Employee in the workplace: observe must not be violated. Incorrect use of the participial and participial turnover

Depiction of the disease process - a neuron affected by inclusion bodies

// wikipedia.org

Causes of Huntington's disease

Huntington's disease is caused by the expansion of the trinucleotide CAG repeat in the gene encoding the protein huntingtin. Healthy people have fewer than 36 CAG repeats, the sequence looks like this: CCAGCAGCAGCAGCAGCAGCAGCAGCAGCAG... People with Huntington's disease have 36 or more of these repeats. When the CAG repeats are translated into an amino acid, the mutant huntingtin receives an abnormally long polyglutamine tract. This type of mutation is seen in eight other neurodegenerative diseases.

An elongated polyglutamine tract imparts toxic properties to huntingtin. They may be related to the tendency of the mutant protein to aggregate or to the fact that the mutant huntingtin interferes with the normal functioning of other proteins in the cell. This leads to neurodegeneration, especially noticeable in the caudate nucleus, putamen and.

The structure of the huntingtin protein in the human body with an artificially attached maltose-binding protein

// wikipedia.org

Symptoms of Huntington's disease: chorea

On the clinical level the patient exhibits abnormal erratic movements, cognitive decline (a form of dementia), and psychiatric abnormalities. The most obvious movement disorder seen in Huntington's disease is called chorea - abnormal short and irregular uncontrolled movements. Psychiatric symptoms of the disease, such as depression, are partly related to the biology of the disease and are not always the patient's response to its presence.

Huntington's disease usually manifests itself in the middle of life - by the age of 40. However, in cases with a very high recurrence rate, the disease may present in early childhood. In some cases, when the number of CAG repeats is close to 36, the disease manifests itself towards the end of life. The longer the trinucleotide repeat chain, the earlier signs of the disease appear. Symptoms of the disease are similar in all patients, although there may be some initial differences. The disease continues for 15–20 years until the death of the patient.

History of research into Huntington's disease

The disease is named after the American physician George Huntington, who described it in detail in 1872. "On the Chorea" is the first of two articles by Huntington in which he neatly described the signs of illness he observed in a family living on Long Island.

George Huntington (Huntington)

// wikipedia.org

However, there are earlier descriptions of Huntington's disease. James Guzella first made a connection between a disease-causing gene and the short arm of the fourth human chromosome. This is the first classic example of how you can find the location of a gene in a particular region of the chromosome, based on the study of families. Subsequent identification by Guzella and a major consortium and gene, disease-causing, allowed further accurate genetic testing and provided a key resource for disease modeling in cells and in animals, which is critical for developing treatments.

Treatment of Huntington's disease

Currently, there is no known treatment that alleviates human neurodegeneration, however, tetrabenazine may improve some movement disorders. It is believed that tetrabenazine does not reduce the rate of neurodegeneration in Huntington's disease. Chorea is caused by an excess of the neurotransmitter dopamine, tetrabenazine reduces its activity and reduces the symptom.

Numerous treatments for Huntington's disease are being developed at the mechanistic level. These include strategies to reduce expression of the mutant protein using antisense methods (in clinical trials) and activation. Antisense strategies involve nucleic acid oligonucleotides. They have complementary sequences to the Huntington's disease gene and reduce the amount of huntingtin synthesized. This strategy is quite rational, since the main driver of the disease is mutant huntingtin.

The prevalence of Huntington's disease

The disease affects 1 in 10,000 people in populations of European ancestry. Most often, Huntington's disease occurs in population isolates (in Venezuela), less often in some populations (for example, in the Japanese). Differences in the prevalence of the disease in populations are related to the number of gene carriers in these groups. This is a consequence of historical events, including random increases or decreases in HD carriers in population isolates.

Protective role of autophagy

In the lab, we have focused on the protective functions of autophagy in Huntington's disease and related neurodegenerative conditions. Autophagy is a process in which the internal components of a cell are delivered inside its lysosomes or vacuoles and are degraded in them.

We found that aggregating intracellular proteins (like mutated huntingtin) are substrates for autophagy. Importantly, we were the first to show that drugs that stimulate autophagy also stimulate the removal of toxic proteins. These are mutant huntingtin, mutant ataxin-3 (causing the most common spinocerebellar ataxia), alpha-synuclein (in Parkinson's disease), and wild-type and mutant tau proteins (associated with Alzheimer's disease and different types frontotemporal dementia).

We have extended our research from cell systems to demonstrating the effectiveness of such drugs in disease models in fruit flies, zebrafish and mice. This concept has subsequently been validated by many research groups in various neurodegenerative diseases.

Our task is to develop this strategy to the status of a clinical reality. We conducted a number of studies to identify new drugs that induce autophagy. My colleague Dr. Roger Barker and I have completed testing one of the identified drugs in patients with Huntington's disease.

Huntingtin aggregates in the mouse brain (marked with arrows)

Study of the functions of huntingtin and modern therapy

There are many current research projects, work on which contributes to the study of the disease. First, the most actively developed question is how mutant huntingtin causes disease. To answer it, you need to use the methods of structural biology, biophysics, genetic scanning, cell biology and animal models. Some groups are focusing on examining the disease at the biochemical level, trying to understand the structure of the mutant protein and its early aggregating species. Others use cellular, neural, and stem cell models to understand what the mutated protein is doing. They are complemented by animal studies: worms, fruit flies, zebrafish, mice, rats, and even primates and sheep. This is necessary to develop models that will allow us to understand the disease at the level of the organism. These models can be used to test therapeutic strategies.

Secondly, it is necessary to understand what the functions of normal huntingtin are - they are poorly understood. To shed light on these functions, research groups are using different approaches based on cellular modeling. This may affect therapeutic strategies and/or our overall understanding of how the cell works.

The third goal is to identify potential targets of therapy to alleviate the disease, improving existing treatment strategies. Various research groups are working on this issue; they use chemical and genetic scanning techniques to identify new targets and potential drugs.

The fourth goal is to identify and characterize biomarkers of disease progression to facilitate clinical trials. This will make it possible to track the benefits of any therapeutic strategy. It would be effective to have a very sensitive scale of disease progression with a short time interval. This is important for those who carry the disease gene but do not yet have obvious signs and symptoms. In this case, it will be possible to test the effects of potential therapeutic agents that slow down the development of the disease.

This is a translation of an article from our English edition of Serious Science. You can read the original version of the text here.

Participle and participial phrases are quite complex parts of speech, the use of which makes many mistakes. The article describes in detail the most common mistakes in the use of these speech structures with examples, ways to determine the participial or participle turnover in a sentence.

Mistakes in the use of adverbial phrases

Participial turnover- a speech construction, expressed by a gerund with dependent words, which names an additional action and answers questions - What do you do? Having done what? In the sentence it acts as a separate circumstance and is separated by commas.

The most common mistakes in the formation of sentences with adverbial turnover include:

The action of the participle does not apply to the subject (noun or pronoun in the nominative case).
Error examples: Brewing tea, his cup fell. Cleaning up the room Their vacuum cleaner is broken.
Participle turnover in an impersonal sentence.
Error examples: Watching the clouds I was calm. Out on the street he got hot.
Participle turnover in a sentence with a verb-predicate in the future tense.
Error examples: Having solved the problem, I'm going to rest. Visiting exhibitions, he will write an article on contemporary art.
A participial turnover cannot be a homogeneous member of a sentence with a participial turnover, a predicate or another member of the sentence (except for isolated circumstances and some adverbs).
Error examples: A small town shining with lights and surprising tourists was his favorite vacation spot. Tall palm trees rising to the sky and rustling leaves, sheltered travelers from the sun.

Incorrect use of participial phrases

Participial- a speech construction, expressed by a participle with dependent words, which names the attribute of an object by action and answers questions - Which? Which? Which? Which? It acts as a separate definition in the sentence and is separated by commas.

The most common mistakes in the use of participial phrases include:

How to determine which turnover is used in a sentence?

Cases of misuse of participial and adverbial phrases in Russian are usually associated with the fact that schoolchildren confuse these speech constructions. To determine whether a participial or participial turnover is used in a sentence, it is necessary to highlight its grammatical and syntactic features:

Find a participle or participle;
Put a question in circulation What do you do? Having done what? or Which? Which? Which? Which?);
Define lexical meaning turnover (action or sign);
Determine the syntactic role of turnover (circumstance or definition).

Examples:
Dostoyevsky's novel read in many countries, was translated into foreign languages ( read in many countries- participle turnover, answers the question - which?, agrees with the noun novel, in the sentence is a separate definition). Brewing tea she always adds some sugar ( making tea- adverbial turnover, answers the question - doing what?, depends on the verb-predicate adds, in the sentence is a separate circumstance).

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TYPES OF ERRORS MADE WHEN USING HOMOGENEOUS MEMBERS

7.6.1 Homogeneous predicates have the same dependent object.

Rule: With a normal, correct sentence structure, from each of the two homogeneous predicates (first and second), ONE GENERAL question is posed to the general addition, For example:

Guys addicted to (what?) and doing (what?) sports; Heroes of the story remember (about what?) and share their impressions (about what?) about the years of youth.

An error occurs if each of the predicates asks a DIFFERENT question to the GENERAL addition.

Example 1: I love (who? what?) and admire (who? what) my father.

The predicates “I love” and “I admire” have one dependent word “father”, which is in instrumental. It turned out that the addition of “father” correctly obeyed only the second predicate, since the verb “love” requires an accusative from the addition (I love whom? What? Father), therefore, this sentence is constructed incorrectly. To correctly express a thought, you need to change the sentence so that each predicate has a separate, case-appropriate addition, for example, like this: I love my father and admire him.

Example 2: The hero of the story believed (in what? what?) and strove (for what?) to his dream. Each of the verbs requires its own form of complement, it is impossible to pick up a common word, so we change the sentence again so that each predicate has a separate complement that matches the case, for example, like this: The hero of the story believed in his dream and strove for it.

Note for teachers: This type of error refers to control errors. AT written works such a mistake is usually made by students due to inattention: the first predicate is simply overlooked, and the mistake (when pointing to it) is easily corrected. A much more serious problem arises where the student does not realize that this or that case question cannot be raised from a given verb in principle.

7.6.2 Homogeneous members are connected by double unions not only ..., but also ...; if not ... then ... and others

Rule 1 In such proposals, attention should be paid to that parts of a double union must connect homogeneous members of the same series, For example: We were inspired not so much colorful places of this quiet city, how many the spirit of its inhabitants. Let's make a proposal: not so much O , how many O . The first part of the double union: not so much, is before the first EP, subject to "places" (we do not take into account the word "colorful"), the second part how many stands before the second subject "soulfulness".

Now let's break the sentence. Us not so much inspired by the colorful places of this quiet city, how many the spirit of its inhabitants. The first part of the union now refers to the predicate, and the second to the subject. This is where this type of error lies.

Let's look at some more examples:

Example 1: It can be argued that the mood was the main Not only for the creator of the poem, but also for his readers. That's right: each part comes before the OC, in this example, before the additions. Compare with an incorrectly constructed sentence: It can be argued that the mood was Not only the main thing for the creator of the poem, but also for his readers. The parts of the union are connected not by homogeneous members, but by the predicate and the addition.

Rule 2 It must also be remembered that the parts of a double union are permanent, they cannot be replaced by other words. Yes, the suggestion would be wrong. Merchants Stroganovs Not only boiled salt, as well as , since the union not only.. but also no. The union "not only" has the second part "but" and not "also". The correct version of this sentence would be: Merchants Stroganovs Not only boiled salt, but also mined iron and copper in their lands

This is how you can: (variants of the second part are given in brackets).

1) not only ... but also (and and; but even; and yet; and besides); not only not ... but (but rather, rather; on the contrary, on the contrary); not only; 2) not that ... but (a; simply; even, not even); even ... not that; not even ... not that; not even ... especially not;

3) moreover ... also; not only that ... also; little of; moreover, more than that; worse than that; and even.

7.6.3 In sentences with homogeneous members there is a generalizing word.

It must be taken into account that all homogeneous members must be in the same case as the generalizing word.

The grammatically correct sentence would be: I forgot about everything: about anxieties and sorrows, about sleepless nights, about sadness and longing. . The word [about] "everything" is generalizing, it is in the prepositional case. All OCs are in the same case.

Failure to comply with this rule is a gross violation of the syntactic norm: gifts:crossbows, sables and ornaments.

In this sentence, the generalizing word “gifts” is in the genitive case, and all homogeneous members (“crossbows, sable and jewelry”) are in the nominative case. Therefore, this sentence is incorrect. Correct option: Soon the nobleman began to inspect the brought gifts: crossbows, sables and ornaments.

7.6.5 Using different syntactic elements of a sentence as homogeneous members

There is a strict grammatical rule that prescribes which elements can and cannot be combined into homogeneous members.

We list the cases in which this rule is violated.

