New countries are emerging with alarming regularity. At the beginning of the 20th century, there were only a few dozen independent sovereign states on the planet. And today there are already almost 200 of them! Once a country has been formed, it will last for a long time, so the disappearance of a country is extremely rare. Behind last century There were very few such cases. But if a country breaks up, then it completely disappears from the face of the Earth: along with the flag, the government and everything else. Below are ten of the most famous countries that once existed and prospered, but ceased to exist for one reason or another.

10. German Democratic Republic (GDR), 1949-1990

Created after World War II in a sector controlled by the Soviet Union, the German Democratic Republic was best known for its Wall and its tendency to shoot people who tried to cross it.

The wall was demolished with the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1990. After its demolition, Germany reunited and became a whole state again. However, at first, because the German Democratic Republic was quite poor, unification with the rest of Germany nearly bankrupted the country. On this moment Things got better in Germany.

9. Czechoslovakia, 1918-1992


Founded on the ruins of the old Austro-Hungarian Empire, Czechoslovakia was one of the most vibrant democracies in Europe before World War II. Betrayed by England and France in 1938 in Munich, it was completely occupied by Germany and disappeared from the world map by March 1939. Later it was occupied by the Soviets, who made it one of the vassals of the USSR. It was part of the Soviet Union's sphere of influence until its collapse in 1991. After the collapse, it again became a prosperous democratic state.

This should have been the end of this story, and, probably, the state would have been intact to this day if ethnic Slovaks living in the eastern half of the country had not demanded secession into an independent state, dividing Czechoslovakia in two in 1992.

Today, Czechoslovakia no longer exists; in its place there is the Czech Republic in the west and Slovakia in the east. Although, given the fact that the Czech Republic's economy is thriving, Slovakia, which is not doing so well, probably regrets secession.

8. Yugoslavia, 1918-1992

Like Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia was a product of the collapse of the Austro-Hungarian Empire as a result of World War II. Consisting mainly of parts of Hungary and the original territory of Serbia, Yugoslavia unfortunately did not follow the more intelligent example of Czechoslovakia. Instead, it was something of an autocratic monarchy before the Nazis invaded the country in 1941. After that it was under German occupation. After the Nazis were defeated in 1945, Yugoslavia did not become part of the USSR but became a communist country under the leadership of socialist dictator Marshal Josip Tito, leader of a partisan army during World War II. Yugoslavia remained a non-aligned authoritarian socialist republic until 1992, when internal conflicts and intransigent nationalism resulted in civil war. After it, the country broke up into six small states (Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia, Macedonia and Montenegro), becoming a clear example of what might happen if cultural, ethnic and religious assimilation goes wrong.

7. Austro-Hungarian Empire, 1867-1918

While all the countries that found themselves on the losing side after the First World War found themselves in unsightly economic and geographical location, none of them lost more than the Austro-Hungarian Empire, which was picked off like a roast turkey in a homeless shelter. From the collapse of the once huge empire, such modern countries as Austria, Hungary, Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia emerged, and part of the empire’s lands went to Italy, Poland and Romania.

So why did it fall apart while its neighbor, Germany, remained intact? Yes, because it did not have a common language and self-determination; instead, it was inhabited by various ethnic and religious groups that, to put it mildly, did not get along with each other. Overall, the Austro-Hungarian Empire suffered what Yugoslavia endured, only on a much larger scale when it was torn apart by ethnic hatred. The only difference was that the Austro-Hungarian Empire was torn apart by the victors, and the collapse of Yugoslavia was internal and spontaneous.

6. Tibet, 1913-1951

Although the territory known as Tibet existed for over a thousand years, it did not become an independent state until 1913. However, under the peaceful tutelage of a succession of Dalai Lamas, it eventually clashed with Communist China in 1951 and was occupied by Mao's forces, thus ending its brief existence as a sovereign state. In the 1950s, China occupied Tibet, which became more and more unrest until Tibet finally rebelled in 1959. This led to China annexing the region and dissolving the Tibetan government. Thus, Tibet ceased to exist as a country and instead became a "region" instead of a country. Today, Tibet is a huge tourist attraction for the Chinese government, even though there is infighting between Beijing and Tibet due to Tibet again demanding independence.

5. South Vietnam, 1955-1975


South Vietnam was created by the forced expulsion of the French from Indochina in 1954. Someone decided that dividing Vietnam in two around the 17th parallel would be a good idea, leaving Communist Vietnam in the north and pseudo-democratic Vietnam in the south. As in the case of Korea, nothing good came of it. The situation led to war between South and North Vietnam, which eventually involved the United States. For the United States of America, this war became one of the most devastating and expensive wars in which America has ever been involved. As a result, torn by internal divisions, America withdrew its troops from Vietnam and left it to its own devices in 1973. For two years, Vietnam, divided in two, fought until North Vietnam, backed by the Soviet Union, seized control of the country, eliminating South Vietnam forever. The capital of the former South Vietnam, Saigon, was renamed Ho Chi Minh City. Since then, Vietnam has been a socialist utopia.

4. United Arab Republic, 1958-1971


This is another failed attempt to unite the Arab world. The Egyptian president, an ardent socialist, Gamal Abdel Nasser, believed that unification with Egypt's distant neighbor, Syria, would lead to the fact that their common enemy, Israel, would be surrounded on all sides, and that the united country would become a super- strength of the region. Thus, the short-lived United Arab Republic was created - an experiment that was doomed to fail from the very beginning. Being separated by several hundred kilometers, creating a centralized government seemed an impossible task, plus Syria and Egypt could never agree on what their national priorities were.

The problem would be resolved if Syria and Egypt united and destroyed Israel. But their plans were thwarted by the inappropriate Six Day War of 1967, which destroyed their plans for a shared border and turned the United Arab Republic into a defeat of biblical proportions. After this, the days of the alliance were numbered, and the UAR eventually dissolved with the death of Nasser in 1970. Without a charismatic Egyptian president to maintain the fragile alliance, the UAR quickly disintegrated, restoring Egypt and Syria as separate states.

