Grammar is a specific grammatical structure of the language, which includes the means of word formation, etc.

Grammar concepts:

grammatical meaning

Grammatical form

Grammatical ways (means)

Almost any word contains two meanings: lexical and grammatical. If a lexical meaning the word is individual, concrete, then the grammatical meaning is non-individual, it is abstract, it will be common to a number of words of the same type, it always has formal means of its expression. The grammatical meaning is always formally expressed in a certain way. It is related to the grammatical forms through which it is expressed.

Means (methods) of the language:

Grammatical means are functionally equivalent to affixes:

Internal inflection - significant alternations of consonants, vowels inside the root (external inflection - endings) - for example, man - men, foot - feet, read - read, sleep - sleep, there are languages ​​in which all meanings are transmitted only by internal inflection, for example Arabic.

Suppletivism is a means when the grammatical meaning is transmitted using another root (child - children, person - people, take - take, I - we, I - you - he, good - the best)

Reduplication - repetition of either the whole, or the root, or part of the word: kuni (country) - guniguni (country) (Japanese), for adjectives: kind - kind.

Addition is a word-building method, a way of forming new words: a steam locomotive, a water carrier. There are languages ​​in which all word formation is reduced to addition.

Functional words - the grammatical meaning is conveyed not inside the word, but outside it: articles (number), prepositions (subordinating relations between words in a sentence), postpositions (in those languages ​​where there are no prefixes): for God's sake, conjunctions (composing relations, between words), particles (mood), auxiliary verbs (time).

Word order - can be used as a word-formation tool, and grammatical meaning, for example, mother loves her daughter.

Stress is a means that can be used as word-building (lock - castle) and inflectional (hands - hands)

The most common way is affixation (expression of grammatical meaning using affixes), for example, in verbs: aspect, tense, person, number; for nouns: gender, case.

Depending on the expressed meaning, postfixes are divided into suffixes (having a derivational, that is, derivational meaning) and inflections (having a relational meaning, that is, indicating a connection with other members of the sentence, meaning). The suffix conveys both lexical and (more often) grammatical meaning; can translate a word from one part of speech to another (transposing function).

Inflections are word-changing affixes. traditional name inflections of the Russian language - endings, since they are mainly located at the very end of words (external inflection), foot-feet - internal inflection.

Grammatical meanings can be expressed by changes in the sound composition of the root itself. Or otherwise - internal inflection. But not all root changes are internal inflections. To do this, one must be able to distinguish different types alternations of sounds.

Phonetic - when the change in sound is due to position (water-water, each other, forehead-frontal);

Non-phonetic - the change in sound does not depend on the position, but different phonemes alternate (friend-friend-friendly);

Morphological alternation is obligatory according to tradition (stump-stump, forehead-forehead). All these alternations are a phenomenon of internal. inflections; about Grammat. the methods are the same for all languages, but languages ​​can use all and only some of them.

1. Affixation. Affixes are morphemes with grammatical meaning. They do not serve outside words, they accompany the root, serving for word formation and inflection. P r e f i k s s - before the root, post f and k s - after the root. Postfixes are divided into suffixes and inflections, division according to the principle of grammatical meaning; suffixes are word-forming affixes, and inflections are inflectional. In many languages, zero affixes play an important role - the absence of an affix in one form of the paradigm and the presence in another (horn-horn-horn).

2. Agglutination (gluing) (knit - untie - denouement) and f u s and i - (alloy) (wealth, carver), i.e. during fusion, affixes, both externally and internally, are closely soldered with roots, etc. with each other, and in the composition of these alloys, as it were, fade out.

3. Alternations and internal flexion.

Grammatical meanings can be expressed by changes in the sound composition of the root itself, or, in other words, by internal inflection. Alternations of sounds (i.e. mutual replacement in the same places, in the same morphemes) can be:

Phonetic - alternate variants of the same phoneme without changing the composition of phonemes in morphemes;

Non-phonetic - different phonemes alternate (friend-friend-friendly). Among the non-phonetic ones: morphological - alternation is obligatory according to tradition, but not for expressiveness (Stump-stump, bake-bake, simple-simplification); grammatical - such an alternation itself may be sufficient to form a word form (dry-dry, wild-game, avoid-run). This is internal inflection.