If the proposal is combined into homogeneous

- form of the noun and the infinitive form of the verb: I love chess and swimming, I like to embroider and needlework, I'm afraid of the dark and being alone and similar;

- different forms of the nominal part of the predicate: sister was upset and worried, she was younger and kinder and similar;

- participle turnover and subordinate clause : The main characters of the story are people who are not afraid of difficulties and who are always true to their word.; I do not like people who change their attitude and who do not hide it. and similar;

Participle and participle turnover: Loving their work and striving to do it well, the builders have achieved excellent results. and similar;

that is - grammar mistake. Note that such violations are very common in written work, therefore, like the entire task 7, this part is of great practical importance.

The following types of errors occurred in assignments prior to 2015.

7.6.4 Different prepositions may be used for homogeneous terms.

In one row of OC, when listing, it is possible to use prepositions, for example: in theatre, and on the exhibition VDNKh, and on theRed Square. As you can see, this sentence uses prepositions in and on the, and that's right. It would be a mistake to use the same preposition for all the words in this series: During my three stays in Moscow, I visited and in theater, and exhibition VDNH, and Red Square. You can't be "in VDNKh" and "in Red Square." So the rule is: you cannot use a common preposition for all members of the series if, in terms of meaning, this preposition does not fit at least one of the SPs.

Example with an error: Crowds of people were everywhere: on the streets, squares, squares. Before the word "squares" it is necessary to add the preposition "in," since this word is not used with the preposition "on". Correct option: Crowds of people were everywhere: in the streets, squares, squares.

7.6.6 Connection in one row of specific and generic concepts

For example, in a sentence: The package contained oranges, juice, bananas, fruits a logical error has been made. "Oranges" and "bananas" are specific concepts in relation to the word "fruit" (that is, common), therefore, they cannot stand with it in the same row of homogeneous members. Correct option: The package contained juice and fruits: bananas, oranges.

Another error example: Adults, children and schoolchildren came to the meeting with the famous artist. The words "children" and "schoolchildren" cannot be made homogeneous.

7.6.7 The use of logically incompatible concepts in one series of homogeneous terms

For example, in a sentence The mourners walked with bags and sad faces a mistake is felt: “faces” and “bags” cannot be homogeneous.

Such intentional violation can act as a stylistic device: Only Masha, heating and winter did not sleep(K. G. Paustovsky). When the frost and mother allowed him to stick his nose out of the house, Nikita went to wander around the yard alone.(A.N. Tolstoy). Only if this is acceptable for a work of art of the level of Tolstoy or Chekhov (they are not on the exam, they can joke, play with words!), Then such humor will not be appreciated either in written works or in task 7.

B) the violation of the connection between the subject and the predicate in sentence 6 consists in the fact that, with the subject CTO, the predicate must be put in singular

Here is the correct spelling: Everyone who studied in the math class passed the test with excellent marks.

Rule 7.3.1 paragraph

7.3. Agreement of the predicate with the subject

INTRODUCTION

Subject - main member suggestions, which is consistent with its predicate according to the laws of grammar.

The subject and predicate usually have the same grammatical forms of number, gender, person, for example: Clouds are rushing, clouds are winding; Invisible moon Illuminates the flying snow; The sky is cloudy, the night is cloudy.

In such cases, we can talk about the agreement of the predicate with the subject. However, the correspondence of the grammatical forms of the main members of the sentence is not necessary, there may be an incomplete correspondence of the grammatical forms of the main members: My whole life has been a guarantee of a faithful date with you.- correspondence of number forms, but different forms of gender; Your destiny is endless chores- inconsistency of number forms.

The grammatical connection of the main members of the sentence is considered as coordination. This grammatical connection is wider and freer than agreement. Different words can enter into it, their morphological properties do not have to correspond to each other.

When coordinating the main members of the sentence, the problem arises of choosing the forms of the number of the predicate, when the gender / number of the subject is difficult to determine. This section of the "Reference" is devoted to consideration of these issues.

7.3.1. In a complex sentence, pronouns act as subjects

If in a sentence (and not necessarily in NGN!) a pronoun is used as a subject, then you need to know a number of rules that prescribe how to correctly coordinate the predicate with it.

A) If the subject is expressed by the pronouns WHO, WHAT, NOBODY, NOTHING, SOMEONE, SOMEONE, WHOEVER, then the predicate is put in the singular form: For example: [Those ( who neglect the opinions of others) risk being left alone].

EXAMPLE 1 (Whoever comes), [everyone will know].

EXAMPLE 2 [No one knew (that the lesson was postponed).]

EXAMPLE 1 (Whoever comes, [everyone will know].

EXAMPLE 2 [No one knew (that the lesson was postponed).]

B) If the subject is expressed by the plural pronoun TE, ALL, the predicate is put in the plural form. If the subject is expressed by the singular pronouns TOT, TA, TO, the predicate is put in the singular form. For example: [ THOSE (who graduated with honors) are more likely to enter a university free of charge].

This proposal is built on the following model:

[Those (who + the predicate), ... the predicate ...]. And this is the most common model in which it is proposed to find an error. Let's analyze the structure of a complex sentence: in the main sentence, the pronoun “those” is the subject, pl. h; "have" -predicate, pl. This is in line with rule B.

Now attention to the subordinate clause: “who” is the subject, “finished” is the predicate in the singular. This is in accordance with rule A.

Consider sentences with a grammatical error:

EXAMPLE 1 [Everyone (who purchased tickets at the box office) must independently check in for the flight].

EXAMPLE 2. [Those (who have seen the northern lights at least once) will no longer be able to forget this extraordinary phenomenon].

EXAMPLE 3. [Those (who are planning a vacation for the summer) buy tickets in the spring].

Here are the corrected versions:

EXAMPLE 1 [Everyone (who purchased tickets at the box office) MUST check in for the flight on their own].

EXAMPLE 2. [Those (who have seen the northern lights at least once) will no longer be able to forget this extraordinary phenomenon].

In examples 1 and 2, the error is easy to see: it is enough to throw out the subordinate clause. In the following example, the error often goes unnoticed.

EXAMPLE 3. [Those ( who are planning a vacation for the summer) buy tickets in the spring].

C) If the subject is expressed by the phrase ONE OF .., EACH OF ..., NONE OF .. then the predicate is put in the singular form. If the subject is expressed by the phrase MANY FROM ..., SOME FROM ..., ALL FROM .. then the predicate is put in the plural form. For example: [None of those (who won a prize) wanted to go to the republican competition].

Consider sentences with a grammatical error:

EXAMPLE 4 [Many of those (who have been to Mikhailovsky Park) were amazed at the size of the old estate trees].

EXAMPLE 5 [Each of us (who has been in a similar situation) certainly thought about ways out of it].

EXAMPLE 6 [Each of the parties (which presented its project) defended its advantages over other projects].

Here are the corrected versions:

EXAMPLE 4 [Many of those (who have been to Mikhailovsky Park) were amazed at the size of the old manor trees].

EXAMPLE 5 [Each of us (who has been in a similar situation) certainly thought about ways out of it].

EXAMPLE 6 [Each side, (who presented her project), defended its advantages over other projects].

D) If the sentence contains a turnover of WHO, HOW NOT .., the predicate is put in the singular masculine form. For example: Who, if not parents, SHOULD teach children the ability to communicate?

This turnover can be considered as clarifying, see other examples in clause 7.3.3, part B.

Consider sentences with a grammatical error:

EXAMPLE 7 Who, if not we, should worry about the cleanliness of our cities?

EXAMPLE 8 Who, if not your mother, taught you a model of endurance and love of life?

Here are the corrected versions:

EXAMPLE 7 Who, if not us, should worry about the cleanliness of their cities?

EXAMPLE 8 Who, if not your mother, taught you a model of endurance and love of life?

7.3.2 Predicate coordination with subject, expressed word or combination of words with the meaning of quantity

When coordinating the main members of the sentence, the problem arises of choosing the forms of the number of the predicate, when the subject points to many objects, but appears in the singular.

A) The role of the subject is the collective name of nouns and words close to them in meaning.

Collective nouns designate a set of homogeneous objects or living beings as an indivisible whole: FOLIAGE, DUBNYAK, ASPEN, CHILDREN, STUDENTS, TEACHER, PROFESSORIES, PEASANTS. They have the form of only the singular, are not combined with quantitative numbers and with words denoting units of measure, but can be combined with the words a lot / little or how much: LITTLE RELATIONS, A LITTLE LEAVES, A LOT OF MOSHKORA.

The words PEOPLE, PACK, ARMY, GROUP, CROWD can also be attributed to them in terms of the meaning of collectiveness; THOUSAND, MILLION, HUNDRED; TROIKA, PAIR; DARKNESS, DEEP, LOTS AND OTHERS

The subject, expressed by a collective noun, requires the predicate to be set only in the singular form:

For example: The children frolicked in the courtyard of the house; young people often take the initiative.

The subject expressed by a noun like GROUP, CROWD also requires setting the predicate only in the singular form:

For example: A group of festival participants shared their impressions; a trio of horses rushed under the windows

Consider sentences with a grammatical error:

EXAMPLE 1. Over the past three years, the leadership of the Central and regional markets have repeatedly filed complaints with higher organizations.

EXAMPLE 3. A couple of lovers were sitting on a bench.

Here are the corrected versions:

EXAMPLE 1. Over the past three years, the leadership of the Central and regional markets have repeatedly filed complaints with higher organizations.

EXAMPLE 3. A couple of lovers were sitting on a bench.

B) The subject is a collective noun with a quantitative meaning

Nouns MOST, MINORITY, Plenty, ROW, PART, despite grammatical form singular, denote not one object, but many, and therefore the predicate can take not only the form of the singular, but also the plural. For example: On this pond ... an innumerable number of ducks were hatched and kept; Many hands are knocking on all the windows from the street, and someone is breaking on the door. Which form would you prefer?

The subject, which has in its composition the collective nouns MOST, MINORITY, Plenty, ROW, PART, requires the predicate to be set only in the singular form, if:

a) there are no dependent words from the collective noun

Part went on vacation, and part remained; many scatteredAxis, a minority remainedAxis

b) the collective noun has a singular dependent word

With a subject that has in its composition the words MOST, MINORITY, PLENTY, SERIES, PART, you can put the predicate both in the plural form and in the plural, if the noun has a dependent word in the plural:

Most students passed the test; a number of participants demonstrated excellent knowledge.

Some of the books were purchased for the library; a number of objects delivered ahead of schedule

The plural of the predicate in such constructions usually indicates the activity of the actors.

Consider the cases in which the use of the plural of the predicate is allowed and permissible.

The predicate is put
in the singular, if	plural, if
The activity of animated persons is not emphasized: Part of the conference participants did not accept participation in the discussion	Activity is highlighted. The subject is animate. Most writers strongly rejected* editor fixes. Most students are good answered on the lesson.*
Activity is not emphasized, the passive participle indicates that the object itself does not perform the action. Row of workersattracted to responsibility.	Activity is emphasized in the presence of participial or participle turnover.
Activity is not emphasized, subject is inanimate Most Items lay* in disarray* A number of workshops manufactures* parts for our workshop*.	Activity is also indicated by a number of homogeneous members: Majority editors, proofreaders, authors, reviewers studied* these documents. Most editors got order, got acquainted with its content and done necessary conclusions.* A number of homogeneous predicates.

Nevertheless, it must be taken into account that the singular form of the predicate is more in line with the tradition of book-writing styles and the use of the plural form of the predicate must be clearly justified. Mistake in USE assignments there will be an unreasonable setting of the predicate in the plural.

Consider sentences with a grammatical error:

EXAMPLE 4 Most of the tasks were not done correctly enough.

EXAMPLE 5 A number of events will be held in Yelets, Voronezh, Orel.

EXAMPLE 6 A lot of poems by this author were published in the series "Children's Library"

Here are the corrected versions:

EXAMPLE 4 Most of the tasks were not completed correctly. The predicate in the form of a passive participle indicates the passivity of the actor.

EXAMPLE 5 A number of events will be held in Yelets, Voronezh, Orel. Events cannot act on their own, so the predicate must be used in the singular.

EXAMPLE 6 Many poems by this author were published in the Children's Library series.. The predicate in the form of a passive participle indicates the passivity of the actor.

C) The combination of a numeral with a noun acts as a subject

With a subject expressed by a quantitative-nominal combination, the same problem arises: in what number is it better to use the predicate. In Chekhov we find: Some three soldiers stood side by side at the very descent and were silent; He had two sons. L. Tolstoy preferred the following forms: Three peasants and a woman sat in the sleigh; Two feelings fought in his soul - good and evil.

Note: In the USE assignments, such cases do not occur, since there is a high possibility of incorrect classification of the type of error - such cases can be attributed to an error in the use of a numeral. Therefore, we confine ourselves to remarks of a general nature and note the most gross errors made in written works.

With a subject that has in its composition a numeral or a word with the meaning of quantity, you can put the predicate both in the plural form and in the singular:

Five years have passed; ten graduates have chosen our institute

Use different forms depends on the meaning that the predicate brings to the sentence, activity and generality of action is emphasized by the plural. number.