3. Ottoman Empire, 1299-1922


One of the greatest empires in all of human history, the Ottoman Empire collapsed in November 1922, after surviving for over 600 years. It once stretched from Morocco to the Persian Gulf and from Sudan to Hungary. Its collapse was the result of a long process of disintegration over many centuries; by the beginning of the 20th century, only a shadow of its former glory remained.

But even then it remained an influential force in the Middle East and North Africa, and, most likely, would have remained so today if it had not participated in the First World War on the losing side. After the First World War it was disbanded, its largest part (Egypt, Sudan and Palestine) went to England. In 1922, it became useless and eventually collapsed completely when the Turks won their War of Independence in 1922 and terrified the Sultanate, creating modern Turkey in the process. However, the Ottoman Empire deserves respect for its long existence despite everything.

2. Sikkim, 8th century AD-1975

Have you never heard of this country? Where have you been all this time? Well, seriously, how could you not know about small, landlocked Sikkim, securely nestled in the Himalayas between India and Tibet... that is, China. About the size of a hot dog stand, it was one of those obscure, forgotten monarchies that managed to survive into the 20th century, until its citizens realized that they had no particular reason to remain an independent state, and decided to merge with modern India in 1975.

What was remarkable about this small state? Yes, because, despite his incredibly small size, he had eleven official languages, which probably created chaos when signing road signs - this is assuming that there were roads in Sikkim.

1. Union of Soviets Socialist Republics(Soviet Union), 1922-1991


It is difficult to imagine the history of the world without the participation of the Soviet Union in it. One of the most powerful countries on the planet, which collapsed in 1991, for seven decades it was a symbol of friendship among peoples. It was formed after the collapse of the Russian Empire after the First World War and flourished for many decades. The Soviet Union defeated the Nazis when the efforts of all other countries were insufficient to stop Hitler. The Soviet Union almost went to war with the United States in 1962, an event called the Cuban Missile Crisis.

After the Soviet Union collapsed following the fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989, it split into fifteen sovereign states, creating the largest bloc of countries since the collapse of the Austro-Hungarian Empire in 1918. Now the main successor to the Soviet Union is democratic Russia.

The seizure or forcible annexation of all or part of a territory is called annexation and is considered a manifestation of aggression of one state towards another. In the light latest events happened in the world, we invite you to learn about nine states that annexed other territories in the 20th century.

Annexation of Kuwait by Iraq - 1990

In July 1990, Saddam Hussein demanded that Kuwait forgive Iraq's debt and pay compensation in the amount of $2.5 billion. for allegedly illegal production of Iraqi oil by Kuwait. However, the Kuwaiti emir did not accept this demand. As a result, Iraqi troops began to converge on the borders of Kuwait, and on August 2, the Iraqi army invaded Kuwaiti territory. By the end of August, Kuwait was declared the 19th province of Iraq.

Annexation of the Golan Heights by Israel - 1981

Laws on the Israeli annexation of the east of Jerusalem and the Golan Heights were proclaimed by the Israeli Knesset on July 30, 1980 and December 14, 1981. Israel announced the granting of Israeli citizenship to the residents of these territories, as well as the full extension of Israeli legislation to these territories. However, the UN Security Council condemned this annexation and it was declared invalid.

Annexation of Sikkim by India - 1975

Indian Prime Minister Kazi Lhendup Dorjee Khangsarpa proposed to the Indian Parliament in 1975 that Sikkim be made a state of India. In April, Sikkim was occupied by Indian troops. As a result of the referendum, 97.5% of voters supported joining India. And on May 16, 1975, Sikkim officially became a state of India.

Annexation of Goa by India – 1961

In December 1961, Goa was occupied by Indian troops and declared a "union territory" along with Daman and Diu, after which the 451-year-old Portuguese rule in Goa came to an end. Portugal recognized Indian sovereignty over Goa only after the 1974 revolution. The state of Goa was carved out of the union territory in 1987.

Annexation o. Rockall UK - 1955

Rockall Island - an uninhabited rock in Atlantic Ocean was annexed by Great Britain, with which a number of countries still disagree. The nationality of the islet and its surrounding waters is disputed by Ireland, Denmark (Faroe Islands) and Iceland. Rockall's nationality dispute is over exploration and fishing rights to the surrounding Rockall Bank, Rockall Trough and Rockall Plateau.

Annexation of the Baltic States by the USSR - 1939-1941.

The secret protocol to the non-aggression pact between Germany and the USSR, signed on August 23, 1939, divided the spheres of influence: Estonia, Latvia, part of Finland and eastern Poland were included in the sphere of influence of the USSR, and Lithuania and western Poland were included in Germany. Within two years, Estonia, Lithuania and Latvia were annexed by the Soviet Union under the guise of helping fraternal peoples. Churchill wrote: “The surrender of the peoples of the Baltic countries to power Soviet Russia against their will, will contradict all the principles for which we are waging this war and will disgrace our cause.”

Annexation of Czechoslovakia by Germany -1938

In 1938, 14 million people lived in Czechoslovakia, of which 3.5 million were ethnic Germans living compactly in the Sudetenland, as well as in Slovakia and Transcarpathian Ukraine (Carpathian Germans). The industry of Czechoslovakia, including the military, was one of the most developed in Europe. In accordance with the Munich Agreement, the annexation of the Sudetenland was carried out, and very quickly and successfully. This was the first step towards the occupation of Czechoslovakia and the elimination of the independence of the country as a whole.

Annexation of Austria by Germany – 1938

The incorporation of Austria into Germany took place on March 12-13, 1938. As a result of the Anschluss, the territory of Germany increased by 17%, the population by 10% (by 6.7 million people). By annexing Austria, Hitler received even more funds for a further offensive in the Balkans. In 1945, Austrian independence was restored.

Annexation of Bessarabia by Romania – 1918

Until 1918, Bessarabia was part of the Russian Empire, and the annexation was not recognized by the Soviet government. On the maps produced by the USSR, this territory was designated as occupied by Romania. Bessarabia was part of Romania for 22 years from March 27 (April 9), 1918, when Sfatul Tarii (Council of the Region) of Moldova Democratic Republic voted for annexation until June 28, 1940, when, after notes from the Soviet government on the transfer of Bessarabia to the Soviet Union, the Red Army was introduced into its territory.

