large investments.

I would like to hope that the problems will be solved and the power of chemical science will be directed not to the development of new poisonous substances, but to solving the global problems of mankind.

Used Books:

Kushnarev A.A. chemical weapons: yesterday, today, tomorrow//

Chemistry at school - 1996 - No. 1;

Chemistry at school - 4'2005

Chemistry at school - 7'2005

Chemistry at school - 9'2005;

Chemistry at school - 8'2006

Chemistry at school - 11'2006.

MILITARY CHEMICAL BUSINESS, area military activities embracing issues: 1) the use of chemical warfare agents in war, 2) protection against them, carried out both individually and collectively, and 3) preparation for chemical warfare.

I. Use of chemical warfare agents. For combat purposes, poisonous, smoke-forming and incendiary substances are used; they all act directly and are thus. the main active part of chemical weapons.

From toxic substances chlorine (Сl 2), phosgene (СО∙Сl 2), diphosgene (Сl∙СO∙O∙С∙Сl 3), mustard gas, arsines (CH 3 ∙AsCl 2 ; C 2 H 5 ∙ASCl 2 ; (C 6 H 5) 2 AsCl; ClAs (C 6 H 4) 2 NH; AS (CH:CHCl) Cl 2 and others], chloroacetophenone (Cl ∙ CH 2 ∙CO ∙ C 6 H 5), chloropicrin (C ∙ Cl 3 ∙NO 3) and some others.Depending on their physical and chemical properties all poisonous substances are usually divided into persistent (long-term) and unstable (short-term). For the purposes of chemical attack, poisonous substances can be applied in the following ways.

BUT. Special methods of using poisonous substances. 1) Gas cylinders. Gas balloon attacks are the first serious method of mass use of poisonous substances. To create gas waves directed downwind at the enemy, a mixture of chlorine and phosgene (80% and 20%) is used, produced from special steel cylinders (see Gas fittings), where this mixture is in a liquefied state under pressure. Combat application rates: 1000-1200 kg of mixture per 1 km of front in 1 minute with a wind force of 2-3 m / s. To calculate the amount of the combat mixture required for the production of a gas balloon attack, the following formula is used: a = b ∙ c ∙ g, where a is the desired amount of the required combat mixture, b is the combat rate in kg / km per 1 minute, c is the duration of release and d - front length. 2) Poisonous candles - metal cylinders of various sizes (starting from 0.5 l), equipped with a mixture of fuel with solid irritating toxic substances (mainly arsines). When burning, arsines sublimate and give off poisonous smoke, which is difficult to hold back with gas masks. This method has not yet been used in the last war, but in future war you will probably have to meet him. 3) Gas throwers - steel pipes weighing 80-100 kg each, used to throw projectiles weighing 25-30 kg. These projectiles (mines) can be filled with poisonous substances up to 50%. Gas cannons are used to create a high concentration cloud for surprise attacks. 4) Infecting devices- consist of portable or transportable tanks filled with persistent poisonous substances (mustard gas) and are used to infect the soil. In the last war, such devices were not used. 5) Flamethrowers - tanks from which a burning jet of liquid is ejected by pressure of compressed air; for flamethrowers, mixtures of various oil cuts and other combustible oils are used; range of flamethrowers - 25-50 m or more, depending on the system; they are mainly used in defense.

B. The use of poisonous substances by artillery and aviation. 1) Artillery chemical projectiles are of two main types: a) chemical and b) chemical fragmentation. The first are equipped mainly with toxic substances, while explosives are only enough to open the projectiles. The latter have a significant explosive charge and have a fragmentation effect. Typically, in such projectiles, the explosive charge is 40-60% by weight of the poisonous charge. Depending on the nature of the poisonous substance with which the shells are equipped, they are divided into shells short-term And long-term actions. In the German artillery, combat standards for the use of artillery chemical projectiles were adopted, indicated in Table. one.