The predicate is usually put in the singular if

In the subject, a numeral ending in "one":

Twenty-one students of our institute are included in the city's volleyball team, but Twenty-two (three, four, five...) students of our institute are members of the city's volleyball team

If the message fixes this or that fact, the result, or when the message is given an impersonal character:

Twenty-two suits sold; Three or four students will be transferred to another class.

The predicate is expressed by a verb with the meaning of being, presence, existence, position in space:

Three kingdoms stood before her. The room had two windows with wide window sills. Three windows of the room faced north

Wrong: Three kingdoms stood. There were two windows with wide window sills in the room. Three windows of the room faced north.

A single number, which creates an idea of a single whole, is used to designate a measure of weight, space, time:

Thirty-four kilograms of drying oil will be required to paint the roof. Twenty-five kilometers remained until the end of the journey. A hundred years have passed. However, already, it seems, eleven o'clock struck. Five months have elapsed since

Wrong: Thirty-four kilograms of drying oil will be required to paint the roof; Twenty-five kilometers remained until the end of the journey. A hundred years have passed. However, already, it seems, eleven o'clock has struck. Five months have elapsed since then.

With a subject expressed by a complex noun, the first part of which is the numeral sex-, the predicate is usually put in the singular, and in the past tense - in the middle gender, For example: half an hour will pass, half a year has flown by, half the city participated in the demonstration.

Wrong: half the class participated in the competition, half an hour will pass

7.3.3 Coordination between subject and verb separated from each other

Between the subject and the predicate there may be secondary separate members sentences specifying members, subordinate clauses. In these cases, it is necessary to strictly observe general rule: the predicate and the subject must agree.

Let's consider special cases.

A) Coordination of the subject and the compound nominal predicate in a sentence built according to the “noun. is a noun.”

Note for the teacher: this type of error in the SPP is noted in his manual "How to get 100 USE points" (2015) by I.P. Tsybulko, while in the "Handbook of Spelling and Literary Editing" by D. Rosenthal, such an error is called a construction shift in a complex sentence.

The nominal part of the predicate in a sentence built according to the noun + noun model must be in the nominative case.

For example: [First, (what you should learn) is highlighting the basis of the sentence].

The grammatical basis of the main clause consists of the subject first and predicate selection. Both words are in the nominative case.

And this is what it looks like proposal with an error: [The first (what should be learned) is the selection of the basis of the sentence]. Under the influence of the subordinate clause, the predicate received the genitive case, which is a mistake.

Consider sentences with a grammatical error:

EXAMPLE 1 [The main thing (what you need to pay attention to) is the ideological side of the work]

EXAMPLE 2 [The last thing (to stop) is the composition of the book]

EXAMPLE 3 [The most important (what is worth striving for) is the fulfillment of a dream]

Here are the corrected versions:

EXAMPLE 1 The main thing (what you need to pay attention to) is the ideological side of the work]

EXAMPLE 2 [The last (what should be stopped) is the composition of the book]

EXAMPLE 3 [The most important (what is worth striving for) is the fulfillment of a dream]

B). Coordination of the predicate with the subject, in which there are clarifying members.

In order to clarify the subject, sometimes they use clarifying (explaining turns), connecting members offers, isolated additions. Yes, in the proposal Competition Jury, including representatives of a cosmetic company selected from the audience, could not determine the winner the highlighted turnover is a connecting one(in other manuals it is called clarifying).

The presence in the sentence of any member that specifies the meaning of the subject does not affect the number of the predicate. Such turns are attached with the words: EVEN, ESPECIALLY, INCLUDING, FOR EXAMPLE; EXCEPT, INCLUDING, INCLUDING and the like. For example: Editorial Board, including the editors of the Internet portal, is in favor of reorganization.

Consider sentences with a grammatical error:

EXAMPLE 4. The entire team, including dancers and jugglers, spoke out in favor of participating in the competition.

EXAMPLE 5. The whole family, and especially the younger children, was looking forward to the arrival of their grandfather.

EXAMPLE 6. The school administration, including members of the parent committee, supported holding an extended parent meeting.

Here are the corrected versions:

The mistake is easy to see if you throw out the subordinate clause.

EXAMPLE 4 The whole team, including dancers and jugglers, spoke out in favor of participating in the competition.

EXAMPLE 5 The whole family, and especially the younger children, was looking forward to the arrival of their grandfather.

EXAMPLE 6 The school administration, including members of the parent committee, advocated holding an expanded parent meeting.

7.3.4 Coordination of the predicate with the subject, the gender or number of which is difficult to determine.

For the correct connection of the subject with the predicate, it is very important to know the gender of the noun.

A) Certain categories or groups of nouns have difficulty in determining the gender or number.

gender and number indeclinable nouns, abbreviations, words-conventional names and a number of other words are determined by special rules. For the correct coordination of such words with the predicate, you need to know their morphological features.

Ignorance of these rules cause errors: Sochi became the capital of the Olympics; cocoa is cold; shampoo is over; the university announced the enrollment of students, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs reported

Need: Sochi has become the capital of the Olympics; cocoa has cooled down; shampoo is over, the university announced a set of students, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs reported

Nouns, the gender/number of which is difficult to determine, are discussed in the section. After studying the above material, you will be able to successfully complete not only task 6, but also 7.

Consider sentences with errors

EXAMPLE 1. The parcel was sent at the beginning of the week.

In the sentence, the word "package" is the subject, female. The predicate "was sent" is in the masculine. This is mistake. We fix: The parcel was sent at the beginning of the week

EXAMPLE 2. The tulle harmonized perfectly with the color of the upholstered furniture.

In the sentence, the word "tulle" is the subject, masculine. The predicate "approached" is in the feminine. This is mistake. We fix: The tulle harmonized perfectly with the color of the upholstered furniture.

EXAMPLE 3. The UN has met for another meeting.

In the sentence, the word "UN" is the subject, feminine (organization). The predicate "gathered" is on average. This is mistake. We fix: The UN met for a regular meeting.

EXAMPLE 4. Foreign Ministry announced participation in the meeting

In the sentence, the word "MIA" is the subject, it does not change. When decrypted, we get "Ministry

Foreign Affairs". At the same time, we recall that given word belongs to the masculine gender. The predicate "reported" is on average. This is mistake. We fix: The Foreign Ministry announced its participation in the meeting.

EXAMPLE 5. Moskovsky Komsomolets published a rating best universities countries.

In the sentence, the phrase "Moskovsky Komsomolets" is the subject, this is a conditional Russian name, a masculine word, like the word "Komsomolets". The predicate "printed" is in the feminine. This is mistake. We correct: Moskovsky Komsomolets published a rating of the best universities in the country.

EXAMPLE 6. Tbilisi attracts tourists .

In the sentence, the word "Tbilisi" is the subject, it is an invariable code name. It is a masculine word, like the word "city". The predicate "attract" is plural. This is mistake. We fix: Tbilisi attracts tourists.

B) Coordination of the predicate with the subject with the meaning of the profession

With a masculine noun denoting a profession, position, rank, etc., the predicate is put in the masculine gender, regardless of the gender of the person in question. For example: the teacher made a report, the director called an employee

With proposals will be wrong, in which the teacher made a report, the director called an employee .

Note: if there is a person's own name, especially a surname, in which the indicated words act as applications, the predicate is consistent with the proper name: Teacher Sergeeva gave a lecture. More on this point below, 7.3.5

7.3.5 Subject is appendix

An application is a definition expressed by a noun that agrees with the word being defined in the case: city (what?) Sochi, bird (what?) hummingbird, website (what?) "ReshuEGE"

As a general rule, the predicate agrees with the subject, and the presence of an application in the form of a different kind or number in the last does not affect agreement.

For example: The plant, this grand colossus, seemed to be a ship of unheard-of dimensions too. The suggestion would be wrong. The plant, this grandiose colossus, it seemed, was also a ship of unheard of dimensions. .

If the subject has an application, then, first of all, it is necessary to find out which of the words is the subject and which is the application, and then put the predicate in one way or another.

Table 1. Application and subjects are written separately. When combining a generic name and a specific or specific and individual subject, the word denoting a broader concept is considered, and the predicate is consistent with it. Here are some examples:

Application is a common noun:

the rose flower smelled marvelously; the oak tree has grown; kharcho soup is cooked

Application - proper noun

the Dnieper river has flooded; newspaper "Moscow's comsomolets" came out; Barbos dog barked

Exception: last names of people. In pairs, engineer Svetlova reported, Doctor of Science Zvantseva came out, head teacher Marina Sergeevna noted proper nouns are subject.

Table 2. The subject is compound noun, forms terms, in which one part resembles an application in function. In these cases, the leading (defined) word is the word that expresses a broader concept or specifically designates an object.

The predicate agrees with the first word, both words change

an armchair-bed stood in the corner; the factory-laboratory fulfilled the order; invoice issued in a timely manner; theater-studio brought up a lot of actors; attention was attracted by a table-poster; romance song became very popular

The predicate agrees with the second word, the first word does not change:

cafeteria is open(dining room is a broader concept); vending machine open(in this combination, the part of the diner acts as the bearer of a specific meaning); raincoat tent lay(tent in the form of a raincoat, not a raincoat in the form of a tent); "Roman-newspaper" was published in large circulation(newspaper is a broader name).

EXAMPLE 1 ice cream cake cut into equal pieces .

The compound noun "ice cream cake" after the main, more general word "cake" is masculine, therefore: Ice cream cake cut into equal pieces

EXAMPLE 2 The story "Children of the Underground" was written by V.G. Korolenko. .

The conditional name is an application, so you need to coordinate the predicate with the word "story": The story "Children of the Underground" was written by V.G. Korolenko.

EXAMPLE 3 A tiny dog, quite a puppy, suddenly barked loudly. .

The subject is the word "dog", it is feminine, therefore: A tiny dog, quite a puppy, suddenly barked loudly.

EXAMPLE 4 Yesterday the young teacher Petrov gave his first lecture. .

The subject is the surname "Petrova", it is feminine, therefore: Yesterday, the young teacher Petrova gave her first lecture.

A) The sentence has homogeneous subjects and one predicate

If the predicate refers to several subjects, not connected by unions or connected by a connecting union, then the following forms of coordination apply:

The predicate after homogeneous subjects is usually plural:

Industry and agriculture in Russia are steadily developing.

The predicate that precedes homogeneous subjects usually agrees with the nearest of them:

In the village there was a clatter and screams

If there are divisive or opposing unions between the subjects, then the predicate is put in the singular.

Experienced fear or instant fright in a minute seems both funny, and strange, and incomprehensible. Not you, but fate is to blame.

Consider sentences with errors:

EXAMPLE 1 Passion for sports and a tough daily routine did their job. .

Two subjects, the predicate comes after a series of homogeneous members, so it must be in the plural: Passion for sports and a tough daily routine did their job.

EXAMPLE 2 Not reason, but fear suddenly took possession of me. .

Two subjects, with the union a, the predicate must therefore be in the singular: Not reason, but fear suddenly took possession of me.

EXAMPLE 3 In the distance, the familiar noise and loud voices could be heard. .

Two subjects, the predicate is in front of a number of homogeneous members, therefore it should be in the singular: In the distance there was a familiar noise and loud voices.

B) The combination in the subject of a noun in the nominative case with a noun in the instrumental case (with the preposition c) like “brother and sister”

The setting of the predicate in the plural or singular depends on what meaning is given to the phrase: joint action or separate.

When combined in the subject of a noun in the nominative case with a noun in the instrumental case (with the preposition c) like “brother and sister”, the predicate is put:

in plural, if both named objects (persons) act as equal action producers(both are subject);

Pasha and Petya had been waiting for their mother's return for a long time and were very worried.

in the singular, if the second object (person) accompanies the main producer of the action ( is an addition):

The mother and child went to the clinic. Nikolai and his younger sister came later than everyone else.

Only in the singular in the presence of the words TOGETHER, TOGETHER:

My father left the city with his mother.

Only in the singular with the subject expressed by the pronoun I, YOU

I will come with a friend; you had a fight with your mom

Consider sentences with errors:

EXAMPLE 1 My brother and his friends went to the beach. .

With the word "together" the predicate cannot be plural: My brother and his friends went to the beach.

EXAMPLE 2 Ruslan and I will come to class today. .

With the subject I (+ someone else), the predicate cannot be plural: Ruslan and I will come to class today. Or: Ruslan and I will come to class today.

EXAMPLE 3 You and your sister will live in this room. .

With the subject you (+ someone else), the predicate cannot be plural: You and your sister will live in this room.Or: You and your sister will live in this room..

C) the incorrect construction of a sentence with indirect speech in sentence 7 is that when trying to convey indirect speech, the pronouns and related verbs remained unchanged.

Here is the correct spelling: Tonya solemnly promised that she would not betray me to anyone.

Rule 7.9.2 paragraph

7.9 INCORRECT SENTENCE CONSTRUCTION WITH ANOTHER SPEECH

In this task, students' ability to correctly build sentences with quotations and indirect speech is checked: out of 9 sentences on the right, you need to find one that contains an error.

The rules below will deal with quoting and indirect speech, these are very close, but not the same units.