According to the authors, Russia is impossible to conquer not only because of the well-known “General Frost” (although for many countries the Russian climate alone is an insurmountable obstacle in winter). It is extremely difficult to invade Russia, as any history student knows, the publication writes. For example, when Napoleon entered the country in 1812, the Russians destroyed cities and other infrastructure as they retreated. They would rather destroy their country than hand it over to the enemy, the author is sure.

Additionally, any invader must remember that Russia is the world's largest country, divided into 11 time zones. But that's not all. On the territory of the Russian Federation you can find a variety of climatic zones - from polar to subtropical. We should not forget about Russia’s closest neighbors, many of whom are still ready to take up arms to protect their ally. This further expands the geography of a possible invasion due to the Kazakh steppes, the Caucasus mountains, etc.

The Russians themselves are hardy and skilled warriors and good hunters, writes We Are The Mighty. They do not need to be forced to fight the invaders, because they grew up on stories about the Great Patriotic War which their ancestors won.

For a similar reason, it will not be possible to capture the United States, the author of the article believes. After all, the invader will have to face not only the well-armed United States Army, but also all 330 million American citizens, most of whom own weapons.

As with Russia, another significant obstacle to invasion will be the country's vast territory and varied climate. Another rather unexpected advantage that We Are The Mighty writes about is the numerous street gangs operating on the streets of major American cities. It is expected that they will also cause a lot of trouble for the invaders, complicating the already difficult occupation of megacities.

The secret of Afghanistan's invincibility is its topography. None of the empires, which included the largest British Empire in history and two superpowers - the USSR and the USA, managed to conquer this country. The desert “bowl”, surrounded by high and extensive mountain ranges, became an insurmountable obstacle for the invaders. In case of defeat, Afghans can always take refuge in the mountains to recover and prepare for new battles. In addition, the mountains neutralize all the advantages of tanks and armored vehicles.

Another important factor is the country's population, which consists of several dozen different ethnic groups. Afghans are loyal to their clans, tribes, sheikhs, country, religion, etc. In the event of an invasion, the invader must subjugate more than 34 million people to his will.

Another invincible country is China. An invading invader must be prepared to fight a billion Chinese. Of course, not all of them are armed and trained to fight, but it won't take long for the government to start distributing weapons to the population. Additional problems for invaders will create complex climatic conditions and the length of Chinese borders.

If the intervention troops are not destroyed by the People's Liberation Army of China, they will have to face tropical diseases and various ailments associated with overpopulation, writes We Are The Mighty.

We should not forget that the Chinese know how to masterfully copy foreign technologies, so they will not have problems with equipment and equipment.

Listing invincible countries India may come as a surprise to many. However, the rugged mountain passes in the north and east of the country, as well as the vast desert areas in the northwest, can pose an insurmountable obstacle to those who decide to attack India.

The most preferred place for landing troops and launching an invasion is the beaches in the southeast of the country. However, the humid tropical climate can cause a lot of trouble for invaders. In addition, territorial waters will be controlled by Indian Navy submarines, which will be able to sink warships, and enemy landing craft.

Since gaining independence, India has had many conflicts with its closest neighbors - China and Pakistan. The country's defense strategy is based on fighting a war on two fronts - and the Indian armed forces are ready for this.

An almost unlimited number of workers, religious fervor and a population of billions also make India a formidable adversary, the author of the article concludes.

The Franco-Prussian War of 1870–1871 ended the era of the formation of nation states in Western Europe; on European continent a relative political balance was established - not a single power had a military, political or economic advantage that would allow it to establish its hegemony; For more than forty years, Europe (with the exception of its southeastern part) got rid of military conflicts. The political energy of European states turned beyond the continent; their efforts concentrated on dividing up undivided territories in Africa, Asia and the Pacific. Along with the old colonial powers (Great Britain, France, Russia), new European states - Germany and Italy - took an active part in colonial expansion, as well as the USA and Japan, which made a decisive historical choice in favor of political, social and economic modernization in the 1860s (North-South War 1861–1865; Meiji Revolution 1867).

Among the reasons for intensifying overseas expansion, political and military-strategic ones came first: the desire to create world empire was dictated both by considerations of national prestige and by the desire to establish military-political control over strategically important regions of the world and prevent the expansion of rivals' possessions. Demographic factors also played a certain role: population growth in the metropolises and the presence of “human surplus” - those who were socially unclaimed in their homeland and were ready to seek success in distant colonies. There were also economic (especially commercial) motives - the search for markets and sources of raw materials; however, in many cases economic development occurred very slowly; often colonial powers, having established control over a particular territory, actually “forgot” about it; most often, economic interests turned out to be leading in the subordination of the relatively developed and richest countries of the East (Persia, China). Cultural penetration also occurred rather slowly, although the “duty” of Europeans to “civilize” savage and unenlightened peoples acted as one of the main justifications for colonial expansion. Notions of the natural cultural superiority of the Anglo-Saxon, Germanic, Latin, or Yellow (Japanese) races were used primarily to justify their right to politically subjugate other ethnic groups and to seize foreign lands.

The main objects of colonial expansion in the last quarter of the 19th century. Africa, Oceania and the not yet divided parts of Asia turned out to be.

Section of Africa.

By the mid-1870s, Europeans owned African continent part of the coastal strip. The largest colonies were Algeria (French), Senegal (French), Cape Colony (British), Angola (Port.) and Mozambique (Port.). In addition, the British controlled Sudan, which was dependent on Egypt, and in the south of the continent there were two sovereign states of the Boers (descendants of Dutch settlers) - the Republic of South Africa (Transvaal) and the Orange Free State.

North Africa.

North Africa, the part of the continent closest to Europe, attracted the attention of the leading colonial powers - France, Great Britain, Germany, Italy and Spain. Egypt was the subject of rivalry between Great Britain and France, Tunisia between France and Italy, Morocco between France, Spain and (later) Germany; Algeria was the primary object of interest for France, and Tripolitania and Cyrenaica for Italy.

The opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 sharply intensified the Anglo-French struggle for Egypt. The weakening of France after the Franco-Prussian War of 1870–1871 forced it to cede a leading role in Egyptian affairs to Great Britain. In 1875, the British bought a controlling stake in the Suez Canal. True, in 1876 joint Anglo-French control over Egyptian finances was established. However, during the Egyptian crisis of 1881–1882, caused by the rise of the patriotic movement in Egypt (the Arabi Pasha movement), Great Britain managed to push France into the background. As a result military expedition in July-September 1882 Egypt found itself occupied by the British and actually became a British colony.

At the same time, France managed to win the fight for the western part of North Africa. In 1871, Italy attempted to annex Tunisia, but was forced to retreat under pressure from France and Great Britain. In 1878, the British government agreed not to interfere with the French seizure of Tunisia. Taking advantage of a minor conflict on the Algerian-Tunisian border in March 1881, France invaded Tunisia (April-May 1881) and forced the Bey of Tunisia to sign the Treaty of Bardos on May 12, 1881, effectively establishing a French protectorate (formally proclaimed June 8, 1883). Italy's plans to acquire Tripolitania and the Tunisian port of Bizerte failed. In 1896 it recognized the French protectorate over Tunisia.

In the 1880s and 1890s, France concentrated on expanding its Algerian possessions in the southern (Saharan) and western (Moroccan) directions. In November 1882, the French captured the Mzab region with the cities of Ghardaia, Guerrara and Berrian. During a military campaign from October 1899 to May 1900, they annexed the southern Moroccan oases of Insalah, Touat, Tidikelt and Gurara. In August-September 1900, control was established over Southwestern Algeria.

At the beginning of the 20th century. France began preparing to take over the Sultanate of Morocco. In exchange for recognizing Tripolitania as the sphere of interests of Italy, and Egypt as the sphere of interests of Great Britain, France was given free rein in Morocco (secret Italian-French agreement of January 1, 1901, Anglo-French treaty of April 8, 1904). On October 3, 1904, France and Spain reached an agreement on the division of the Sultanate. However, German opposition prevented the French from establishing a protectorate over Morocco in 1905–1906 (the first Moroccan crisis); however, the Algeciras Conference (January-April 1906), although it recognized the independence of the sultanate, at the same time sanctioned the establishment of French control over its finances, army and police. In 1907, the French occupied a number of areas on the Algerian-Moroccan border (primarily the Oujada district) and the most important Moroccan port of Casablanca. In May 1911 they occupied Fez, the capital of the sultanate. The new Franco-German conflict caused by this (the second Moroccan (Agadir) crisis) in June-October 1911 was resolved by a diplomatic compromise: according to the treaty of November 4, 1911, for the cession of part of the French Congo, Germany agreed to a French protectorate in Morocco. The official establishment of the protectorate occurred on March 30, 1912. According to the Franco-Spanish treaty on November 27, 1912, Spain received the northern coast of the sultanate from the Atlantic to the lower reaches of Mului with the cities of Ceuta, Tetuan and Melilla, and also retained the southern Moroccan port of Ifni (Santa- Cruz de Mar Pequeña). At the request of Great Britain, the Tangier district was turned into an international zone.

As a result of the Italo-Turkish War (September 1911 - October 1912), the Ottoman Empire ceded Tripolitania, Cyrenaica and Fezzan to Italy (Treaty of Lausanne October 18, 1912); from them the colony of Libya was formed.

West Africa.

France played a major role in the colonization of West Africa. The main object of her aspirations was the Niger Basin. French expansion went in two directions - eastern (from Senegal) and northern (from the Guinean coast).

The colonization campaign began in the late 1870s. Moving east, the French encountered two African states located in the upper reaches of the Niger - Ségou Sikoro (Sultan Ahmadou) and Uasulu (Sultan Toure Samori). On March 21, 1881, Ahmad formally ceded to them the lands from the sources of the Niger to Timbuktu (French Sudan). During the war of 1882–1886, having defeated Samori, the French reached Niger in 1883 and built their first fort in Sudan here - Bamako. By agreement on March 28, 1886, Samori recognized the dependence of his empire on France. In 1886–1888, the French extended their power to the territory south of Senegal all the way to the English Gambia. In 1890–1891 they conquered the kingdom of Segu-Sikoro; in 1891 they entered into a final battle with Samori; in 1893–1894, having occupied Masina and Timbuktu, they established control over the middle reaches of the Niger; in 1898, having defeated the state of Uasulu, they finally established themselves in its upper reaches.

On the Guinea coast, the French strongholds were trading posts on the Ivory Coast and the Slave Coast; back in 1863–1864 they acquired the port of Cotona and the protectorate over Porto Novo. In this region, France faced competition from other European powers - Great Britain, which in the early 1880s launched expansion on the Gold Coast and in the Lower Niger basin (Lagos colony), and Germany, which established a protectorate over Togo in July 1884. In 1888, the British, having defeated the state of Great Benin, subjugated vast territories in the lower reaches of the Niger (Benin, Calabar, the kingdom of Sokoto, part of the Hausan principalities). However, the French managed to get ahead of their rivals. As a result of the victory in 1892–1894 over the powerful kingdom of Dahomey, which blocked the French from accessing the Niger from the south, the western and southern streams of French colonization were united, while the British, who encountered stubborn resistance from the Ashanti Federation, were unable to break through to the Niger from the Gold Coast region; the Ashanti were conquered only in 1896. The English and German colonies on the Guinea coast found themselves surrounded on all sides by French possessions. By 1895, France had completed the conquest of the lands between Senegal and the Ivory Coast, calling them French Guinea, and pressed small English (Gambia, Sierra Leone) and Portuguese (Guinea) colonies to the West African coast. On August 5, 1890, an Anglo-French agreement on delimitation in West Africa was concluded, which set a limit to English expansion to the north: the British protectorate of Nigeria was limited to the lower reaches of the Niger, the Benue region and the territory extending to the southwestern shore of Lake. Chad. Togo's borders were established by Anglo-German agreements on July 28, 1886 and November 14, 1899, and by a Franco-German agreement on July 27, 1898.

Having captured the territory from Senegal to Lake. Chad, French in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. launched an offensive north into areas populated mainly by Arabs. In 1898–1911 they subjugated a vast territory east of the Niger (Air plateau, Tenere region), in 1898–1902 - the lands north of its middle reaches (Azawad region, Iforas plateau), in 1898-1904 - the area north of Senegal (Auker and Al-Jouf regions). Most of Western Sudan (modern Senegal, Guinea, Mauritania, Mali, Upper Volta, Cote d'Ivoire, Benin and Niger) came under French control.