The consumption rate of fragmentation-chemical projectiles was approximately 1/6-1/3 of the number of expendable conventional chemical projectiles. For long-term projectiles, the same norm was applied as for short-term projectiles; in this case, the firing time can be much longer. 2) Aviation in the last war did not use poisonous substances. Intensified preparations are now being made in all armies for the use of aviation for these purposes. Aviation can operate with the help of poisonous substances, both at the front and in the rear, against population centers. In view of this, the problem of anti-chemical protection of the civilian population has now been put forward. Aviation can use in its attacks: a) bombs of various calibers, equipped with persistent and unstable poisonous substances; b) poisonous liquids- for direct pouring; one of the poisonous substances, which, in terms of its physicochemical and toxic properties, is most suitable for widespread use in aerochemical attacks, is mustard gas; in) incendiary substances used in artillery shells and bombs Ch. arr. to start fires; usually they are equipped with thermite (a mixture of aluminum and iron oxide); G) smoke generating substances used for the purpose of blinding the enemy and masking one's own actions; the most commonly used are phosphorus, sulfuric anhydride, chlorosulfonic acid and stannous chloride; artillery shells and bombs can be loaded with these substances; special smoky devices and smoky checkers can also be used.

II. Poison Protection. For this purpose, mainly filtering gas masks are used; they usually consist of three parts: 1) a facial, including a mask that covers the eyes and airways, 2) an absorption box, and 3) a connecting tube. The most critical part of the gas mask is the absorption box. Its absorption capacity is based on the action of activated carbon, chemical absorber and smoke filter. Activated charcoal is ordinary charcoal made from hardwoods or fruit pits. Its porosity, and with it the adsorption capacity, is artificially increased in various ways, of which the most common is the action of superheated steam at 800-900°. The activity of coal is usually measured by its ability to absorb chlorine. Medium activated carbons absorb 40-45% by weight of chlorine. But activated carbon alone is not enough to completely absorb all toxic substances in steam and gaseous state. For the final absorption of toxic substances (for example, the products of their hydrolysis in coal), a chemical absorber is used. It consists of a mixture of lime, caustic alkali, cement and diatomaceous earth (or pumice) in certain proportions. The whole mixture is irrigated with a strong solution of potassium or sodium permanganate. However, neither the latter nor the chemical absorber sufficiently retain poisonous fumes. To protect against them, smoke filters are introduced into the absorption box, usually consisting of various fibrous substances (different grades of cellulose, cotton wool, felt, etc.). At present, all armies are working hard to improve gas masks, striving to make them the most powerful, versatile, easy to breathe, easy to carry and adapted to each type of weapon, cheap and easy to manufacture. In addition to filtering, insulating gas masks are used, although to a much lesser extent. They are a device in which oxygen is supplied from a special cartridge for breathing. This device completely isolates a person from the surrounding air; then. its versatility in relation to toxic substances is maximum. However, due to its bulkiness, high cost, complexity and short duration of action, it cannot yet compete with a filtering gas mask; the latter remains the main means of protection against toxic substances. To protect against poisonous substances acting on the skin (blisters), special protective clothing is used, made from fabric impregnated with drying oil or other compounds. In addition to personal protective equipment, which are filtering gas masks, the massive use of poisonous substances also put forward the need for collective protection. The means of protection of this kind include various anti-chemically equipped premises, ranging from field shelters to residential buildings. For this purpose, the air entering such a room (gas shelter) is first passed through an absorption filter having dimensions corresponding to the room.

III. Preparation for military chemical warfare covers the following issues: 1) production of all means necessary for conducting chemical warfare and supplying troops and civilians with them, 2) preparation for chemical warfare of all army personnel and civilians and the adoption of preparatory measures for chemical defense of various points of the country, and 3) scientific - research work to find new or improve old means and methods of chemical control. The possibility of conducting chemical warfare, its depth and scope are determined by the state of its chemical industry in a given country. The latter at the present time, as shown in Table. 2 is developing precisely in the directions necessary for the widespread production and use of poisonous substances.

The rapid, ever-increasing growth of the chemical industry will undoubtedly lead to the widespread use in war of various chemical substances of military importance. The research work being widely carried out in all countries in various special scientific institutes will give the mass use of chemical warfare agents the most rational forms from the military point of view. In a future war, the military-chemical business will occupy one of the most important places.

Municipal state educational institution

"Chkalov secondary school"

Chemistry in military service.

Dedicated to Victory Day.