In everyday life, especially often in oral speech, we often use the transmission of someone's words on our own behalf, the so-called indirect speech.

Sentences with indirect speech are complex sentences consisting of two parts (the words of the author and indirect speech), which are connected by conjunctions what, as if to, or pronouns and adverbs who, what, what, how, where, when, why etc., or a particle whether.

For example: I was told that it was my brother. She demanded that I look into her eyes and asked if I remembered minnows, our little quarrels, picnics. We talked about how the birds I caught live.

Sentences with indirect speech serve to convey someone else's speech on behalf of the speaker, and not the one who actually said it. Unlike sentences with direct speech, they convey only the content of someone else's speech, but cannot convey all the features of its form and intonation.

Let's try to restore sentences: from indirect speech we will translate into sentences with direct speech:

I was told that it was my brother. - They told me: "It was your brother."

She demanded that I look into her eyes and asked if I remembered minnows, our little quarrels, picnics. - She said: "Look into my eyes!" And then she demanded: “Do you remember minnows, our meetings, our quarrels, picnics? Do you remember?

A friend asked: “How do the birds you caught live?”

As can be seen from the examples, the sentences coincide only in meaning, but the verbs, pronouns, and conjunctions change. Let us consider in detail the rules for translating direct speech into indirect speech: this is very important both for writing an essay and for completing task 7.

7.9.1 Basic rule:

when replacing sentences with direct speech with sentences with indirect speech, special attention should be paid to the correct use of personal and possessive pronouns, as well as related verbs, since in indirect speech we convey other people's words on our own behalf.

Proposal with direct speech	Well-formed indirect speech	Incorrectly formed indirect speech
The father said: I I'll be back late."	Father said that is he true et it's late.	Father said that I would return late.
We asked: "A you where did you come from?"	We asked where is he I arrived.	We asked where you came from.
I confessed: Your Michael took the books.	I confessed that them Michael took the books.	I confessed that "Michael took your books."
The children screamed: We not guilty!"	The children screamed that they not guilty.	The children screamed that "we are not to blame."
We draw attention to that that quotation marks can help to detect an error, but you cannot focus on them alone, since quotation marks are used both in the application and in sentences with quotations without errors, and not in all tasks.

7.9.2 There are a number of additional rules

related to the peculiarity of translating direct speech into indirect speech, their observance is also checked in task 7.

a) If direct speech is a declarative sentence,

what. Example: The secretary replied: "I complied with the request." – The secretary replied that he complied with the request. Pronoun changed!

b) If direct speech is an interrogative sentence,

then when replacing it with a subordinate clause, the role of subordinating conjunctions is performed interrogative pronouns, adverbs, particles who stood in direct question. A question mark is not used after an indirect question. Example: "What did you manage to accomplish?" the teacher asked the students. The teacher asked the students what they managed to do. Pronoun changed!

c) When in direct speech - an interrogative sentence there are no interrogative pronouns, adverbs, particles,

when replacing it with an indirect one, a particle is used for communication whether. Example: "Are you correcting the text?" the secretary asked impatiently. The secretary asked impatiently if we were correcting the text. Pronoun changed!

d) If direct speech is an exclamatory sentence with a call to action,

then it is replaced by an explanatory subordinate clause with the union to. Example: The father shouted to his son: “Come back!” The father shouted to his son to come back. Pronoun added!

e) Particles and words that are not grammatically related to the members of the sentence

(addresses, interjections, introductory words, complex sentences) and contained in direct speech, are omitted when replacing it with indirect speech. Example: “Ivan Petrovich, make an estimate for the next quarter,” the director asked the chief accountant. The director asked the chief accountant to draw up an estimate for the next quarter.

7.9.3. Special citation rules.

When writing essays, it often becomes necessary to quote either the desired fragment of the source text, or to quote the statement from memory, organically including the quote in the sentence. There are three ways to introduce a quote into your speech:

1) using direct speech, in compliance with all punctuation marks, for example: Pushkin said: “All ages are submissive to love” or “All ages are submissive to love,” Pushkin said.. This is the easiest way, but it is not always convenient. Such proposals will meet as true!

2) using subordinate clause, that is, using unions, for example: Pushkin said that "all ages are submissive to love". Pay attention to the changed punctuation marks. This way no different from the transmission of indirect speech.

3) a quote can be included in your text using introductory words, For example: As Pushkin said, "all ages are submissive to love".

Note that in Quote can't be changed.: what is enclosed in quotation marks is transmitted absolutely exactly, without any distortion. If it is necessary to include only part of the quote in your text, special characters (ellipsis, various types of brackets) are used, but this is not relevant to this task, since there are no punctuation errors in task 7.

Let's consider some features of quoting.

a) How to avoid an error if there is a quote with a pronoun?

On the one hand, quotes cannot be changed, on the other hand, a pronoun cannot be left. If you just insert a quote, there will be errors: Napoleon once remarked that " I I can lose this battle, but I can't lose a minute". Or like this: In his memoirs, Korolenko wrote that he always " I I saw undoubted intelligence in the face of Chekhov.

Both proposals require:

firstly, replace the pronoun I with OH, exclude the pronoun from the quote:

secondly, to change the verbs, connecting them with new pronouns and also to exclude from the quote, so we know that nothing can be changed.

With such changes, quotes will certainly “suffer”, and if we can keep the second sentence in this form: Korolenko wrote that is he always "saw in the face of Chekhov undoubted intelligence", then Napoleon's statement cannot be saved. Therefore, we boldly remove the quotes and replace the quote with indirect speech: Napoleon once remarked that he can lose this battle, but not maybe lose a minute.

b) Of particular note are cases of erroneous combination of two ways of introducing a quote into a sentence,

which causes a grammatical error. As we already know, a quotation can be entered either as a subordinate clause or with the help of introductory words. Here's what happens when two methods are combined:

Wrong: According to Maupassant, what"Love is as strong as death, but as fragile as glass".

Right: According to Maupassant, "love is as strong as death, but as fragile as glass."

Wrong: As P. I. Tchaikovsky stated, what"Inspiration is born only from work and during work".

Right: As P. I. Tchaikovsky stated, “inspiration is born only from labor and during labor.”

Thus, we formulate the rule: when using introductory words, the union is not used.

c) In the works of students there are also cases when a quote is introduced using introductory words,

but direct speech is made out as a separate sentence. This is not only a violation of punctuation, it is a violation of the rules for constructing a sentence with a quote.

Wrong: According to Antoine de Saint-Exupery: “Only the heart is vigilant: you cannot see the most important thing with your eyes.”

Right: According to Antoine de Saint-Exupery, “only the heart is vigilant: you cannot see the most important thing with your eyes.”

Wrong: According to L. N. Tolstoy: "Art is the highest manifestation of power in man".

Right: According to Leo Tolstoy, "art is the highest manifestation of power in man."

D) a violation in the construction of a sentence with a participial turnover in sentence 3 is caused by the fact that the participle "convinced" does not agree with its main word. Yes, and the whole sentence needs to be restructured to be more understandable.

Here is the correct spelling: Bryusov, (what?) Convinced that the future belongs to art, expressing the experiences of a bright and independent personality, is fond of decadence.

Rule paragraph 7.1.1-7.1.2

7.1. USE OF PARTICIPIAL TERMS

INTRODUCTION

Participle turnover is a participle with dependent words. For example, in the sentence Graduates who successfully pass the exam become applicants

word Graduates- main word

surrendered - communion,

those who passed (how?) successfully and passed (what?) the exam are participle dependent words.

Thus, the participial turnover in this sentence is - successfully passed the exam. If you change the word order and write the same sentence differently by placing a turnover before main word ( Successfully passed the exam Graduates become applicants), only the punctuation will change, and the turnover remains unchanged.

Very important: before starting work with task 7 for finding errors in a sentence with a participle, we advise you to solve and study task 16, which tests the ability to put commas with correctly constructed participial and adverbial phrases.

The purpose of the task is to find one such sentence in which grammatical norms are violated when using participle turnover. Of course, the search must begin with finding the sacrament. Remember that the participle you are looking for must certainly be in full form: the short form never forms a participle, but is a predicate.

To successfully complete this task, you need to know:

rules for coordinating the participle and the main (or defined) word;
the rules for the location of the participial turnover in relation to the main word;
tense and type of participles (present, past; perfect, imperfect);
participle pledge (active or passive)

We draw attention to that that in a sentence with a participial turnover, not one, but two or even three errors can be made.

Note for teachers: keep in mind that the authors of various manuals have different points of view on the classification, as well as on the types of errors that can be attributed to a certain type. The classification adopted at RESHU is based on the classification of I.P. Tsybulko.

We classify all types of possible grammatical errors when using participial turnover.

7.1.1 Violation of the agreement of the participle with the word being defined

The rule according to which single participles (as well as those included in the participle) are consistent with the main (= defined) word, requires setting the participle in the same gender, number and case as the main word:

About children (what?) returning from a trip; for the exhibition (what?) being prepared in the museum.

Therefore, we simply find a sentence in which there is a full participle, and its ending does not correspond to (or) gender, (or) case, (or) the number of the main word.

Type 1, the lightest

I got to chat with the guests present at the opening of the exhibition.

What is the reason for the error? The participle is not consistent with the word to which it must obey, that is, the ending must be different. We put the question from the noun and change the ending of the participle, that is, we agree on the words.

I had a chance to chat with guests(what IMI?), those present at the opening of the exhibition.

In these examples, the noun and its participle stand side by side, the error is easily seen. But this is not always the case.

type 2, harder

Consider sentences with a grammatical error.

I want to find the words to the song heard recently.

These sentences contain two nouns: author, books; lyrics. Which of them has a participle turnover attached to it? We think about meaning. What was published, the author or his book? What do you want to find, words or a song?

Here's the corrected version:

I want to find the lyrics of the song (which one?), heard recently.

Type 3, even harder

The endings of participles sometimes perform a very large semantic mission. We think about the meaning!

Let's compare two sentences:

The noise of the sea (which one?), which woke me up, was very strong. What woke up? It turns out that the sea. The sea cannot wake up.

The noise (what?) of the sea that woke me up was very strong. What woke up? Turns out it's noise. And the noise can wake up. This is the correct option.

I heard the heavy steps (what?) of a bear, chasing me. Footsteps cannot pursue.

I heard the heavy steps of a bear (what?), haunting me. The bear can chase. This is the correct option.

Children of employees (which ones?), having any diseases receive preferential vouchers to the sanatorium. The participle "having" refers to the word "employees". It turns out that employees will have diseases, and the children of sick employees will receive vouchers. This is not the right option.

Children (what?) of employees, having any disease receive preferential vouchers to the sanatorium. The participle "having" refers to the word "children", and we understand that it is the children who have diseases and they need vouchers.

4 type, variant

Often there are sentences in which there are phrases of two words, the first of which is part of the whole, indicated by the second, for example: each of their participants, one of all, any of those named, some of them, some of the gifts.. Each of the nouns can be attached to a participle, depending on the meaning: in such phrases, the participle (participial) can be agreed with any word. It will be a mistake if the sacrament "hangs" and has no connection with any of the words.

Consider sentences with a grammatical error.

Each of the participants who received the maximum number of points was given the right to perform one more number.

The sacrament can be agreed with both the word "to each" and the word "participants".

To each (what?) of the participants, who received the maximum number of points, was granted the right to perform one more number

Each of the participants (which THEM?), who received the maximum number of points, was granted the right to perform one more number.

We draw attention to the fact that it will be a mistake to disagree with OR with the first word, OR with the second:

Incorrect: Each of the participants who received ... or Each of the participants who received ... This is not possible.

In explanations on DECIDE, the option of agreement with the ending THEM is more often used.

Similarly true: Part of the books (which THEM?), received as a gift will go as a gift.

Or Part (what) of books, received as a gift will go as a gift.

Incorrect: Part of the books received as a gift will go as a gift.

NOTE : this type of error when checking essays is considered a matching error.

7.1.2 Participle construction and place of the main word

In well-formed sentences with participial turnover the main (or defined word) cannot be inside the participial turnover. His place is either before or after him. Remember that this depends on the placement of punctuation marks !!!

Consider sentences with a grammatical error.

Submissions must be carefully checked documentation for examination.

We walked through the littered alley fallen leaves.

presenter the street the city was free.

Created novel young author caused lively controversy.

note: with this construction of the sentence, it is completely incomprehensible whether to put a comma.

Here's the corrected version:

Must be carefully checked documentation, submitted for examination. Or: You need to carefully check submitted for examination documentation.

We walked along alley, strewn with fallen leaves. Or: We walked along strewn with fallen leaves alley.

The street leading to the city was free. Or: Leading to the city the street was free.

7.1.3. Participle turnovers, including irregular forms of participles

In accordance with the norms for the formation of participles, the modern Russian literary language does not use participle forms in -sch, formed from perfective verbs with the meaning of the future tense: there are no words pleasing, helping, reading, able. In the opinion of the editors of DECIDE, such erroneous forms should be presented in task 6, but, since I.P. Tsybulko has similar examples, we consider it important to note this type too.

Consider sentences with a grammatical error.