The Spaniards managed to gain a foothold in the northwestern part of West Africa (modern Western Sahara). In September 1881, they began the colonization of Rio de Oro (the coast between Cape Blanco and Cape Bojador), and in 1887 they declared it a zone of their interests. Under treaties with France on October 3, 1904 and November 27, 1912, they expanded their colony to the north, annexing the southern Moroccan region of Seguiet el-Hamra.

Central Africa.

Equatorial Africa turned out to be an area of ​​struggle between Germany, France and Belgium. The strategic goal of these powers was to establish control over Central Sudan and penetrate the Nile Valley.

In 1875, the French (P. Savorgnan de Brazza) began to advance east from the mouth of Ogove (northwestern Gabon) to the lower reaches of the Congo; in September 1880 they declared a protectorate over the Congo Valley from Brazzaville to the confluence of the Ubangi. At the same time, expansion in the Congo basin began in 1879 by the International African Association, which was under the patronage of the Belgian King Leopold II (1865–1909); The expeditions she organized were headed by the English traveler G. M. Stanley. The rapid advance of the Belgians in the Nile direction displeased Great Britain, which prompted Portugal, which owned Angola, to declare its “historical” rights to the mouth of the Congo; in February 1884, the British government officially recognized the Congolese coast as a sphere of Portuguese influence. In July 1884, Germany declared a protectorate over the coast from the northern border of Spanish Guinea to Calabar and began to expand its possessions in the eastern and northeastern directions (Cameroon). As a result of de Brazza's second expedition (April 1883 - May 1885), the French subjugated the entire right bank of the Congo (French Congo), which led to conflict with the Association. To solve the Congo problem, the Berlin Conference was convened (November 1884 - February 1885), which made a division Central Africa: the Congo Free State was created in the Congo Basin, led by Leopold II; the right bank remained with the French; Portugal abandoned its claims. In the second half of the 1880s, the Belgians undertook a broad expansion to the south, east and north: in the south they conquered the lands in the upper Congo, including Katanga, in the east they reached Lake. Tanganyika, in the north approached the sources of the Nile. However, their expansion encountered strong opposition from France and Germany. In 1887, the Belgians tried to occupy the areas north of the Ubangi and Mbomou rivers, but in 1891 they were driven out of there by the French. According to the Anglo-Belgian Treaty on May 12, 1894, the “Free State” received the left bank of the Nile from Lake. Albert to Fashoda, but under pressure from France and Germany he had to limit his advance north to the Ubangi-Mbomou line (agreement with France of August 14, 1894).

The German advance from Cameroon into central Sudan was also stopped. The Germans managed to expand their possessions to the upper reaches of the Benue and even reach the lake. Chad is in the north, but the western passage to Central Sudan (through the Adamawa Mountains and the Borno region) was closed by the British (Anglo-German Treaty of November 15, 1893), and the eastern route through the river. Shari was cut off by the French, who won the “race to Chad”; The Franco-German agreement on February 4, 1894 established the eastern border of German Cameroon as the southern bank of Chad and the lower reaches of the Chari and its tributary Logone.

As a result of the expeditions of P. Krampel and I. Dybovsky in 1890–1891, the French reached the lake. Chad. By 1894, the area between the Ubangi and Shari rivers (the Upper Ubangi colony; modern Central African Republic) came under their control. By agreement with Great Britain on March 21, 1899, the Wadai region between Chad and Darfur fell into the French sphere of influence. In October 1899 - May 1900, the French defeated the Rabah Sultanate, occupying the regions of Bargimi (lower Shari) and Kanem (east of Lake Chad). In 1900–1904 they advanced even further north up to the Tibesti highlands, subjugating Borka, Bodele and Tibba (the northern part of modern Chad). As a result, the southern stream of French colonization merged with the western one, and West African possessions merged with Central African ones into a single massif.

South Africa.

In South Africa, the main force of European expansion was Great Britain. In their advance from the Cape Colony to the north, the British had to deal not only with native tribes, but also with the Boer republics.

In 1877 they occupied the Transvaal, but after the Boer uprising at the end of 1880 they were forced to recognize the independence of the Transvaal in exchange for its renunciation of an independent foreign policy and attempts to expand its territory to the east and west.

In the late 1870s, the British began fighting for control of the coast between the Cape Colony and Portuguese Mozambique. In 1880 they defeated the Zulus and turned Zululand into their colony. In April 1884, Germany entered into competition with Great Britain in southern Africa, which declared a protectorate over the territory from the Orange River to the border with Angola (German South-West Africa; modern Namibia); The British managed to retain only the port of Walvis Bay in the area. The threat of contact between German and Boer possessions and the prospect of a German-Boer alliance prompted Great Britain to intensify efforts to “encircle” the Boer republics. In 1885, the British subjugated the lands of the Bechuanas and the Kalahari Desert (Bechuanaland Protectorate; modern Botswana), driving a wedge between German South-West Africa and the Transvaal. German South-West Africa found itself squeezed between the British and Portuguese colonies (its borders were determined by the German-Portuguese agreement of December 30, 1886 and the Anglo-German agreement of July 1, 1890). In 1887, the British conquered the Tsonga lands located north of Zululand, thus reaching the southern border of Mozambique and cutting off the Boers' access to the sea from the east. With the annexation of Kaffraria (Pondoland) in 1894, the entire eastern coast was in their hands. South Africa.

Since the late 1880s, the main instrument of British expansion was the Privileged Company of S. Rhodes, who put forward a program for creating a continuous strip English possessions"from Cairo to Kapstadt (Cape Town)". In 1888–1893, the British subjugated the Mashona and Matabele lands located between the Limpopo and Zambezi rivers (Southern Rhodesia; modern Zimbabwe). In 1889 they conquered the territory north of the Zambezi - Barotse Land, calling it Northern Rhodesia (modern Zambia). In 1889–1891, the British forced the Portuguese to withdraw from Manica (modern Southern Zambia) and abandon their plans to expand the territory of Mozambique to the west (treaty of June 11, 1891). In 1891 they occupied the area west of the lake. Nyasa (Nyasaland; modern Malawi) - and reached the southern borders of the Congo Free State and German East Africa. They, however, failed to take Katanga from the Belgians and advance further north; S. Rhodes's plan failed.