Development of an Integrated

extracurricular activity

Chemistry and Lifestyle Teachers

MKOU "Chkalovskaya secondary school"

Sheveleva V.B.

Lidzhiev D.D.

Interactive oral magazine "Chemistry in military service"

Dedicated to Victory Day.

Goals:

1. Expand students' knowledge of chemical elements and substances used in military affairs.

2. To develop interdisciplinary connections, the ability to work with various sources of information, multimedia presentations.

3. Formation of international feelings, feelings of patriotism. Popularization of chemical knowledge.

Equipment: Computer, multimedia projector.

Plan for organizing preparations for the holding oral journal.

1. Divide the class into groups, give the task: find the material and make a presentation:

Group 1: about chemical elements and substances used in military affairs

Group 2: about chemical warfare agents, about explosives, about polymers.

2. On your topic, prepare a test or questions to play for the prize of the magazine - "Best Listener".

Event progress.

Introductory speech of the teacher about the relevance of the topic.

Chemistry in military service

Dedicated to Victory Day

Slide number 2-3 music "Holy War".

Leading: “Chemistry spreads its hands wide in human affairs” - these words of M. V. Lomonosov will never lose their relevance. Slide number 4. IN modern society, perhaps, there is no such branch of production that would not be somehow connected with this science. Chemistry is also necessary for those who have devoted their lives to an important profession, the essence of which is to defend the Motherland.

The materials of the oral journal will allow you to find out what chemical science gives the army.

Slide number 6. Page 1.

Chemical elements in military affairs

in front of you Periodic system chemical elements D. I. Mendeleev. Many elements form substances widely used in military affairs.

Slide number 7. Element No. 1. The energy of a thermonuclear reaction involving hydrogen isotopes - deuterium and tritium, proceeding with the formation of helium and the release of neutrons, is based on the action of a hydrogen bomb. The hydrogen bomb is more powerful than the atomic bomb.

Slide number 8. Element number 2. Airships are filled with helium. filled,
helium aircrafts, unlike those filled with hydrogen, are safer.

Helium is also necessary for submariners. Scuba divers breathe liquefied air. When working at a depth of 100 m or more, nitrogen begins to dissolve in the blood. When rising from a great depth, it is quickly released, which can lead to disturbances in the body. So the rise must be very slow. When replacing nitrogen with helium, such phenomena do not occur. Helium air is used by naval special forces, for which the main thing is speed and surprise

Slide number 9. Element number 6. Carbon is part of organic matter, which form the basis of fuels and lubricants, explosives, poisonous substances. Coal is part of gunpowder and is used in gas masks.

Slide number 10. Element No. 8. Liquid oxygen is used as an oxidizing agent for fuel for rockets and jet aircraft. When porous materials are impregnated with liquid oxygen, a powerful explosive is obtained - oxyliquite.

Slide number 11. Element number 10. Neon is an inert gas that is filled with electric lamps. neon light far visible even in the fog, so neon lamps are used in lighthouses, in various types of signaling installations.

slide number 12. Element No. 12. Magnesium burns with a dazzling white flame with the release of a large amount of heat. This property is used to make incendiary bombs and flares. Magnesium is a component of ultralight and strong alloys used in aircraft construction.

slide number 13. Element number 13. Aluminum is an indispensable metal for the production of light and strong alloys, which are used in aircraft and rocket manufacturing.

Slide number 14. Element No. 14. Silicon is a valuable semiconductor material; as the temperature rises, its electrical conductivity increases, which makes it possible to use silicon devices at high temperatures.
Slide number 15. Element number 15. Phosphorus is used to make napalm and poisonous organophosphorus substances.

Slide number 16. Element number 16. Since ancient times, sulfur has been used in military affairs as a combustible substance, it is also part of black powder.

slide number 17. Element number 17. Chlorine is part of many toxic substances. Element number 35. Bromine is part of the tear poisonous substances - lachrymators. Element number 33. Arsenic is part of the chemical warfare agents.

slide number 18. Element number 22. Titanium gives steels hardness, elasticity, high corrosion resistance. These properties are irreplaceable for the equipment of sea ships and submarines.

slide number 19. Element No. 23. Vanadium steel, elastic, abrasion and tear resistant, corrosion resistant, used for constructionsmall high-speed sea ships, seaplanes, gliders.