Until I found human, able to help me.

A valuable prize awaits participant, finding the answer to this question.

These sentences need to be corrected, because future participles are not formed from perfective verbs. Participles do not have a future tense..

Here's the corrected version:

We replace the non-existent participle with a verb in the conditional mood.

Until I found someone who can help me.

A valuable prize awaits the person who finds the answer to this question.

7.1.4. Participle turnovers, including irregular forms of pledge of participles

This type of error was in the USE assignments of past years (until 2015). In the books of I.P. Tsybulko 2015-2017 there are no such tasks. This type is the most difficult to recognize, and the error is due to the fact that the participle is used in the wrong voice, in other words, the real is used instead of the passive.

Consider sentences with a grammatical error.

Documentation, sent for examination

Competition, hosted by the organizers

Foam, pouring into the bath, has a pleasant aroma.

Here's the corrected version:

Documentation, sent for examination must be carefully checked.

Competition, organized by the organizers very much liked by the participants.

The foam that we pour into the bath has a pleasant aroma.

E) a violation in the construction of a sentence with a participial turnover in sentence 2 consists in the fact that the predicate "refreshed" was mistakenly assigned the gerund "going". It turned out that the air was refreshing while walking. And it's pointless.

Here is the correct spelling: As we walked along the coast, the sea air pleasantly refreshed our faces.

Rule 7.8.1 TYPE 1

7.8. USE OF GENERAL PARTICIPLES. ERRORS IN USE

INTRODUCTION

A participle turnover is a participle with dependent words.

The gerund always denotes an additional action that occurs in parallel with the main one, for example: a man walked (the main action), waving your arms(additional, what while doing); the cat fell asleep (main action), tucking its paws (additional action, what did you do?)

The participles answer the question what do you do? (imperfect view) and having done what? (perfect view). Along with this question, you can also ask questions as? how? for what purpose? and the like. A gerund always denotes a sign of an action, that is, it describes how the main action takes place.

We classify all types of possible grammatical errors when using adverbial phrases.

7.8.1 Participle turnover in a sentence with a subject

The general rule for using adverbial phrases is as follows: the gerund and the predicate must denote the actions of the same person, that is, the subject. This person performs two actions: one main, the second additional. The participle should easily be replaced by the second verb: sat down, laid out textbooks - sat down and laid out; looked, smiling - looked and smiled.

TYPE 1. A gerund and a verbal predicate expressed by a verb without the postfix -sya

Consider sentences with a grammatical error.

Slipping on ice I was picked up by a guy next to me.

Passing under the house, an icicle almost fell on me.

In each of the sentences, there were two characters: in the first one, someone slipped and someone picked it up; in the second: someone passed and someone almost fell down. But due to an error in construction, it turns out that the guy picked up, slipping; the icicle nearly fell off as it passed.

With this construction, the participle is erroneously assigned to one actor, and the predicate to another, which violates the basic rule. To avoid mistakes, you need to ensure that the participle and the predicate refer to the same person.

When I slipped on the ice, I was picked up by a guy next to me.

When I was walking under the house, an icicle almost fell on me.

TYPE 2. The gerund refers to the predicate in the form of a short passive participle

Writing a poem "Death of a Poet", the fate of Lermontov was determined.

Analyzing the text, I was quite right in determining its size.

As in type 1, the participle and the predicate refer to different persons. Due to a construction error, it turns out that fate was determined by writing ; the size is determined having analyzed. The predicate is a short passive participle.

If the predicate is expressed by a short participle, then the subject itself does not perform the action, something is done with it. With this form of the predicate gerund, there can be no.

Here are the revised proposals:

When Lermontov wrote the poem "The Death of a Poet", his fate was determined.

When I analyzed poetic text, I was quite right to determine its size.

TYPE 3. The adverbial phrase is attached to the predicate-reflexive verb in the passive meaning, which has a postfix Xia

Consider sentences with a grammatical error.

Usually, creating your work, it expresses Xia author's attitude to life and people.

Having received an education, students direct Xia senior master for practice.

As in type 2, the subject in such a sentence does not actually perform the action itself: attitude expresses Xia(by someone); displays Xia(by someone); direct Xia(by someone). But a if there is no action, then there can be no additional, additional, expressed by a gerund. We replace the adverbial turnover with a subordinate clause.

Here are the revised proposals:

Usually, when a work is created, the author's attitude to life and people is expressed in it. Or: Creating a work, the author always expresses his attitude to life and people.

When students receive their education, they are directed by the senior master to practice.

7.8.2. Participle turnover in a sentence without a subject

It often happens that the subject performing both actions may not be formally expressed, that is, there is no subject in the sentence. In this case, it is about one-part sentences. It is these types that cause the greatest difficulty in finding an error.

TYPE 4. Participle turnover in an impersonal sentence (except for type 7)

Consider sentences with a grammatical error.

Sending a rather important telegram I didn't have enough money.

He was sad.

There is no subject, the acting person is expressed by a pronoun to me(this is the dative case). The use of participles in impersonal sentences is unacceptable. It is possible: either to make a subordinate clause from the adverbial clause, or to make the usual one from the impersonal, with the subject.

The exception is sentences with an infinitive verb, see type 7.

Here are the revised proposals:

When I sent a rather important telegram, I did not have enough money.

Refusing to experiment he experienced sadness.

TYPE 5. Participle turnover in an indefinite personal sentence

Consider sentences with a grammatical error.

Having received a good education, Griboyedov was sent as the secretary of the diplomatic mission to Persia.

Didn't finish the report, the head of the department was offered to go on a business trip.

There can be no adverbial turnover with the subject, if it is not defined. This situation occurs in indefinite personal sentences with the verb in the past tense plural.

Who directed? who received? who suggested? who did not finish the report? Unclear. We replace the turnover with a subordinate clause or restructure it so that it is clear who received an education and who completed the report.

Here are the revised proposals:

When Griboedov received a good education, he was sent as secretary of a diplomatic mission in Persia.

Without finishing the report, the head of the department received an offer to go on a business trip.

7.8.3. Participle turnover in a sentence without a subject. Permitted tricks.

Due to the fact that the assignments may also contain correct sentences with adverbial phrases, we consider it important to place a table with such examples and such rules that are not found in erroneous ones. Everything in this table is allowed.

TYPE 6. The adverbial phrase refers to a verb in the imperative mood

When crossing the street, carefully follow the traffic.

Having received the task for the adverbial turnover, check if it contains a request, order or advice.

There is no subject in sentences. But it is allowed to use participial phrases in such sentences where the verb is used in the imperative mood: follow, go, write, search and so on. It turns out that both the turnover and the predicate refer to one person, to whom we advise to do something. Easy to substitute a pronoun you: you follow by passing; you check when you receive it.

TYPE 7. The adverbial turnover refers to the infinitive

Consider sentences without errors.

Walking through the autumn forest, it is pleasant to inhale the intoxicating aroma of fallen leaves.

When handing over the work, it should be carefully checked.

Given that there is no subject (impersonal sentence) it is permissible to use a participial turnover if it refers to the infinitive: walking, inhale; reading, sit; dreaming, dozing; napping, dreaming.

Not all manuals allow this rule: in some of them, the infinitive must be required, it is possible, it is necessary, others follow (the so-called modal words). In any case, sentences like: rewriting, it should be noted; having begun, it is necessary to finish; having received, it is necessary to do, will be ERROR-FREE.

TYPE 8. Participle turnover in a definite-personal or generalized-personal sentence

Consider sentences without errors.

Gathering at the family table in the house of parents, we always remember grandmother's pies and tea with viburnum and mint.

Planning your upcoming vacation carefully calculate the family budget.

There is no subject, but the sentence definitely personal, it is easy to substitute the pronoun we. You can turn! It refers to the implied person: we remember when we gather; we calculate by planning.

Answers in alphabetical order:

A	B	AT	G	D
9	6	7	3	2

Answer: 96732

the frequent occurrence of layers and the occurrence of layers disturbed by tectonic faults.

In geology, the inclined occurrence of rock layers is called monoclinal, and the structural forms formed by such layers are called monoclines. If, against the background of a horizontal or monoclinal occurrence of layers, an inflection occurs to a steeper occurrence, and then the layers flatten again, then such a structural form is called flexure (Fig. 3.2).

3.5.1. Folds

In addition to the noted violations, in the deformed volumes earth's crust an occurrence is often noted, in which the layers, bending first in one direction, then in the other, form wave-like structures similar to a sinusoid. Such an occurrence of layers is called folded, and individual bends are called folds.

All folds are characterized by certain structural elements that have their own names. On fig. 3.3 schematically shows one of the folds and gives the names of its elements. So, the surfaces of the layers that form the fold, inclined in different directions, are called its wings. In the above case, each individual wing of the fold is special case monoclinal occurrence of layers. The region of sharp inflection of the layers, connecting different wings, is called the fold lock. There is no clear boundary between the wings of the fold and its lock. The fold angle is the angle formed by the planes of the wings, mentally extended until they intersect. The line passing through the points of maximum inflection of any one layer in the lock of the fold is called a hinge. The surface passing

	through the fold hinges, wire
	data on different layers, its
	setting, is axial
	fold surface. Axis warehouse
	ki is the projection of the hinge on
	horizontal plane. On
	the end, inner part warehouse
	ki, which stands out conditionally from
	for any layer
	called its core.
	In form and internal
	There are two types of building
	folds. In the simplest case
	convex folds
	down, are called syncli-
Rice. 3.3. The main elements of the warehouse	nasal folds, or synch-
	linalis, and the reversed convex

lost upwards - anticlinal folds, or anticlines.

However, a more reliable indication of the division of folds into synclinal and anticlinal is their internal structure. On fig. 3.4 shows block diagrams (diagrams that simultaneously show the structure of the folds in plan and in section) of the syncline and anticline folds, from which it follows that the cores of the synclines are composed of the youngest rocks, and towards the wings, the age of the layers composing the fold becomes more and more ancient. . In anticlines, the ratio of the ages of the rocks in the cores and on the limbs is directly opposite. For the analysis of folded structures, this feature is very important and should be remembered.

Shown in fig. 3.4 folds are folds with horizontal hinges. In plan view, such folds look like “bands” of rocks of different ages, arranged symmetrically with respect to the youngest and oldest formations. Such planned patterns can be observed only in small fragments of folded structures. If, however, the folded structure is studied over relatively large areas, it is easy to see that the hinges of the folds are almost never rectilinear. They are constantly bent in both horizontal and vertical planes. The bending of the hinges of the folds in the vertical plane is called undulation of hinges(Fig. 3.5). Associated with the undulation of fold hinges is the circumstance that, in plan view, coeval layers of different wings of the same fold are closed at the intersection of the hinges with the relief surface, as shown

Rice. 3.4. Block diagrams of (a) synclinal and (6) anticlinal folds with horizontal hinges:

1-5 - age sequence of layers from older to younger

but in fig. 3.6. Closures in plan (on the earth's surface) of layers of different wings of synclinal folds are called centriclinal closures, or centriclines, and anticlinal - periclinal closures, or periclinals. In centriclines, the hinges of the folds at the intersection with the earth's surface "go into the air", i.e. rise, and in the periclinals "go underground", i.e. are immersed (see Fig. 3.6).

Rice. 3.7. Types of folds in plan:

a - linear S/L > 1/7; b - brachiform S/L = 1/5; c - isometric

S/L = 1/1

All folds recorded in nature are separated (classified) according to certain morphological features. There are classifications of folds observed in plan and in section.

The folds observed in the plan are divided into three classes according to the ratio of their length to width (Fig. 3.7). When the ratio of length to width is about 7-10 or more, the folds are called linear. If this ratio is between 7 and 3 - the folds are called brachiform (brachysynclines) or brachyanticlines). Folds with a length to width ratio of less than 3 are classified as isometric, while anticlines are called domes, and synclines are called troughs. Such a division of folds is conditional, therefore, different figures of ratios can be found in different sources, but they will differ slightly from those given by us.

The classifications of folds observed in the section are more diverse. There are at least three such classifications.

1. Classification of folds according to the shape of the castle and the ratio of the wings (Fig. 3.8). In this class, the following types of folds are distinguished:

open (Fig. 3.8, a) - folds with a gentle slope of the layers on the wings; normal, or ordinary, (Fig. 3.8, b) are folds, the angle of which is close to 90 °; isoclinal, or closely compressed, (Fig. 3.8, c) - folds with a subparallel arrangement of the wings; sharp, keeled,(Fig. 3.8, d) - folds with a sharp lock; box-shaped, chest,(Fig. 3.8, e) - the lock of such folds,

Rice. 3.8. Classification of folds according to the shape of the castle and the ratio of the wings:

a - open; 6 - normal (ordinary); c - isoclinal (closely compressed); g - sharp (keeled); d - box-shaped (chest); e - fan-shaped; w -

conical; h - asymmetric

Rice. 3.9. Classification of folds according to the position of the axial surface: a - straight lines; b - inclined; in - overturned; g - recumbent; e - diving

on the contrary, it is wide, and the wings are steep; fan-shaped (Fig. 3.8, e)

Pleats with a wide lock and pinched core.