4. Repetitions - consist in the complete or partial repetition of the root, stem or the whole word without changing the sound composition or with a partial change in it. In some languages, to express plurals, as a means of amplifying a given message (No, no, a long time ago), onomatopoeic repetitions.

5. Method of addition - in one lexeme, the root is connected to the root, both full and truncated (God save, thank you, hide your nose in French - muffler), maybe through connect. vowel (surveyor, shipping company) and without connect. vowel (collective farm, people's commissariat).

6. The way of service words - they release significant words from the expression of grammar:

Prepositions - express the subordinating relationship between the members of the sentence (I'm going to the subway, I'm looking at you);

Articles are not in all languages; a sign of a name, distinction between certainty and indefiniteness, distinction of gender (in German), distinction of number (in French).

7. Way of stress: in Russian - different words from different stress: pour out, pour out; to distinguish short adjectives and adverbs: narrowly narrowly.

Found on the material of the Indo-European languages.

Synthetic ways of expressing GZ:

1) Affixation is the use of affixes to express grammatical meaning (do - do, exchange - exchange, table - table - table). The most common way of expressing GZ.

2) Internal inflection - a grammatically significant change in the phonemic composition of the root (walked - walked, wild - game, dial - dial)

3) Reduplication (repetition) - the expression of the GZ by a complete or partial repetition of the basis (walk-walk, barely, the very best).

4) Emphasis. The change in stress serves as a way of expressing the GZ. In PR, stress can distinguish between forms of nouns, moods and the form of the verb (Windows - windows, love - love, pour - pour)

5) Suppletivism - combining heterogeneous words into one grammatical pair to express the GZ (good - better, bad - worse, I - me, child - children)

Analytical ways of expressing CG:

1) Word order. Distinguishes the syntactic functions of words in a sentence (subject-object relations, relations of the defined and the definition) and the communicative types of the sentences themselves: Joy (S) replaces sadness (O) - Sadness (S) replaces joy (O); deaf scientists are deaf scientists.

2) Functional words - units that accompany significant words and free them from the expression of grammar or accompany inflectional affixation.

Prepositions (or postpositions)

Particles

Articles

Reformed also highlights auxiliary verbs, words of degree (more, less)

3) Intonation. This method does not refer to a word, but to a phrase, therefore it is associated with a sentence and its structure.

ü Distinguishes between communicative and modal characteristics of a sentence: distinguishes interrogative sentences from affirmative, expressing doubt, surprise, motivation, etc. (You wrote. Did you write? You wrote!)

ü Arrangement and gradation of pauses can divide the sentence in different ways (Walk for a long time - could not and Walk - could not walk for a long time)

ü Pausing can distinguish between simple and difficult sentence: I see a face in tears - I see: a face - in tears.

Mixed (hybrid) way of expressing the GZ:

Combines features of synthetic and analytical types.

The CG of prepositional and other cases is expressed in two ways - case inflection and preposition (tell about the conference, visit the Botanical Garden, go fishing, meet the artist)

Means of expressing CG (grammatical indicators):

1) Endings (beautiful-th-th)

2) Formative suffixes (verbs, adjectives: shouting, shouting, woven)

3) Alternation (friend-friends)

4) Emphasis (windows - Windows)

5) Prepositions (without a hat, in a hat, under a hat)

6) Intonation (I hope you are sitting comfortably? Sit.)

7) Auxiliary words (I will study, stronger)

4. Basic concepts of morphology: grammatical meaning, grammatical way, grammatical form, grammatical category. The concept of morphological paradigm.

Grammatical meaning - generalized, abstract linguistic meaning, inherent in a number of words, word forms, syntactic constructions and finding its own regular / standard expression in the language.

The grammatical way is the way of expressing the GZ

Grammatical form - regular modifications of the word, united by the identity of its LZ and differing in morphological / grammatical meanings.

GK - a system of rows opposed to each other morphological forms with uniform values.