slide number 20. Element No. 24. Chrome is used to obtain special steels, the manufacture of gun barrels, armor plates. Steels containing more than 10% chromium hardly rust; they are used to make submarine hulls.

slide number 21. Element No. 26. In Antiquity and the Middle Ages, iron was depicted as the god of war, Mars. During the war, iron is consumed in huge quantities in shells, bombs, mines, grenades and other products. Element number 53. Iodine is part of the polaroid glasses that tanks are equipped with. Such glasses allow the driver to see the battlefield, extinguishing the blinding glare of the flames. Element number 42. Molybdenum alloys are used for the manufacture of ultra-sharp melee weapons. The addition of 1.5-2% of this metal to steel makes the armor plates of tanks invulnerable to shells, and the ship's plating - chemically resistant to sea water.

slide number 22. Element No. 29., Copper is the first metal used by man. Spearheads were made from it. Later it was called cannon metal: an alloy of 90% copper and 10% tin was used to cast gun barrels. And now the main consumer of copper is the military industry: aircraft and ship parts, brass shells, belts for shells, electrical parts - all this and much more is made of copper. Element number 30. Zinc, together with copper, is part of brass - alloys necessary for military engineering. Artillery shells are made from it.

slide number 23. Element No. 82. With the invention of firearms, lead began to be spent in large quantities on the manufacture of bullets for rifles and pistols, and buckshot for artillery. Lead protects against harmful radiation.

slide number 24. Elements No. 88, 92, etc. Compounds of radioactive elements of radium, uranium and their counterparts- Raw materials for the manufacture of nuclear weapons.

Slide number 25-26. Test. 1. The manufacture of a hydrogen bomb is based on the use of:

a) hydrogen isotopes c) oxygen isotopes

b) helium isotopes d) nitrogen isotopes

2. Airships do:

a) hydrogen c) nitrogen

b) helium d) a mixture of hydrogen and helium

3) Neon is filled with electric lamps used in lighthouses and segment installations, since it

a) beautiful b) shines far c) cheap d) inert

4. To protect against corrosion, submarine hulls are made of steel containing 10%:

a) Cu b) Zn c) Al d) Cr

5. What fuel oxidizer for rockets and aircraft is used:

a) liquid oxygen b) gasoline c) kerosene d) hydrogen

Leading. Page 2

Slide number 27-28. Warfare agents

The initiative to use chemical warfare agents (CW) as weapons of mass destruction belongs to Germany. For the first time, the poisonous gas chlorine was used on April 22, 1915 on the Western Front near the Belgian city of Ypres against the Anglo-French troops. The first gas attack rendered an entire division defending this area incapacitated: 15,000 people were put out of action, 5,000 of them permanently.

About a month later, the gas attack was repeated on Eastern Front against Russian troops. On the night of May 31, 1915, in the area of ​​​​the Polish town of Bolimova, on a 12 km long front, with the wind blowing towards the Russian positions, 150 tons of poisonous gas were released from 12,000 cylinders. The front lines of the area attacked by gases, which were a continuous labyrinth of trenches and communication lines, were littered with corpses and dying people. 9 thousand people were out of action.

The English poet Wilfred Owen, who died in the First World War, left a poem inspired by the gas attack:

slide number 29 - Gas! Gas! Hurry! - Awkward movements, Pulling on masks in the caustic darkness...

One hesitated, choking and stumbling,

Floundering, as in a fiery pitch,

In the gaps of a muddy green fog.
Powerless, as in a dream, to intervene and help,

I only saw - now he staggered,

He rushed and drooped - it was too much to fight.

In memory of the first gas attack, the poisonous substance dichlorodiethyl sulfide S(CH 2 CH 2 C1) 2 was called mustard gas. Chlorine is also contained in the composition of diphosgene CC1 3 OS(O)C1. But the herd (CH 3 ) 2 NP(O)(OC 2 H 5 )CN - a liquid with a strong fruity odor - a derivative of cyanophosphoric acid.

Poisonous substances containing arsenic, unlike others, are able to penetrate through primitive gas masks. Causing unbearable irritation of the respiratory tract, expressed in sneezing, coughing, they force a person to remove the mask and be exposed to asphyxiating gas.