All the listed types of folds are, first, cylindrical; those in which the lines of intersection of the wings with the horizontal plane are parallel, and secondly, they are symmetrical with respect to the axial surface. However, in nature, so-called conical folds are often found (Fig. 3.8, g), in which the lines indicated above are not parallel. In addition, folds are often observed, the wings of which are not symmetrical with respect to their axial surfaces - asymmetric folds (Fig. 3.8, h).

2. Classification of folds according to the spatial position of their axial surfaces (Fig. 3.9). On this basis, the following types of folds are distinguished: straight lines (Fig. 3.9, a) - the axial surface of which is vertical or close to the vertical position; inclined (Fig. 3.9, b) - the axial surface of which is inclined and the wings are inclined in different directions; overturned (Fig. 3.9, c) - in which the axial surface is also inclined, but the wings are tilted to one side; recumbent

Rice. 3.10. Classification of folds according to the ratio of layer thicknesses

in locks and wings:

a - concentric; b - similar; c - anticlines with decreasing power

layers from wings to locks

Considering that it has been a decade without major revelations on the theoretical front, string theory guerrillas are now under increasing pressure to tie their ephemeral speculations to something concrete. All this time, one unchanging question hung over their fantastic beliefs: do these ideas really describe our Universe?

This legitimate question arises in connection with the audacious ideas presented here, any of which can cause a stupor in the average person. One such claim is that everywhere in our world, wherever we go, there is a higher dimensional space within reach, but so tiny that we will never see or feel it. Or that our world could be torn apart by a Big Crunch, or exploded in a fleeting jet of cosmic decompactification, during which the area we inhabit will immediately change from 4D to 10D. Or, more simply, that everything in the universe - all matter, all forces and even space itself - is the result of vibrations of tiny strings in ten dimensions. And here comes the second question, which also requires consideration: do we have any hope of verifying any of this - extra dimensions, strings, branes, etc.?

The challenge facing string theorists remains the same as it was when they first tried to recreate the Standard Model: can we bring this amazing theory into the real world, not only connect it to our world, but also predict something new, what have we not seen before?

There is currently a huge gulf between theory and observation: the smallest things we can observe with current technology are about sixteen orders of magnitude larger than the Planck scale, where strings and extra dimensions are supposed to live, and so far there is no reasonable way overcome this gap. The "brute force" approach, i.e. direct observation, is probably out of the question, as it requires extraordinary skill and some degree of luck, so that ideas will have to be tested indirectly. But this challenge must be met if string theorists are to win over the skeptics and also convince themselves that their ideas add something to science and are not just grandiose speculations on a very small scale.

So where do we start? Let's look through the telescope? Let's collide particles at relativistic speeds and "sift through diamond dust" in search of clues? The shortest answer is that we do not know which road, if any, leads to the truth. We still haven't found the one experiment that we can bet on and that is designed to solve our problems once and for all. In the meantime, we are trying to study all of the above and even more, considering any idea that can provide any physical evidence. Researchers are ready to do it right now, when string phenomenology wins new positions in theoretical physics.

It is logical to look up at the heavens first, as Newton did when creating his theory of gravity and as astrophysicists did to test Einstein's theory of gravity. A close inspection of the heavens might, for example, shed light on one of the latest and strangest ideas in string theory—the idea that our universe is literally inside a bubble, one of the countless bubbles that grace the cosmic landscape. Although this idea may not seem the most promising to you, since it is more contemplative than natural science, we will nevertheless continue our story from where we left off in the previous chapter. And our example shows how difficult it is to implement these ideas in an experiment.

When we discussed bubbles in Chapter Eleven, we did so in the context of decompactification—that is, a process extremely improbable to be observed, since the time it takes for the universe to unfold is of the order of e(10,120) years, and a process that makes no sense to expect, since we still would not be able to see the decompactization of the bubble until it literally hit us. And if he hit us, then "we" would no longer exist; or we would be unable to understand what kind of "lid" slammed us. But perhaps there are other bubbles outside of "our" bubble. In particular, many cosmologists believe that right now we are sitting in one of the bubbles that formed at the end of inflation, a fraction of a second after the Big Bang, when a tiny pocket of low-energy matter appeared amid the high-energy inflationary vacuum, and has since expanded to become that the universe we know. In addition, it is widely believed that inflation never completely ends, but once it starts, it continues with the formation of countless bubble universes that differ in vacuum energies and other physical characteristics.

Proponents of the obscure idea of the bubble theory are hoping to see not our current bubble, but rather signs of another bubble filled with a completely different vacuum state that inflated in our bubble sometime in the past. We could accidentally find evidence of such an observation, for example, in the cosmic microwave background (CMB), that is, the cosmic microwave background that “washes” our Universe. The CMF, a consequence of the Big Bang, is fairly homogeneous with an accuracy of 1:100,000. Logically, the CMF must also be isotropic, that is, it must have the same properties in all directions. A collision with another bubble, which will lead to the predominance of energy in one part of the Universe in relation to the other, should break the observed uniformity and cause anisotropy. This would mean the existence of a preferred direction in our universe, a kind of “arrow” that would point directly to the center of another bubble just before it crashed into us. Despite the dangers associated with the decompactification of our own universe, a collision with another universe in a different bubble is not necessarily fatal. The wall of our bubble, believe it or not, is able to provide some protection. However, such a collision can leave a noticeable imprint in the CMB, which will not be just the result of random fluctuations.

A kind of calling card that cosmologists are looking for, perhaps, is the discovered anisotropy of the CMF, called by its discoverers Joao Mageijo and Keith Land from King's College London "the axis of evil." Mageijo and Land argue that the hot and cold patches in the CMF appear to be oriented along a specific axis; if the data was processed correctly, then this means that the universe has a certain orientation, which is contrary to the sacred cosmological principles that say that all directions in the universe are indistinguishable. But at the moment, no one knows if the supposed axis is anything more than a statistical fluctuation.

If we could get reliable evidence that another bubble hit us, what would that prove? And will it have anything to do with string theory? “If we weren’t living in a bubble, there wouldn’t be a collision, so for starters we would know that we really live in a bubble,” explains physicist Matthew Kleban of New York University. Moreover, thanks to the collision, we would also know that there is at least one more bubble outside. “While this does not prove the truth of string theory, the theory makes many strange predictions, one of which is that we live in a bubble” - one of the many such bubbles scattered throughout the landscape of string theory. “At the very least,” Kleban says, “we could see something strange and unexpected, which is also a prediction of string theory.”

However, there is a very important nuance that Henry Tai of Cornell University points out: Bubble collisions can also occur in quantum field theory, which has nothing to do with string theory. Tai admits that in the event that traces of a collision are found, he does not know which theory to explain them as a consequence of - string theory or field theory.

The question then becomes: can something like this ever be seen, regardless of its origin? The probability of finding a bubble, of course, depends on whether any random bubble is in our path or within the "light cone". "He could be anywhere," says Ben Freifogel, a physicist at the University of California. "It's a matter of probabilities, and we don't have enough knowledge to determine those probabilities." Although no one can accurately estimate the chance of such a discovery, most experts believe that it is extremely small.

Although calculations suggest that bubbles do not provide fertile ground for research, many physicists still believe that cosmology offers an excellent chance to test string theory, given that the near-Planck energies at which strings are created are so huge that they can never be reproduced. in laboratory conditions.

Perhaps the greatest hope of ever seeing strings estimated to be on the order of 10 -33 cm is the possibility that they formed at the time of the Big Bang and increase in size as the universe expands. I mean the hypothetical formations called cosmic strings, - this idea arose before string theory, but was revived with renewed vigor due to association with this theory.

According to the traditional view, which coincides with that of string theory, cosmic strings are thin, superdense filaments formed during a "phase transition" in the first microsecond of cosmic history. As a crack inevitably appears in ice when water freezes, so the Universe in the first moments of its life goes through a phase transition, which is accompanied by the appearance of various kinds of defects. The phase transition had to occur in different areas at the same time, and linear defects should have formed at the junction, that is, where these areas ran into each other, leaving behind thin threads of untransformed matter, forever trapped initial state.

The cosmic strings should emerge during this phase transition in the form of a spaghetti-like tangle, with individual filaments propagating at speeds close to the speed of light. They are long and curved, with complex curves, fragmented, closed into smaller loops that resemble tightly stretched rubber bands. It is believed that cosmic strings, whose thickness is much less than the size of subatomic particles, must be almost immeasurably thin and almost infinite in length and stretched due to cosmic expansion in order to cover the entire Universe.

These extended filaments are characterized by mass per unit length, or stress, which serves as a measure of gravitational bonding. Their linear density can reach a monstrously high value - about 10 22 grams per centimeter of length for strings with the energy parameters of the Grand Unified Theory. "Even if we squeeze one billion neutron stars up to the size of one electron, then we will hardly reach the mass-energy density characteristic of the strings of the Grand Unified Theory,” says astronomer Alejandro Ganjui from the University of Buenos Aires.

These strange objects became popular in the early 1980s among cosmologists, who saw them as potential "seeds" for the formation of galaxies. However, in 1985, Edward Witten argued in his paper that the presence of cosmic strings should have created inhomogeneities in the CMB that should be much larger than those observed, thus casting doubt on their existence.

Since that time, cosmic strings have attracted continued interest, largely due to their popularity in string theory, which has prompted many people to look at these objects in a new light. Cosmic strings are now considered a common by-product of inflationary models based on string theory. The most recent versions of the theory show that the so-called fundamental strings, the basic units of energy and matter in string theory, can reach astronomical sizes and do not suffer from the problems described by Witten in 1985. Tai and his colleagues explained how cosmic strings could form at the end of the inflationary stage and not disappear, scattering through the universe during a short period of unstoppable expansion, when the universe doubled its size, perhaps fifty or even a hundred times in a row.

Tai showed that these strings should be less massive than Witten strings and other strings that physicists discussed in the 1980s, and therefore their influence on the universe should not be as strong, as has already been proven by observations. Meanwhile, Joe Polchinski of the University of California at Santa Barbara has shown why newly formed strings could be stable on a cosmological time scale.

The efforts of Ty, Polchinski and others, cleverly addressing the objections that Witten raised two decades ago, have revived interest in cosmic strings. Due to the postulated density, cosmic strings should exert a noticeable gravitational influence on their surroundings and thus reveal themselves.

For example, if a string runs between our galaxy and another galaxy, then the light from that galaxy will bend around the string symmetrically, creating two identical images that are close to each other in the sky. “Typically, in gravitational lensing, you would expect to see three images,” explains Alexander Vilenkin, a cosmic string theorist at Tufts University. Some of the light will go straight through the lensing galaxy, and the rest of the rays will go around it on both sides. But light cannot pass through a string because the diameter of the string is much smaller than the wavelength of the light; thus strings, unlike galaxies, will only produce two images, not three.

Hope loomed in 2003 when a Russian-Italian team led by Mikhail Sazhin of Moscow State University announced that they had obtained a double image of the galaxy in the constellation Raven. The images were at the same distance, had the same redshift, and were spectrally identical up to 99,96 % . Either these were two extremely similar galaxies that happened to be side by side, or the first observation of a gravitational lens created by a cosmic string. In 2008, a more detailed analysis based on data from the Hubble Space Telescope, which gives a much clearer picture than the ground-based telescope used by Sazhin and colleagues, showed that what appeared to be a lensed galaxy was actually two different galaxies; thus the effect of the cosmic string was eliminated.

A similar approach, called microlensing, is based on the assumption that the loop formed by the breaking of a cosmic string can create potentially detectable gravitational lenses near individual stars. Although it is not possible to instrumentally observe a forked star, one can try to look for a star that will periodically double its brightness while remaining unchanged in color and temperature, which may indicate the presence of a cosmic string loop oscillating in the foreground. Depending on location, speed, tension, and particular vibrational mode, the loop will double-image in some cases and not in others - the star's brightness may vary over seconds, hours, or months. Such evidence could be found by the Gaia Satellite Telescope, which is scheduled to launch in 2012 and is tasked with observing billions of stars in the galaxy and its immediate environs. A Large Synoptic Survey Telescope (LSST) is now being built in Chile, which can also capture a similar phenomenon. "Direct astronomical detection of superstring relics is part of the challenge of experimentally testing some of the basics of string theory," says Cornell astronomer David Chernoff, a member of the LSST collaborative project.

Meanwhile, researchers continue to look for other means of detecting cosmic strings. For example, theorists believe that cosmic strings could form kinks and kinks in addition to loops, emitting gravitational waves as these irregularities are ordered or destroyed.

Gravitational waves of a certain frequency can be detected using a space antenna using the principle of a laser interferometer (Laser Interferometer Space Antenna, LISA) and designed for an orbital observatory that is currently being developed for NASA.