From the mid-1890s, Britain's main goal in South Africa was to annex the Boer republics. But the attempt to annex the Transvaal by coup d'etat("Jamson's raid") failed at the end of 1895. Only after the difficult and bloody Anglo-Boer War (October 1899 - May 1902) were the Transvaal and the Orange Republic included in the British possessions. Together with them, Swaziland (1903), which had been under the protectorate of the Transvaal since 1894, came under British control.

East Africa.

East Africa was destined to become the object of rivalry between Great Britain and Germany. In 1884–1885, the German East Africa Company, through treaties with local tribes, declared its protectorate over an 1800-kilometer strip of the Somali coast from the mouth of the Tana River to Cape Guardafui, including over the rich Witu Sultanate (in the lower reaches of the Tana). At the initiative of Great Britain, who feared the possibility of German penetration into the Nile Valley, her dependent Sultan of Zanzibar, suzerain of the East African coast north of Mozambique, protested, but it was rejected. In contrast to the Germans, the British created the Imperial British East African Company, which hastily began to capture pieces of the coast. Territorial confusion prompted the rivals to conclude an agreement on disengagement: the mainland possessions of the Zanzibar Sultan were limited to a narrow (10-kilometer) coastal strip (Anglo-French-German declaration of July 7, 1886); the dividing line between the British and German zones of influence ran along a section of the modern Kenyan-Tanzanian border from the coast to lake. Victoria: the areas to the south of it went to Germany (German East Africa), the areas to the north (with the exception of Witu) - to Great Britain (treaty November 1, 1886). On April 28, 1888, the Zanzibar Sultan, under pressure from Germany, transferred to it the regions of Uzagara, Nguru, Uzegua and Ukami. In an effort to reach the sources of the Nile, the Germans launched an offensive inland in the late 1880s; they attempted to bring Uganda and the southernmost Sudanese province of Equatoria under their control. However, in 1889 the British managed to subjugate the state of Buganda, which occupied the bulk of Ugandan territory, and thereby block the Germans’ path to the Nile. Under these conditions, the parties agreed to conclude a compromise agreement on July 1, 1890 on the delimitation of lands west of the lake. Victoria: Germany renounced its claims to the Nile basin, Uganda and Zanzibar, receiving in return the strategically important island of Heligoland (North Sea) in Europe; The western border of German East Africa became the lake. Tanganyika and lake Albert Edward (modern Lake Kivu); Great Britain established a protectorate over Witu, Zanzibar and Fr. Pemba, but abandoned attempts to obtain a passage between German possessions and the Congo Free State, which would have connected its North and South African colonies. By 1894 the British had extended their power to all of Uganda.

Northeast Africa.

The leading role in European expansion in Northeast Africa belonged to Great Britain and Italy. From the late 1860s, the British began to penetrate into the Upper Nile Valley: they gradually strengthened their positions in Sudan, which was a vassal state of Egypt. However, in 1881 a Mahdist uprising broke out there. In January 1885, the rebels took the Sudanese capital of Khartoum and by the summer of 1885 they had completely expelled the British from the country. Only at the end of the 19th century. Great Britain was able to regain control over Sudan: as a result of the military expedition of G.-G. Kitchener of 1896–1898 and his victory over the Mahdists near Omdurman on September 2, 1898, Sudan became a joint Anglo-Egyptian possession.

In the second half of 1890, France tried to penetrate the Upper Nile Valley. A detachment of J.-B. sent to South Sudan in 1896. Marchana subjugated the Bar el-Ghazal region and on July 12, 1898 occupied Fashoda (modern Kodok) near the confluence of the Sobat and White Nile, but on September 19, 1898 he collided there with the troops of G.-G. Kitchener. The British government issued an ultimatum demanding that the French evacuate Fashoda. The threat of a large-scale military conflict with England forced France to retreat: in November 1898, J.-B. Marchand's detachment left Bar el-Ghazal, and on March 21, 1899, an Anglo-French agreement on territorial delimitation in Central Sudan was signed: France renounced its claims to the Nile Valley, and Great Britain recognized French rights to the lands west of the Nile basin.

With the opening of the Suez Canal and the growing importance of the Red Sea, the Bab el-Mandeb Strait and the Gulf of Aden began to attract the attention of European powers. In 1876 Great Britain subjugated the strategically important island of Socotra, and in 1884 the coast between Djibouti and Somalia (British Somalia). In the 1880s, France significantly expanded its small Obock colony at the exit of the Bab el-Mandeb Strait, annexing the port of Sagallo (July 1882), the coast between Cape Ali and the Gulf of Gubbet Kharab (October 1884), the Sultanate of Gobad (January 1885), Musha Island (1887) and Djibouti (1888); all these lands made up French Somalia (modern Djibouti). In the early 1880s, the Italians began expanding from Assab Bay north along the western coast of the Red Sea; in 1885 they received from the British, who sought to block the Mahdists' access to the sea, the port of Massawa, and in 1890 they united these territories into the colony of Eritrea. In 1888 they established a protectorate over the Somali coast from the mouth of the Juba River to Cape Guardafui (Italian Somalia).

However, Italy's attempts to develop an offensive in a western direction failed. In 1890, the Italians occupied the Kassala district in eastern Sudan, but their further advance towards the Nile was stopped by the British; The Anglo-Italian agreements of 1895 established 35 meridians as the western border of Italian possessions. In 1897, Italy had to return Kassala to Sudan.

Since the late 1880s, the main goal of Italian policy in North Africa was the seizure of Ethiopia (Abyssinia). On May 2, 1889, Italy managed to conclude the Treaty of Ucchial with the Ethiopian Negus (Emperor) Menelik II, which assigned Eritrea to it and provided its subjects with significant trade benefits. In 1890, the Italian government, citing this treaty, declared the establishment of a protectorate over Ethiopia and occupied the Ethiopian province of Tigre. In November 1890, Menelik II resolutely opposed the claims of Italy, and in February 1893 he denounced the Treaty of Ucchiale. In 1895, Italian troops invaded Ethiopia, but on March 1, 1896 they suffered a crushing defeat at Adua (modern Aduwa). According to the Treaty of Addis Ababa on October 26, 1896, Italy had to unconditionally recognize the independence of Ethiopia and abandon Tigray; The Ethiopian-Eritrean border was established along the rivers Mareb, Beles and Muna.