A special group of agents are lacrimators, which cause lacrimation and sneezing. Thus, in 1918, the American chemist R. Adams proposed the substance adamsite containing both arsenic and chlorine. It irritates the upper respiratory tract, and is also capable of igniting, forming the finest poisonous smoke.

Most lachrymators contain chlorine and bromine.

Modern combat OVs are even more terrible and ruthless.

For self-defense, as well as in anti-terrorist operations, less toxic substances are used.

Slide number 30. Page 3.

Poison Protection

In 1785, an assistant pharmacist (later a Russian academician) Tovy Egorovich Lovits discovered that charcoal is able to hold (adsorb) various liquid and gaseous substances on its surface. He pointed to the possibility of using this property for practical purposes, such as water purification. From 1794%. activated carbon began to be used to purify raw sugar. The phenomenon of adsorption found its original application in England, where coal was used to purify the air supplied to the Houses of Parliament.

However, it was only during the First World War that this property began to be used on a large scale. The reason for this was the use of toxic substances for the mass destruction of the manpower of the warring armies.

The outbreak of chemical warfare prepared for humanity innumerable sacrifices and suffering. The use of one of the varieties of amorphous carbon - charcoal - made it possible to create protection against OM.

Slide number 31-32. The outstanding chemist Professor N. D. Zelinsky (later Academician) developed, tested and in July 1915 proposed a gas mask that operates on the basis of the phenomenon of adsorption occurring on the surface of coal particles. The passage of poisoned air through coal completely freed it from impurities and protected the soldiers, protected by a gas mask, from chemical warfare agents.

The invention of N. D. Zelinsky saved many human lives.

As new poisonous substances were developed, the gas mask was also improved. Along with activated carbon, more active adsorbents are also used in modern gas masks.

Slide number 33-34. Page 4.

Explosives

There is no consensus on the invention of gunpowder: it is believed that fire powder came to us from the ancient Chinese, Arabs, or maybe it was invented by the medieval monk-alchemist Roger Bacon.

In Russia, specialists in the manufacture of "cannon potion" were called greengrocers.

Black powder is called smoky. For many years, he shrouded the battlefields in clouds of smoke, making people and machines indistinguishable.

A step forward was the use of organic explosives in military affairs: they turned out to be more powerful and produced less smoke.

Among organic substances there is a group of nitro compounds, the molecules of which contain a group of atoms -NO 2 . These substances decompose easily, often with an explosion. An increase in the number of nitro groups in a molecule increases the ability of a substance to explode. On the basis of nitro compounds, modern explosives are obtained.

A phenol derivative - trinitrophenol, or picric acid, is capable of exploding from detonation and is used under the name "melinite" to fill artillery shells.

A derivative of toluene - trinitrotoluene (trotyl, tol) - is one of the most important crushing explosives. It is used in huge quantities for the manufacture of artillery shells, mines, and explosive bombs. The power of other explosives is compared with the power of TNT and expressed in TNT equivalent.

A derivative of the polyhydric alcohol glycerol - nitroglycerin - a liquid that explodes on ignition, detonation and normal shaking. Nitroglycerin is able to decompose almost instantly with the release of heat and huge amount gases: 1 liter of it gives up to 10,000 liters of gases. It is not suitable for shooting, because it would tear the barrels of weapons. It is used for demolition work, but not in its pure form (it explodes very easily), but mixed with porous diatomaceous earth or sawdust. This mixture is called dynamite. The industrial production of dynamite was developed by Alfred Nobel. In a mixture with nitrocellulose, nitroglycerin gives a gelatinous explosive mass - explosive jelly.

Cellulose derivative - trinitrocellulose, otherwise called pyroxylin, also has explosive properties and is used to make smokeless powder. A method for producing smokeless powder (pyrocollodion) was developed by D. I. Mendeleev.

Slide number 35-36. Page 5.

Magic glass in the army

Glasses used in military equipment must have some specific properties.