The measurements will be carried out using three spacecraft located at the vertices of an equilateral triangle. The two sides of this triangle, 5 million kilometers long, will form the arms of the giant Michelson interferometer. When a gravitational wave distorts the structure of space-time between two spacecraft, it becomes possible to measure the relative changes in the length of the interferometer arms from the phase shift of the laser beam, despite the smallness of this effect. Vilenkin and Thibaut Damour of the French Institute for Higher Scientific Research (IHES) have suggested that accurate measurements of these waves could reveal the presence of cosmic strings. “The gravitational waves emitted by cosmic strings have a specific shape, which is very different from the waves generated by collisions of black holes or waves emitted by other sources,” Tai explains. - The signal should start from zero and then quickly increase and then decrease just as quickly. By “waveform” we mean the nature of the increase and decrease in the signal, and the described character is inherent only in cosmic strings.

Another approach is based on looking for distortions in the CMF caused by strings. A 2008 study by Mark Hyndmarsh of the University of Sussex suggested that cosmic strings may be responsible for the lumpy distribution of matter seen with the Wilkinson Microwave Background Anisotropy Probe.

This lumping phenomenon is known as non-gaussianity. Although the data obtained by the Hindmarsh team suggest the presence of cosmic strings, many scientists were skeptical, considering the observed correlation as a mere coincidence. This issue needs to be clarified by performing more accurate measurements of the CMF. The study of the potentially non-Gaussian distribution of matter in the Universe is actually one of the main tasks of the Planck satellite launched by the European Space Agency in 2009.

“Cosmic strings may or may not exist,” says Vilenkin. But the search for these objects is in full swing, and if they exist, "their detection seems quite realistic in the next few decades."

In some models of string inflation, the exponential growth of the volume of space occurs in a region of the Calabi-Yau manifold called crooked neck. In the abstract field of string cosmology, warped throats are considered to be objects with fundamental and generic characteristics "that emerge naturally from six-dimensional Calabi-Yau space," says Princeton's Igor Klebanov. While this does not guarantee that there will be inflation in such areas, it is expected that the geometric framework of the twisted necks will help us understand inflation and solve other mysteries. For theorists, there are great opportunities here.

The throat, the most common defect in the Calabi-Yau space, is a cone-shaped spike, or conifold, that protrudes from the surface. Cornell University physicist Liam McAllister says the rest of space, often described as bulk space, can be thought of as a large scoop of ice cream sitting on top of a thin and infinitely pointed cone. This throat becomes wider when the fields laid down by string theory (technical name - streams) are turned on. Cornell University astronomer Rachel Veen argues that since a given Calabi-Yau space likely has more than one curved throat, a rubber glove would be a better analogy. “Our three-dimensional universe is like a dot moving down the finger of a glove,” she explains.

Inflation ends when the brane, or "point," reaches the tip of the finger where the antibrane or stack of antibranes is. Rachel Veen believes that since the motion of the brane is constrained by the shape of the finger or throat, "the geometry of the throat will determine the specific characteristics of inflation."

Regardless of the analogy chosen, different curved neck models will lead to different predictions. spectrum cosmic strings - a full set of strings of various tensions that can arise under conditions of inflation, which, in turn, will tell us what Calabi-Yau geometry underlies the universe. "If we're lucky enough to see [the full spectrum of cosmic strings]," says Polchinski, "then we'll be able to tell which picture of the crooked throat is correct and which isn't."

If we are unlucky enough not to find a single cosmic string or network of cosmic strings, then we can still restrict the choice of Calabi-Yau space shapes through cosmological observations that rule out some models of cosmic inflation while leaving others. At least, physicist Gary Shui of the University of Wisconsin and his colleagues are following this strategy. “How did extra dimensions twist in string theory? Shui asks. "We argue that accurate measurements of the cosmic microwave background radiation will give us a clue."

Shui suggests that the latest string theory-based models of cosmic inflation are approaching the point at which detailed predictions about our universe can be made. These predictions, which vary depending on the specific Calabi-Yau geometry triggering inflation, can now be tested by analyzing the CMF data.

The basic premise is that inflation is driven by brane motion. And what we call our universe is actually on a three-dimensional brane. In this scenario, the brane and its antipode, the antibrane, are slowly moving towards each other in extra dimensions. In a more precise version of the theory, the branes move in the region of the curved throat within these extra dimensions.

Due to the mutual attraction of the brane and antibrane, when they separate, a potential energy is created that drives inflation. The fleeting process in which our four-dimensional space-time expands exponentially continues until the brane and antibrane collide and then annihilate, releasing the energy of the Big Bang and creating indelible imprints on the CMB. “The fact that the branes were moving allows us to learn more about space than if they were just sitting in a corner,” Ty says. - Just like at a cocktail party: you are unlikely to make many acquaintances if you stand modestly in one corner. But if you keep moving, you will learn a lot of interesting things.”

Researchers like Tai are inspired by the fact that the data is getting accurate enough that we can say that one Calabi-Yau space does not contradict the experimental data, while the other does. Thus, cosmological measurements are also made in order to impose restrictions on the kind of Calabi-Yau space in which we can live. "You take inflationary models and you divide them into two groups, one part will match the observations, the other won't," says physicist Cliff Burgess of the Perimeter Institute for Theoretical Physics. "The fact that we can now distinguish between inflationary patterns means that we can also distinguish between the geometric constructions that gave rise to these patterns."

Shui and his former graduate student Bret Underwood, now at McGill University, have taken a few more steps in that direction. In 2007, in an article in Physical Review Letters Shui and Underwood showed that two different geometries for hidden six dimensions, which are variations of Calabi-Yau conifolds with curved throats, can give different patterns of cosmic radiation distribution. Shui and Underwood chose to compare two neck models - Klebanov-Strassler and Randall-Sandrum - whose geometries are well understood, and then looked at how inflation under these different conditions would affect the CMF. In particular, they focused on standard CMB measurements, that is, temperature fluctuations in the early life of the universe. These fluctuations are approximately the same on small and large scales. The rate of change in the magnitude of fluctuations when moving from a small scale to a large one is called spectral index. Shui and Underwood found a difference of 1% between the spectral indices of the two models, indicating that the choice of geometry leads to a measurable effect.

While this may not seem significant, a 1% difference is considered significant in cosmology. The recently launched Planck observatory should be able to measure the spectral index, at least at this level. In other words, it may turn out that by means of the Planck apparatus it is possible to obtain data that the geometry of the Klebanov-Strassler throat corresponds to observations, but the Randall-Sandrum geometry does not, or vice versa. “From the top of the neck, both geometries look pretty much the same, and people tend to think you can use one instead of the other,” notes Underwood. “Shui and I have shown that details matter a lot.”

However, moving from a spectral index, which is just a number, to an extra-dimensional geometry is a giant step. This is the so-called inverse problem: if we have enough data on the CMB, then can we determine what the Calabi-Yau space is? Burgess doesn't think it's possible in "this life," or at least not in the dozen years he has left until retirement. McAllister is also skeptical. “It will be a big win if we can tell in the next decade if inflation is happening or not,” she says. "I don't think we'll get enough experimental data to concretize the full shape of the Calabi-Yau space, although we might know what kind of neck it has or what kind of brane it contains."

Shui is more optimistic. Even though the inverse problem is much more difficult, he admits, we still have to take our best shot. “If you can only measure the spectral index, then it's hard to say anything definite about the geometry of space. But you get a lot more information if you can identify something like non-Gaussian features from the KMF data.” He believes that a clear indication of non-Gaussianity (deviation from the Gaussian distribution) will impose "significantly more restrictions on the geometry. Instead of one number - the spectral index, we will have an entire function - a whole bunch of numbers interconnected. High degree non-Gaussianity, Shui adds, could point to a particular version of brane-induced inflation, such as the Dirac-Born-Infeld (DBI) model, which occurs within a well-described throat geometry. "Depending on the accuracy of the experiment, such a discovery may actually bring clarity to the problem."

Physicist Sarah Shandera of Columbia University notes that string theory inflation, such as the DBI model, will be important to us, even if we find that string theory is not the ultimate theory of nature. “The point is that it predicts a kind of non-Gaussianity that cosmologists have never thought about before,” Shandera says. And any experiments, if you ask the right questions and know what to look for, make up a large part of the whole game.

Another clue regarding string theory inflation can be found by examining the gravitational waves emitted during the strong phase transition that caused the inflation. The longest of these primordial space ripple waves cannot be directly observed because their wavelength range now spans the entire visible universe. But they leave traces in the microwave background radiation. Despite the fact that, according to theorists, this signal is difficult to distinguish from the CMB temperature maps, gravitational waves should create a characteristic pattern on the CMB photon polarization maps.

In some inflationary models of string theory, gravitational wave fingerprints are detectable, in others they are not. Roughly speaking, if the brane moves a small distance on the Calabi-Yau during inflation, then there is no estimable effect of the gravitational wave. But if the brane travels a long way through the extra dimensions, "leaving small circles like grooves on a gramophone record, then the result of the gravitational influence must be significant," Tai says. If the motion of the brane is tightly constrained, he adds, “there is a special kind of compactification and a special kind of Calabi-Yau. By seeing this, you will know what the type of manifold should be.” The compactifications discussed here are manifolds whose moduli are stabilized, which implies, in particular, the presence of a curved geometry and a curved neck.

Establishing the shape of Calabi-Yau space, including the shape of its throat, will require precise measurements of the spectral index and detection of non-Gaussianity, gravitational waves, and cosmic strings. Shiu suggests patience. “While we have confidence in the Standard Model, this model did not come about all at once. It was born out of a series of experiments carried out over many years. Now we need to take a lot of measurements to see if extra dimensions really exist or if there really is string theory behind it all.”

The main goal of research is not only to probe the geometry of hidden dimensions, but also to test string theory in general. McAllister, by the way, believes that this approach may give us the best chance to test the theory. “Perhaps string theory will predict a finite class of models, none of which will match the observed properties of the early universe, in which case we could say that the observations ruled out string theory. Some of the models have already been dropped, which is encouraging because it means that the current data really does make a difference between the models."

She adds that while such a claim is not entirely new to physicists, it is new to string theory, which is subject to experimental verification. And McAllister goes on to say that currently, crooked-neck inflation is one of the best patterns we've created so far, "but realistically, crooked-neck inflation may not occur, even if the picture looks perfect."

Finally, Rachel Bean agrees that “crooked-neck inflation patterns may not provide the expected response. But these models are based on geometries derived from string theory, from which we can make detailed predictions that can then be tested. In other words, it's a good starting point to start with."

The good news is that there is more than one starting point to get started. While some researchers comb the night (or day) sky for signs of extra dimensions, others have their eyes fixed on the Large Hadron Collider. Finding hints of the existence of extra dimensions is not a priority task of the collider, but it is quite high on the list of its tasks.

The most logical starting point for string theorists is the search for supersymmetric partners of already known particles. Supersymmetry is of interest to many physicists, not just string theorists: supersymmetric partners, which have the smallest mass, and these can be neutralinos, gravitinos or sneutrinos, are extremely important in cosmology, since they are considered the main candidates for the role of dark matter. The speculated reason why we have not yet observed these particles, and while they remain invisible to us and therefore dark, is that they are more massive than ordinary particles. Currently, there are no colliders powerful enough to produce these heavier "superpartners", so there are high hopes for the Large Hadron Collider.

In string theory models developed by Kumrun Vafa of Harvard University and Jonathan Heckman of the Institute for Advanced Study, the gravitino - the hypothetical superpartner of the graviton (the particle responsible for gravity) - is the lightest superpartner. Unlike heavier superpartners, the gravitino must be absolutely stable, since there is nothing for it to decay into. The gravitino in the above model makes up most of the dark matter in the universe. Although the gravitino is too weak to be observed with the Large Hadron Collider, Vafa and Heckman believe that another theoretical supersymmetric particle is the tau-slepton ( stau), the superpartner of the so-called tau lepton, should be stable somewhere in the range from a second to an hour, and this is more than enough for the detectors of the collider to fix it.

The discovery of such particles would confirm an important aspect of string theory. As we have seen, Calabi-Yau manifolds have been carefully chosen by string theorists as a suitable geometry for extra dimensions, in part because of the supersymmetry automatically built into their internal structure.

It is no exaggeration to say that the discovery of signs of supersymmetry at the Large Hadron Collider will be encouraging news for defenders of string theory and Calabi-Yau objects. Burt Ovrut explains that the characteristics of supersymmetric particles themselves can tell us about hidden dimensions, “because the way the Calabi-Yau manifold is compactified affects the kind of supersymmetry and the level of supersymmetry you get. You can find compactifications that preserve supersymmetry or those that break it.”

The confirmation of supersymmetry does not in itself confirm string theory, but at least points in the same direction, indicating that part of the story that string theory tells is true. On the other hand, if we do not find supersymmetric particles, this will not mean the collapse of string theory. This may mean that we made a mistake in the calculations and the particles are beyond the reach of the collider. Vafa and Heckman, for example, allow for the possibility that the collider could produce semi-stable and electrically neutral particles instead of tau-sleptons, which cannot be detected directly. If the superpartners turn out to be slightly more massive than this collider can produce, then higher energies will be required to reveal them and, therefore, a long wait for a new instrument that will eventually replace the Large Hadron Collider.