An example of a category that has a dual position is the category of number in nouns. The GC can be recognized as a bilateral unit of the morphological level of the language, since it has a plan for the content of PS and a plan for expressing PV.

From a semantic point of view, GC is a set of homogeneous gram values. So, general meaning category of case includes the private meaning of 6 cases. Private CAs can also be composite. On the example of cases: in R.p. stand out: the values ​​of belonging, parts, subject, spatial. They are elementary and cannot be decomposed into other meanings.

From a formal point of view, GK - a set of grammatical forms that serve to express particular gram values.

GCs differ from each other:

By the nature of the relationship

By the number of opposing members

Binary opposition - number

Trinity - time

GK system in NRY

Inflectional and non-inflectional GK

inflectional- categories, the forms of members of which can be represented by forms of the same word.

Non-inflective (classification)- cannot be represented by forms of the same word.

A paradigm is an ordered set of grammatical forms of a word. Service parts of speech do not have a paradigm.

The totality of all particular paradigms is a complete paradigm. The complete paradigm of a noun consists of all forms of the singular and plural.

At the head of each complete paradigm is the original form, which has a naming function and is fixed in the dictionary.

Incomplete (scissors, barefoot, vacuuming, dusk) and redundant paradigms (tea-tea, years-summer) are also distinguished.

Words with a complete paradigm - table, fresh, run, etc.

With an incomplete (defective) paradigm - milk, barefoot (does not have a degree of comparison), dawn (because it describes the state of nature, cannot be applied to a person).

With a zero paradigm - borrowed words, for example: subway, cliche, cockatoo, burgundy, beige

With an excessive paradigm - word forms that have two paradigms (wave - wave)

Grammatical means - these are any materially expressed linguistic means that accompany the establishment of grammatical relations in the language system. Grammatical means go back either to the units of grammar (signs), or to the figures of the expression plane or the content plane. The minimal (grammatical) sign units are morphemes.

Morpheme - this is the minimum grammatical unit that serves as an element of paradigmatic and syntagmatic relations in the language system. In principle, any part of a word that can be part of a particular paradigm or syntagma can become a morpheme. There is another definition of a morpheme as the minimum meaningful part of a word. Such a definition is put forward in accordance with the lexico-grammatical principle of linguistic research. It practically excludes from the composition of morphemes parts of the word that are repeated in other words, that is, they form a paradigm, but do not have an explicit meaning. For example, indicators of classes of verbs: resh-and -t - resh-a -th. This approach greatly impoverishes the description of the grammatical possibilities of the language.

In principle, the first and second approaches to the description of grammar differ as follows: in the first approach, the main grammatical meanings of grammatical forms and models are first determined (most often, intuitively), and then ideas about grammatical forms are formed on this basis; in the second approach, grammatical forms and models are determined on the basis of grammatical relations, and only after the construction of the main grammatical models is a correlation established between them and the meanings of lexical paradigms that form grammatical categories (i.e., classes of lexical paradigms serving one or another grammatical category).

Grammatical means, which serve to differentiate grammatical categories in a language, go back either to phonetic means, or to morphological, derivational and syntactic, or to semantic means.

To grammatical means phonological(phonetic) origin include non-positional phoneme alternation (morphonemes ), or internal flexion . Morphonological alternations are quite common and frequent in Indo-European languages. For example, in Russian, morphonemes appear in word-formation relations ( fly - fly, leg - leg, hand - pen, love - love, wear - burden, drive - driving, board - plank, drain - drain, friend - friendly, flea - flea, quiet - silence), or in inflectional forms of verbs ( to carry - I drive, to write - I write, to walk - I go, to save - I save, to plow - to plow, to dip - to piss, to cope - I will manage. Examples from English: child - children, tooth - teeth, mouse - mice, woman - women, foot - feet, speak - spoke - spoken, see - saw - seen, take - took - taken, be - was (were) - been.

The next grammatical means of phonological origin is stress , For example: hands - arms, legs - legs. AT English language: export – export.

In some cases, the grammatical means of phonological origin is intonation . With the help of intonation, we can distinguish between sentences according to the purpose of the statement: It's a good weather today. It's a good weather today? It's a good weather today! The tired mother needed rest. Tired, the mother needed rest. With the help of intonation, the types of complex sentences change: The forest is cut, chips fly ...(intonation of enumeration in a compound sentence). They cut the forest - the chips fly(contrast intonation in a non-union sentence of a temporary type).