The army needs accurate optics. The addition of gallium compounds to the starting materials makes it possible to obtain glasses with a high refractive index of light rays. Such glasses are used in guidance systems for missile systems and navigational instruments. Glass coated with a layer of metallic gallium reflects almost all light, up to 90%, which makes it possible to manufacture mirrors with high reflection accuracy. Similar mirrors are used in navigation instruments and guidance systems for guns when firing at invisible targets, in beacon systems, and periscope systems of submarines. These mirrors can withstand very high temperatures, which is why they are used in rocket technology. To enhance the optical properties, germanium compounds are also added to the raw materials for glass production.

Infrared optics is widely used: glasses that transmit heat rays well are used in night vision devices. Such properties are imparted to glass by gallium oxide. The devices are used by reconnaissance groups, border patrols.

Back in 1908, a method was developed for producing thin glass fibers, but only recently scientists have proposed making two-layer glass fibers - light guides that are used in the army communications system. So, the cable is 7 mm thick. made up of 300 individual fibers, provides simultaneously 2 million telephone conversations.

Introduction to glass of metal oxides in varying degrees Oxidation imparts electrical conductivity to the glass. Similar semiconductor glasses are used for television equipment of space rockets.

Glass is an amorphous material, but crystalline glass materials, glass-ceramics, are also being produced now. Some of them have a hardness comparable to that of steel, and the coefficient of thermal expansion is almost the same as that of quartz glass, which can withstand sudden temperature changes.

Slide number 37-38. Page 6.

Use of polymersin the military-industrial complex

20th century called the age of polymer materials. Polymers are widely used in the military industry. Plastics have replaced wood, copper, nickel and bronze, and other non-ferrous metals in the construction of aircraft and vehicles. So, in a combat aircraft, on average, 100,000 parts made of plastics.

Polymers are necessary for the manufacture of individual elements of small arms (handles, magazines, butts), cases of some mines (usually anti-personnel) and fuses (to make it difficult to detect them with a mine detector), electrical wiring insulation.

Also, polymers are used to produce anti-corrosion and waterproofing coatings for the cups of mines for missile systems and caps for containers of mobile combat missile systems. Cases of many electrical appliances, radiation, chemical and biological protection, control elements of devices and systems (toggle switches, switches, buttons) are made of polymers.

Modern technology requires materials that have chemical resistance at elevated temperatures. These properties are possessed by fibers made of fluorine-containing polymers - fluoroplastics, which are stable at temperatures from -269 to +260 ° C. Fluoroplastics are used for the manufacture of battery containers: along with chemical resistance, they have strength, which is important in the field. High heat resistance and chemical resistance make it possible to use fluoroplastics as an electrical insulating material used in extreme conditions: in rocket technology, field radio stations, underwater equipment, underground missile silos.

With development modern species weapons have become in demand substances that can withstand high temperatures for hundreds of hours. Structural materials produced on the basis of heat-resistant fibers are used in aircraft and helicopter construction.

Polymers are also used as explosives (for example, pyroxylin). Modern plastids also have a polymeric structure.

Host: The last page of the magazine is closed.

Have you made sure that chemical knowledge necessary to strengthen the defense capability of our Motherland, and the might of our state is a reliable bulwark of peace.

Questions for the prize of the best listener:

1. What gas was first used as an agent?
2. What was the name of this gas?
3. Which substance has adsorbing properties?
4. Who invented the first gas mask?
5. Why is black powder called smoky?
6. What substances are currently used to produce more powerful explosives?
7. Who developed the production of smokeless powder?
8. What explosive did Alfred Nobel develop?
9. What properties of polymeric materials are used in the military-industrial complex?

Methodology.

1. Scientific and methodical journal "Chemistry at School" - M .: Centrhimpress, No. 4, 2009
2. Internet resources

A prominent role was played during the war years by the mathematicians of Moscow University. The development at Moscow University of one of the branches of mathematics - nomography, which studies the theory and methods of constructing special drawings-nomograms, was essential for solving some practical problems.

Nomograms can significantly save computation time and simplify the calculations of a number of tasks as much as possible. The work of a special nomographic bureau at the Research Institute of Mathematics of Moscow State University was headed by the famous Soviet geometer, N. A. Glagolev. Nomograms prepared by this bureau were used in navy, anti-aircraft artillery that defended Soviet cities from enemy air raids .