Madagascar.

During almost the entire 19th century. France and Great Britain competed with each other, trying to subjugate Madagascar, but encountered fierce resistance from the local population (1829, 1845, 1863). In the late 1870s and early 1880s, France intensified its policy of infiltrating the island. In 1883, after Queen Ranavalona III refused to comply with an ultimatum from the French government to cede the northern part of Madagascar and transfer control of foreign policy, the French launched a large-scale invasion of the island (May 1883 – December 1885). Having suffered defeat at Farafat on September 10, 1885, they were forced to confirm the independence of the island and liberate all occupied territories, with the exception of Diego Suarez Bay (Tamatawa Treaty December 17, 1885). In 1886, France established a protectorate over the Comorian archipelago (Grande Comore, Mohele, Anjouan islands), located northwest of Madagascar (finally subjugated by 1909), and in 1892 it strengthened itself on the Glorieuse Islands in the Mozambique Channel. In 1895, she started a new war with Madagascar (January-September), as a result of which she imposed her protectorate on it (October 1, 1895). On August 6, 1896, the island was declared a French colony, and on February 28, 1897, with the abolition of royal power, it lost the last remnants of its independence.

By the beginning of the First World War, only two remained on the African continent. independent states– Ethiopia and Liberia.

Section of Asia.

Compared to Africa, the colonial penetration of the great powers into Asia before 1870 was more extensive. By the last third of the 19th century. under the control of a number of European states there were significant territories in various parts continent. The largest colonial possessions were India and Ceylon (British), the Dutch East Indies (modern Indonesia), the Philippine Islands (Spanish), South Vietnam and Cambodia (French).

Arabian Peninsula

In the 19th century The Arabian Peninsula was a sphere of predominantly British interests. Great Britain sought to subjugate those areas that allowed it to control the exits from the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf. From the early 1820s, after defeating the Eastern Arabian Emirates (War of 1808–1819), it came to dominate the region. In 1839 the British captured Aden, a key fortress on the route from the Red Sea to the Arabian Sea. In the second half of the 19th century. they continued to strengthen their positions in the South and Eastern Arabia. By the end of the 19th century. Great Britain established a protectorate over the southern Yemeni sultanates (Lahedj, Qaati, Kathiri, etc.), and its power extended to the entire Hadhramaut. According to the Anglo-Muscat Treaty on March 19, 1891, Great Britain was granted special rights in Muscat (modern Oman). Bahrain (treaties of 1880 and 1892), Qatar (treaty of 1882), the seven principalities of Treaty Oman (modern United Arab Emirates; treaty of 1892) and Kuwait (treaties of 1899, 1900 and 1904) came under British control. According to the Anglo-Turkish agreement on July 29, 1913, the Ottoman Empire, which had formal sovereignty over the East Arabian coast, recognized the dependence of Treaty Oman and Kuwait on England (which, however, undertook not to declare its protectorate over the latter), and also renounced its rights to Bahrain and Qatar. In November 1914, following Turkey's entry into World War I, Kuwait was declared a British protectorate.

Persia.

Becoming in the last quarter of the 19th century. the object of bitter rivalry between Russia and Great Britain, Persia by the end of the century fell into complete economic dependence on these two powers: the British controlled it southern regions, Russians - northern and central. The threat of German penetration into Persia at the beginning of the 20th century. prompted the former rivals to come to an agreement on the division of spheres of influence in Persia: according to the agreement on August 31, 1907, the South-Eastern (Sistan, the eastern part of Hormozgan and Kerman and the south-eastern regions of Khorasan) was recognized as the zone of British interests, and Northern Iran (Azerbaijan, Kurdistan, Zanjan, Gilan, Kermanshah, Hamadan, Mazandaran, Capital Province, Semnan, part of Isfahan and Khorasan). In 1910–1911, the United States attempted to assert its influence in Persia, using the rise of patriotic sentiment during the Iranian Revolution of 1905–1911, but Russia and Great Britain jointly suppressed the revolution and drove the Americans out of the country.

Afghanistan.

Central Asia was the scene of intense struggle between Russia and Great Britain. At the turn of 1872–1873, these powers entered into an agreement on its division: the zone of English influence was recognized as the lands south of the Amu Darya River (Afghanistan, Punjab), and the Russian zone - the territories to the north. From the mid-1870s, the British began expanding westward from the British East Indies. After Balochistan recognized its vassalage to the British crown (1876), they reached the eastern border of Persia and the southern border of Afghanistan. In November 1878, Great Britain began a second war with the Afghan Emirate, which ended with its complete surrender: according to the Treaty of Gandamak on May 26, 1879, Emir Yakub Khan agreed to transfer control of foreign policy to England and to station British garrisons in Kabul, and also ceded Kandahar and the Pishin district to it. , Sibi and Kuram with the strategically important Khyber, Kojak and Paivar passes. Although the all-Afghan uprising that broke out in September 1879 forced the British to revise the Gandamak Agreement (refusal of interference in internal affairs, return of Pishin, Sibi and Kuram), from that time Afghanistan, having lost the right to an independent foreign policy, fell into the sphere of British influence.

Acting as a defender of Afghan interests, the British government tried to prevent Russian expansion in Central Asia. In March 1884, Russian troops occupied the Merv oasis and began to develop an offensive to the south upstream of the Murghab river; in March 1885 they defeated the Afghans at Tash-Kepri and occupied Pende. However, the British ultimatum forced Russia to stop further advance in the Herat direction and agree to establish a border between Russian Turkmenistan and Afghanistan from the Amu Darya River to the Harirud River; the Russians held Pende, but Maruchak remained with the emirate (protocol dated July 22, 1887). At the same time, the British encouraged the Afghans' attempts to expand their territory in the northeast, in the Pamir region. In 1895, the long struggle for the Pamirs (1883–1895) ended with an agreement on its division on March 11, 1895: the area between the Murghab and Pyanj rivers was assigned to Russia; The area between the Panj and Kokchi rivers (the western part of the principalities of Darvaz, Rushan and Shugnan), as well as the Wakhan corridor, which divided Russian possessions in Central Asia and British possessions in India, went to Afghanistan.