There is a small chance that the Large Hadron Collider could find more direct and less dubious evidence for the extra dimensions predicted by string theory. In experiments already planned at this facility, the researchers will look for particles with extra-dimensional signs where they come from - the so-called Kaluza-Klein particles. The essence of the idea is that oscillations in high-order dimensions can manifest themselves as particles in our four-dimensional world. We can see either the remnants of the decay of Kaluza-Klein particles or, perhaps, even signs of particles disappearing from our world along with energy and passing into more multidimensional regions.

Invisible motion in extra dimensions will impart momentum and kinetic energy to the particle, so Kaluza-Klein particles are expected to be heavier than their slow four-dimensional counterparts. An example is the Kaluza-Klein gravitons. They will look like ordinary gravitons, being gravitational carrier particles, only they will be heavier due to the additional momentum. One way to distinguish such gravitons from the vast sea of other particles produced by the collider is to pay attention not only to the mass of the particle, but also to its spin. Fermions, like electrons, have a certain angular momentum, which we refer to as spin-1/2. Bosons, such as photons and gluons, have slightly more angular momentum, qualifying as spin-1. Any particles found to have spin-2 at the collider are likely Kaluza-Klein gravitons.

Such a discovery would be of great importance, as physicists would not only catch the first glimpse of the long-awaited particle, but would also gain conclusive evidence for the existence of the extra dimensions themselves. Finding the existence of at least one extra dimension is a startling discovery in itself, but Shui and his colleagues wanted to go further and get clues to the geometry of this extra space. In a 2008 paper written with Underwood, Devin Walker of the University of California at Berkeley, and Katerina Zurek of the University of Wisconsin, Shui and his team found that a small change in the shape of the extra dimensions causes huge—50% to 100%—changes, like in mass, and in the nature of the interaction of Kaluza-Klein gravitons. “When we changed the geometry just a little, the numbers changed dramatically,” Underwood notes.

While Shui et al.'s analysis is far from drawing conclusions about the shape of an interior space or refining Calabi-Yau geometry, it does offer some hope of using experimental data to "reduce the class of allowed shapes to a small range." “The secret of our success lies in the cross-correlation between different types experiments in cosmology and high energy physics,” says Shiu.

The mass of particles recorded at the Large Hadron Collider will also give us hints about the size of the extra dimensions. The fact is that for particles this is a passage to a multidimensional region, and the smaller these regions, the heavier the particles will be. You may ask how much energy is needed to walk down the aisle. Probably not much. But what if the passage is not short, but very narrow? Then passage through the tunnel will result in a struggle for every inch of the way, accompanied, no doubt, by curses and promises, and of course, more energy. That's roughly what's going on here, and technically speaking, it all comes down to the Heisenberg uncertainty principle, which says that the momentum of a particle is inversely proportional to the accuracy of measuring its location. In other words, if a wave or particle is trapped in a very, very tiny space, where its position is limited by very narrow boundaries, then it will have a huge momentum and a correspondingly large mass. Conversely, if the extra dimensions are huge, then the wave or particle will have more room to move and therefore have less momentum and be easier to detect.

However, there is a trap hidden here: the Large Hadron Collider will only detect things like Kaluza-Klein gravitons if these particles are many, many lighter than expected, which suggests that either the additional dimensions are extremely curved, or they must be much larger than the Planck scale traditionally accepted in string theory. For example, in the Randall-Sandrum warp model, space with extra dimensions is bounded by two branes, between which there is a folded space-time. On one brane - high-energy, gravity is strong; on the other brane - low energy, gravity is weak. Because of this arrangement, mass and energy change radically depending on the position of space in relation to these two branes. This means that the mass of elementary particles, which we usually considered within the Planck scale (of the order of 10 28 electron volts), will have to be “rescaled” to a closer range, that is, up to 10 12 electron volts, or 1 tera electron volt, which already corresponds to the range of energies with which the collider operates.

The size of extra dimensions in this model may be smaller than in conventional string theory models (although such a requirement is not made), while the particles themselves must probably be much lighter and therefore have less energy than expected.

Another pioneering approach considered today was first proposed in 1998 by physicists Nima Arkani-Hamed, Savas Dimopoulos, and Gia Dvali, when they were all working at Stanford. Challenging Oskar Klein's claim that we can't see any extra dimensions due to their small size, a trio of physicists commonly referred to by the acronym ADD claimed that the extra dimensions could be larger than the Planck length, at least 10 -12 cm and , perhaps even more, up to 10 -1 cm (1 millimeter). They argued that this would be possible if our universe was "stuck" on a three-dimensional brane with an extra dimension - time, and if this three-dimensional world is all we can see.

This may seem like a rather odd argument, since the idea that the extra dimensions are very small is the assumption on which most string theory models are built. But it turns out that the generally accepted size of the Calabi-Yau space, often taken for granted, "is still an open question," Polchinski said. - Mathematicians are not interested in the size of space. In mathematics, doubling something is commonplace. But in physics, size matters because it tells you how much energy it takes to see an object.”

The ADD script not only allows you to increase the size of extra dimensions; it narrows the energy scale at which gravity and other forces become unified, and hence narrows the Planck scale. If Arkani-Hamed and his colleagues are right, then the energy generated by the collision of particles at the Large Hadron Collider can penetrate into higher dimensions, which would look like a clear violation of the laws of conservation of energy. In their model, even the strings themselves, the basic units of string theory, can become large enough to be observed - something that was previously unthinkable. The ADD team is encouraged by the opportunity to address the apparent weakness of gravity relative to other forces, given that a convincing explanation for this disparity of forces does not yet exist. The ADD theory offers a new answer: gravity is not weaker than other forces, but only seems weaker because, unlike other forces, it "leaks" into other dimensions in such a way that we feel only a tiny fraction of its true strength. An analogy can be drawn: when billiard balls collide, some of the kinetic energy of their movement, limited by the two-dimensional surface of the table, escapes in the form of sound waves into the third dimension.

Finding out the details of this leakage of energy suggests the following strategies of observation: gravity, as we know, in four-dimensional space-time obeys the inverse square law. The gravitational pull of an object is inversely proportional to the square of the distance from it. But if we add one more dimension, gravity will be inversely proportional to the cube of the distance. If we have ten dimensions, as it should be in string theory, gravity will be inversely proportional to the eighth power of the distance. In other words, the more extra dimensions there are, the weaker gravity is compared to what is measured from our 4D point of view. The electrostatic force is also inversely proportional to the square of the distance between two point charges in four-dimensional space-time, and inversely proportional to the eighth power of the distance in ten-dimensional space-time. If we consider gravity at such large distances, as is customary to operate in astronomy and cosmology, then the inverse square law works well, because in this case we are in the space of three giant dimensions plus time. We won't notice the gravitational pull in a new direction, unusual for us, which corresponds to a hidden inner dimension, until we move to a small enough scale to move in these dimensions. And since we are physically forbidden to do this, our main and probably only hope remains to look for signs of additional dimensions in the form of deviations from the inverse square law. It is this effect that physicists from the University of Washington, the University of Colorado, Stanford and other universities are looking for by making gravitational measurements at short distances.

Despite the fact that the researchers have different experimental equipment, their goals are nevertheless the same: to measure the force of gravity on a small scale with an accuracy that no one has ever dreamed of before. Eric Adelberger's team at the University of Washington, for example, is performing "torsional balance" experiments, in the spirit of those conducted by Henry Cavendish in 1798. The main goal is to infer the force of gravity by measuring the torque on a torsion pendulum.

Adelberger's group uses a small metal pendulum suspended above two metal discs that exert a gravitational force on the pendulum. The attractive forces from the two disks are balanced in such a way that if Newton's inverse square law works exactly, then the pendulum will not spin at all.

In the experiments performed so far, the pendulum has shown no sign of torsion when measured to within one tenth of a millionth of a degree. By placing the pendulum closer and closer to the disks, the researchers ruled out the existence of measurements with a radius greater than 40 microns. In his future experiments, Adelberger intends to test the inverse square law on even smaller scales, bringing the upper estimate down to 20 microns. Adelberger believes that this is not the limit. But to make measurements on even smaller scales, a different technological approach is needed.

Adelberger considers the hypothesis of large extra dimensions revolutionary, but notes that this does not make it true. We need new tactics not only to explore the question of large dimensions, but also to find answers to more general questions about the existence of extra dimensions and the validity of string theory.

This is the state of affairs today - many different ideas, of which we discussed only a small handful, and not enough sensational results to talk about. Looking to the future, Shamit Kachru, for example, hopes that a series of experiments, planned or not yet conceived, will provide many opportunities to see something new. However, he acknowledges the possibility of a less rosy scenario, suggesting that we live in a disappointing universe with few empirical clues. “If we learn nothing from cosmology, nothing from particle acceleration experiments, and nothing from laboratory experiments, then we are simply stuck,” Kachru says. Although he regards such a scenario as unlikely, since such a situation is not characteristic of either string theory or cosmology, he notes that the lack of data will affect other areas of science in a similar way.

What will we do next, after we reach the end of this section of the road empty-handed? Whether this will turn out to be an even greater test for us than the search for gravitational waves in the CMF or infinitesimal deviations in measurements on torsion balances, in any case, this will be a test of our intelligence. Every time something like this happens, every time every good idea goes wrong and every road leads to a dead end, you either give up or try to come up with other questions that you can try to find answers to.

Edward Witten, who is generally conservative in his statements, looks to the future with optimism, feeling that string theory is too good not to be true. Although he acknowledges that it will be difficult to determine exactly where we are in the near future. “In order to test string theory, we must probably have a lot of luck,” he says. “It can sound like a thin string on which someone's dreams about the theory of everything are recorded, almost as thin as the cosmic string itself. But, fortunately, in physics there are many ways to get lucky.

I have no objection to this statement and I am inclined to agree with Witten because I think it is a wise policy. But if physicists decide that luck has turned against them, they may want to turn to their fellow mathematicians, who will gladly take on part of the solution to this problem.

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7.6.1 Homogeneous predicates have the same dependent object.

7.6.2 Homogeneous members are connected by double unions not only ..., but also ...; if not ... then ... and others

7.6.3 In sentences with homogeneous members there is a generalizing word.

7.6.5 Using different syntactic elements of a sentence as homogeneous members

7.6.4 Different prepositions may be used for homogeneous terms.

7.6.6 Connection in one row of specific and generic concepts

7.6.7 The use of logically incompatible concepts in one series of homogeneous terms

7.3.1. In a complex sentence, pronouns act as subjects

7.3.2 Predicate coordination with subject, expressed word or combination of words with the meaning of quantity

A) The role of the subject is the collective name of nouns and words close to them in meaning.

B) The subject is a collective noun with a quantitative meaning

C) The combination of a numeral with a noun acts as a subject

7.3.3 Coordination between subject and verb separated from each other

A) Coordination of the subject and the compound nominal predicate in a sentence built according to the “noun. is a noun.”

B). Coordination of the predicate with the subject, in which there are clarifying members.

7.3.4 Coordination of the predicate with the subject, the gender or number of which is difficult to determine.

A) Certain categories or groups of nouns have difficulty in determining the gender or number.

B) Coordination of the predicate with the subject with the meaning of the profession

7.3.5 Subject is appendix

A) The sentence has homogeneous subjects and one predicate

B) The combination in the subject of a noun in the nominative case with a noun in the instrumental case (with the preposition c) like “brother and sister”

7.9.1 Basic rule:

7.9.2 There are a number of additional rules

a) If direct speech is a declarative sentence,

b) If direct speech is an interrogative sentence,

c) When in direct speech - an interrogative sentence there are no interrogative pronouns, adverbs, particles,

d) If direct speech is an exclamatory sentence with a call to action,

e) Particles and words that are not grammatically related to the members of the sentence

7.9.3. Special citation rules.

a) How to avoid an error if there is a quote with a pronoun?

b) Of particular note are cases of erroneous combination of two ways of introducing a quote into a sentence,

c) In the works of students there are also cases when a quote is introduced using introductory words,

7.1.1 Violation of the agreement of the participle with the word being defined

7.1.2 Participle construction and place of the main word

7.1.3. Participle turnovers, including irregular forms of participles

7.1.4. Participle turnovers, including irregular forms of pledge of participles

7.8.1 Participle turnover in a sentence with a subject

TYPE 1. A gerund and a verbal predicate expressed by a verb without the postfix -sya

TYPE 2. The gerund refers to the predicate in the form of a short passive participle

TYPE 3. The adverbial phrase is attached to the predicate-reflexive verb in the passive meaning, which has a postfix Xia

7.8.2. Participle turnover in a sentence without a subject

TYPE 4. Participle turnover in an impersonal sentence (except for type 7)

TYPE 5. Participle turnover in an indefinite personal sentence

7.8.3. Participle turnover in a sentence without a subject. Permitted tricks.

TYPE 6. The adverbial phrase refers to a verb in the imperative mood

TYPE 7. The adverbial turnover refers to the infinitive

TYPE 8. Participle turnover in a definite-personal or generalized-personal sentence

3.5.1. Folds

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