The outstanding mathematician Alexei Nikolaevich Krylov created a table of unsinkability, according to which it was possible to calculate how the flooding of certain compartments would affect the ship; what compartment numbers need to be flooded to eliminate the list, and how much this flooding can improve the stability of the ship.

The use of these tables has saved the lives of many people, helped to save huge material values. Special teams of mathematicians were engaged only in calculations. The most complex problems were solved only with the help of slide rules and an adding machine.

Working in the field of probability theory, our mathematicians determined the size of the caravan of ships and the frequency of their departure, at which losses would be the least.

In besieged Leningrad, the great mathematician Yakov Isidorovich Perelman delivered dozens of lectures to reconnaissance soldiers of the Leningrad Front, the Baltic Fleet and partisans on how to navigate the terrain without instruments.

Statistics in military production

Only during operations Kursk Bulge several million cartridges for machine guns and automobiles and many millions of artillery shells were used up.

There is one more aspect of the work of Soviet mathematicians to help the front, which cannot be kept silent about - this is work on the organization of the production process, aimed at increasing labor productivity and improving the quality of products. Here we encountered a huge number of problems that, by their very nature, needed mathematical methods and the efforts of mathematicians.

We will touch upon only one problem here, which has received the name of quality control of mass industrial products and quality management in the production process. This problem arose with all its acuteness for industry already in the first days of the war, since mass mobilization took place and skilled workers became soldiers. They were replaced by women and teenagers without qualifications and work experience.

One of the mathematicians recalls such a case: I had to be at one of the instrument-making factories in Sverdlovsk. He made extremely necessary instruments for aviation and artillery. At the machines, I saw almost only teenagers 13-15 years old. I also saw huge piles of defective parts. The craftsman who accompanied me explained that these parts were out of tolerance and therefore unsuitable for assembly.

But if it were possible to collect from these " screwed up» details suitable appliances, we would be able to immediately meet the needs of the month ahead. The master's words haunted me. As a result of communication with the engineers of the plant, the idea was born to divide the parts into 6 groups by size, which would already be possible to match with each other. The sixth group included parts completely unsuitable for assembly.

Studies have shown that the devices assembled in this way turned out to be quite suitable for the job. They had one drawback: if any part failed, then it could only be replaced by a part of the same group from which the device was assembled. But at that time, and for the purposes for which the devices were intended, it was possible to get by with the replacement of devices, and not parts. We managed to successfully use the blockages of parts spoiled by teenagers.

The task of quality control of manufactured products is as follows. Let it be made N product, they must meet certain requirements. Let's say the shells must be of a certain diameter that does not go beyond the segment , otherwise they will be unsuitable for firing. They must have a certain accuracy when shooting, otherwise there will be difficulties when shooting at a target.

And if the first task is easy to cope with - you need to measure the diameters of the manufactured shells and select those that do not meet the requirements, then with the other requirement the situation is much more complicated. Indeed, in order to check the accuracy of fire, it is necessary to carry out firing. And what will remain after the test? Tests must be carried out in such a way that the vast majority of products remain suitable for further use.

Faced with a basic requirement; by testing a small part of the products, learn to judge the quality of the entire batch. Methods that have been proposed for this purpose are called statistical. Their theory originates from one work of 1848 by academician M.V. Ostrogradsky. Later, Professor V. I. Romanovsky (1879 - 1954) in Tashkent and his students dealt with this task. During the war, A.N. was hired to improve them. Kolmogorov and his students.

The problem that has just been described has one defect in its very formulation: a batch of products has already been made and you need to say whether it can be accepted or should it be rejected? But, one asks, why make a batch in order to reject it later? Is it possible to organize the production process in such a way as to put a barrier to the manufacture of low-quality products already during manufacture?

Such methods have been proposed and are called statistical methods of shading control. From time to time, several (say five) freshly prepared products are taken from the machine and their quality parameters are measured. If all these parameters are within acceptable limits, then the production process continues, but if at least one product is out of tolerance, then a signal is given about the necessary readjustment of the machine or about changing the cutting tool. What deviation of the parameter from the nominal value is acceptable so that the entire batch is made with high quality? This requires special calculations.

After the end of the war, it turned out that similar studies were carried out by US mathematicians. They calculated that the results of their work brought billions of dollars in savings to the country during the war years. The same can be said about the work of Soviet mathematicians and engineers.