The next group of grammatical means has morphological, derivational or syntactic origin. Morphological and derivational forms are formed with the help of morphemes.

The term "morpheme" itself was introduced into linguistics by I.A. Baudouin de Courtenay. He also created the first classification of morphemes, focusing mainly on the Indo-European languages. The root is the central component of words in all languages ​​of the world. Root - this is the central morpheme of the word, constituting the epidigm (the main, constant part) of word-formation relations. The root is an independent morpheme in the composition of the word. It can match the word itself. The remaining morphemes in the composition of the word are auxiliary and are called affixes . Affixes that appear before the root in a word are called prefixes , or attachments. The affixes that are in the word after the root, I.A. Baudouin de Courtenay called postfixes . This manual retains exactly this meaning of the term "postfix".

Postfixes are divided into suffixes, inflections and post-inflections.

Suffix is a service morpheme, which is the main indicator of the word-formation paradigm. For example, the suffix -tel serves as an indicator of the grammatical word-formation paradigm, which includes words that have the meaning of an agent or instrument ( writer, heater).

Flexion , or inflectional ending, is a service morpheme that forms paradigms that are part of the inflectional epidigm. For example, inflection Ø (zero inflection) in the word house, flexion -a in the word hand, -about in the word window and -s in the word tables form a paradigm of the nominative case of a Russian noun, and inflections Ø ( house), -a (Houses), -y (home), -ohm (home), -e (in home) form a case epidigm of masculine nouns singular with a solid base.

Postflexion , which in the linguistic literature is not quite correctly called a postfix, is a service morpheme that comes after inflection and is an indicator of either a new word-formation paradigm or a categorical grammatical form. An example is post-inflection -sya In russian language: wear - rush, torture - try(word formation), wash - wash, shave - shave(various categorical grammatical forms).

Interfix - a service morpheme, which is a means of connecting two or more roots in one compound word. For example, interfixes -about- and -e-: plumbing, fire extinguisher, dustproof, employer, helicopter, airplane, steamship, oil refinery, stud farm, shrew.

Confix − is a combination of a prefix and a suffix that forms a new word, for example, district. This word was formed by the prefix behind- and suffix - j: no word exists * speech and * districts. Word windowsill formed by confix sub-nick because there are no words in the language * windowsill and * subwindow. Word direction formed by confix na- -enij-(e), missing words * right, *direction, and the word governing body not lexically related to the word direction.

Infix - this is a service morpheme (affix), which is inserted inside the root to form a new grammatical form. For example, in Indonesian word sulat means "letter" sumulat- "write"

Transfix - this is a complex service distant morpheme, consisting of a number of sound means, which is dissectedly inserted between the sound components of the word. This phenomenon is observed in Arabic languages. For example, sound system ktb serves as a root morpheme denoting something related to the processes of learning and understanding: kataba- write,kutiba- written,maktab- school,kitab- book.

Word-building grammatical forms are formed with the help of prefixes, suffixes and post-inflections ( beat - kill, boil - boiler, blow - pout). Categorical grammatical forms can be formed using prefixes, sometimes suffixes and post-inflections ( write - write, walk - walk, scratch - itch). Inflectional forms are usually formed by inflections ( I write - you write, I sleep - I sleep, I carry - I carry).

The grammatical means of syntactic origin include word order and change of grammatical links . In Russian, with its inflectional structure, word order acts as a grammatical tool extremely rarely, for example: Red Rose (red- definition), Red rose (red- predicate) mother loves daughter (mother- loving subject daughter loves mother (daughter- loving subject). In English, word order acts as a grammatical tool much more often.

The grammatical means of lexical origin include repetitions (reduplication), addition of words and suppletivism . In Russian, repetitions of words act as a means of word formation. Wed: barely and barely, a little and a little, few and little by little. A similar role is played by repetitions in the Turkic languages, for example: zhylky-soap(horses and other cattle), expressions like ball-bar(rags), shirli-myrli, shurum-burum. In the languages ​​of the Austronesian family, reduplication serves as a plural expression: arang(Human), arang- arang(people), sudara(comrade), sudara- sudara(comrades).