Conclusion

The results of the study of literary sources, analysis and systematization of materials showed that the hypothesis put forward by us turned out to be correct. The personal contribution of recognized scientists and only beginning mathematicians, teachers and students to the victory, who took part in hostilities, led detachments, were surrounded and blockaded, is great.

The works of mathematicians during the war years were of great importance. We must not forget that , that in many respects, by the end of the war, our tanks, planes, and artillery pieces had become more perfect than those that the enemy opposed to us.

We must not forget that at the end of the war we were forced to come to grips with the creation of our own atomic weapons, and for this we had to combine the intellectual efforts of physicists, chemists, technologists, mathematicians, metallurgists and independently go the way that the United States and its Western allies had already traveled. We went through it ourselves.

The victory in the Great Patriotic War became a historical milestone in the fate of mankind. The heroic impulse during the war years was continued in a rapid post-war reconstruction of the destroyed economy, the development of science, access to outer space, the creation of a nuclear shield and, ultimately, the transformation Soviet Union into a powerful superpower. In all this - greatness and historical meaning great minds of Russia!

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15." Math at school". M.: LLC " school press", 1986, No. 2

16." Math at school". M.: LLC " school press", 1993, No. 3 Sites of the network

1941… German troops approach Moscow. The Soviet troops lack uniforms, food and ammunition, but most importantly, there is a catastrophic lack of anti-tank weapons. In that critical period Enthusiast scientists come to the rescue: in two days, one of the military factories is setting up the production of bottles of KS (Kachugin-Solodovnikov). This uncomplicated chemical device destroyed German equipment not only at the beginning of the war, but even in the spring of 1945 in Berlin. Ampoules containing concentrated sulfuric acid, bartolet salt, and powdered sugar were attached to an ordinary bottle with an elastic band. Gasoline, kerosene or oil was poured into the bottle. As soon as such a bottle crashed against the armor, the components of the fuse entered into a chemical reaction, a strong flash occurred, and the fuel ignited. Also throughout the war, the Germans used incendiary bombs during raids on cities. The filling of such bombs was a mixture of powders: aluminum, magnesium and iron oxide, the detonator was mercury fulminate. When the bomb hit the roof, a detonator ignited the incendiary composition, and everything around began to burn. A hot incendiary composition cannot be extinguished with water, as hot magnesium reacts with water. Therefore, during German raids, teenagers were constantly on duty on the roofs of houses. During night raids, bombers dropped flares by parachute to illuminate the target. The composition of such a rocket included magnesium powder, compressed with special compositions, and a fuse from coal, bartholite salt and calcium salts. When the lighting rocket was launched high above the ground, the fuse burned with a bright flame, and as it descended, the light gradually became more even, bright and white - this was magnesium Nazi Germany in the death camps, gas chambers were used for the mass extermination of prisoners Zyklon B (a pesticide based on hydrocyanic acid), in addition to stationary gas chambers, gas wagons were also used - mobile models at a car base, where poisoning was carried out using carbon monoxide from an exhaust pipe in an impermeable body. Barrage balloons - special balloons used to damage aircraft in a collision with cables, shells or explosive charges suspended from cables. The balloons were filled with gas from gas holders. KS-18 (in some sources it appears as BHM1) is a Soviet medium-weight chemical armored car of the interwar period, created on the basis of the ZIS-6 truck. The machine was equipped with special chemical equipment of the KS-18 brand manufactured by the Kompressor plant and a tank with a capacity of 1000 liters. Depending on the substance filling the tank, the machine could perform various tasks - setting up smoke screens, degassing the area, or spraying chemical warfare agents. Infection of the area using the BKhM-1 combat chemical machine. USSR 1941 Mostly during the war, nitrocellulose (smokeless) gunpowder and less often black (smoky) gunpowder were used. The basis of the first is a high-molecular explosive nitrocellulose, and the second is a mixture (in%): potassium nitrate-75, carbon-15, sulfur-10. The formidable combat vehicles of those years - the legendary "Katyusha" and the famous IL-2 attack aircraft - were armed with rockets, which were fueled by ballistic (smokeless) gunpowder - one of the varieties of nitrocellulose gunpowder.