Addition includes cases of combining different roots or their abbreviations into one word: hut-reading room, raincoat-tent, plant-combine, wall newspaper, steam locomotive, people's commissariat, show business.

In Indo-European languages, there are cases when a new word acts as a form of the original word. For example, man - people, child - children, good - better, bad - worse. The phenomenon of the formation of word forms with the help of other lexemes is called suppletivism.

Formal grammatical means E. V. Klobukov

Formal grammatical means are of two types: paradigmatic and syntagmatic. The paradigm of a word is the totality of all grammatical varieties (word forms) given word. The ability of a word to form a paradigm is called inflection. Some words have no inflection: they always appear in the same form (for example, service words y, but, only). Such words have zero paradigm. But for most words in the Russian language, the paradigm is not zero. Thus, the morphological inflectional paradigm of the word school is formed by word forms: school, school, school, school, school, (o) school; schools, schools, schools, schools, schools, (o) schools.

There are two types of word forms: synthetic (simple) and analytical (compound). Synthetic word forms consist of the stem of the word and inflectional affixes - endings (inflection) and formative suffixes (see section "Morfemics"): house-∅ (zero ending), school-a, chita-l-i (formative suffix -l and ending -i), run-ysh-y, fast-eysh-y.

In the formation of analytical word forms, auxiliary words play the same role as inflectional affixes in the structure of synthetic word forms. For example, by adding the future tense forms of the auxiliary verb to be to the infinitive of imperfective verbs (read, run, etc.), we get analytic form future tense: I will read, I will run. Sometimes in the paradigm of a word there are both synthetic and analytical word forms: the strongest and the strongest, warmer and warmer. In paradigms of nouns, numerals and pronouns - only synthetic word forms; adjectives, verbs, adverbs and impersonal predicative words are characterized by both synthetic and analytical word forms.

For morphology, inflection has always been the main object of study, because inflectional means - endings and formative suffixes as part of synthetic word forms, auxiliary words as part of analytical word forms - are effective means of expression grammatical meanings. So, thanks to the opposition of endings in the word forms student - students, journal - journals, the meanings of the singular ~ plural are expressed; in contrasting word forms I decided - I decide - I will decide, temporary meanings are expressed. Endings, formative suffixes and auxiliary words are paradigmatic means of expressing the grammatical meaning of a word (since they participate in the formation of the inflectional paradigm of a word). In addition to the main paradigmatic means, there are additional, often accompanying these basic means of expressing grammatical meaning: 1) alternation (alternation) of phonemes in the stem: run - run, sleep - sleep (fluent vowel); 2) increase, truncation or alternation of suffixes in the base: brother - brothers (brother-j-a), peasant - peasants, give - give, dance - dance; 3) suppletivism - alternation of roots: I go - I went, a person - people; 4) stress: tree - trees, was - were.

The grammatical meanings of words are expressed not only paradigmatically, but also in the phrase, i.e. syntagmatically. For example, in phrases A new book, new books, the meaning of a number is expressed not only by the endings of the noun, but also by the endings of the adjective that agrees with this noun. Here paradigmatic and syntagmatic means of expressing grammatical meanings complement one another. And in cases where there are no paradigmatic means of expressing grammatical meaning, the only means is the grammatical syntagmatics (compatibility) of the word. For example, if the noun does not have outwardly different endings, i.e., is "indeclinable" (coat, thermal power plant, etc.), the grammatical meaning of the number can only be expressed "outside" the noun itself, in the consistent forms of the adjective: new / new coats , powerful/powerful CHP. These examples show that morphology, as a grammatical doctrine of a word, must take into account all means of expressing grammatical meanings, both paradigmatic and syntagmatic. Sometimes the word order in a sentence should also be taken into account; cf. different case meanings for the words mother, daughter in sentences Mother loves daughter; Daughter loves mother.

Bibliography

For the preparation of this work, materials from the site http://rusjaz.da.ru/