From the mid-1880s, the British began to conquer the independent Afghan (Pashtun) tribes living between Punjab and the Afghan Emirate: in 1887 they annexed Gilgit, in 1892-1893 - Kanjut, Chitral, Dir and Waziristan. According to the Treaty of Kabul on November 12, 1893, Emir Abdurrahman recognized the British seizures; the southeastern border of Afghanistan became the so-called. “Durand Line” (modern Afghan-Pakistani border). The Pashtun lands were divided between the Afghan Emirate and British India; This is how the Pashtun question arose (still not resolved).

Indochina.

Great Britain and France laid claim to dominance in Indochina. The British attacked from the west (from India) and from the south (from the Strait of Malacca). By the 1870s, on the Malacca Peninsula they owned the Straits Settlements colony (Singapore from 1819, Malacca from 1826), in Burma - the entire coast, or Lower Burma (Arakan and Tenasserim from 1826, Pegu from 1852). In 1873–1888, Great Britain subjugated the southern part of the Malacca Peninsula, establishing a protectorate over the sultanates of Selangor, Sungei Uyong, Perak, Johor, Negri Sembilan, Pahang and Yelebu (in 1896 they formed the British Malayan Protectorate). As a result of the Third Burma War of 1885, the British conquered Upper Burma and reached the upper reaches of the Mekong. By agreement on March 10, 1909, they received from Siam (Thailand) the central part of the Malacca Peninsula (the sultanates of Kedah, Kelantan, Perlis and Trengganu).

The base of French expansion was the areas captured in the lower Mekong in the 1860s: Cochin China (1862–1867) and Cambodia (1864). In 1873, the French carried out a military expedition to Tonkin (Northern Vietnam) and achieved the conclusion of the Treaty of Saigon on March 15, 1874, according to which the state of Annam, which owned most of Eastern Indochina, recognized the French protectorate. However, in the late 1870s, with the support of China, Annam's supreme overlord, the Annamese government denounced the treaty. But as a result of the Tonkin Expedition of 1883, Annam had to cede Tonkin to France (August 25, 1883) and agree to the establishment of a French protectorate (June 6, 1884); after the Franco-Chinese War of 1883–1885, China renounced suzerainty over Tonkin and Annam (9 June 1895). In 1893, France forced Siam to give it Laos and the entire left bank of the Mekong (Treaty of Bangkok October 3, 1893). Wanting to make Siam a buffer between their Indo-Chinese colonies, Great Britain and France, by the London Agreement of January 15, 1896, guaranteed its independence within the borders of the river basin. Menam. In 1907, Siam ceded to France the two southern provinces of Battambang and Siem Reap to the west of the lake. Tonle Sap (modern Western Kampuchea).

Malay Archipelago.

In the last third of the 19th century. the final colonial division of the Malay Archipelago took place. The Netherlands, which by that time owned most of the archipelago (Java, Celebes (Sulawesi), Moluccas Islands, Central and South Sumatra, Central and South Borneo (Kalimantan), western New Guinea), concluded an agreement with Great Britain in 1871, which granted them freedom hands in Sumatra. In 1874, the Dutch completed their conquest of the island with the capture of the Ache Sultanate. In the late 1870s–1880s, the British established control over the northern part of Kalimantan: in 1877–1885 they subjugated the northern tip of the peninsula (North Borneo), and in 1888 they turned the sultanates of Sarawak and Brunei into protectorates. Spain, which had ruled over the Philippine Islands since the mid-16th century, was forced, having been defeated in the Spanish-American War of 1898, to cede them to the United States (Treaty of Paris on December 10, 1898).

China.

From the beginning of the 1870s, the struggle between the great powers for influence in China intensified: economic expansion was complemented by military-political expansion; Japan acted especially aggressively. In 1872–1879, the Japanese captured the Ryukyu Islands. In March-April 1874 they invaded the island. Taiwan, but under pressure from Great Britain they were forced to withdraw their troops from there. In 1887, Portugal obtained from the Chinese government the right to “perpetual management” of the port of Macau (Macau), which it had leased since 1553. In 1890, China agreed to the establishment of a British protectorate over the Himalayan principality of Sikkim on the border with India (Treaty of Calcutta March 17, 1890). In 1894–1895, Japan won the war with China and, through the Peace of Shimonoseki on April 17, 1895, forced it to cede Taiwan and the Penghuledao (Pescadores) Islands to it; However, Japan, under pressure from France, Germany and Russia, had to abandon the annexation of the Liaodong Peninsula.

In November 1897, the great powers intensified their policy of territorial division of the Chinese Empire (“battle for concessions”). In 1898, China leased Jiaozhou Bay and the port of Qingdao in the south of the Shandong Peninsula to Germany (March 6), Russia - the southern tip of the Liaodong Peninsula with the ports of Lushun (Port Arthur) and Dalian (Dalniy) (March 27), France – Guangzhouwan Bay in the northeast of the Leizhou Peninsula (April 5), Great Britain – part of the Kowloon (Kowloon) Peninsula (Hong Kong colony) in Southern China (June 9) and the port of Weihaiwei in the north of the Shandong Peninsula (July). Northeast China (Manchuria and the Shengjing Province) was recognized as the sphere of influence of Russia; the province of Germany was recognized as the sphere of influence. Shandong, Great Britain - Yangtze basin (Anhou, Hubei, Hunan provinces, southern Jiangxi and eastern Sichuan), Japan - province. Fujian, France - bordering the French Indochina province. Yunnan, Guangxi and southern Guangdong. Having jointly suppressed the anti-European movement of the Yihetuan (“Boxers”) in August-September 1900, the great powers imposed on China on September 7, 1901 the Final Protocol, according to which they received the right to keep troops on its territory and control its tax system; China thus effectively became a semi-colony.

As a result of the military expedition of 1903–1904, the British subjugated Tibet, which was formally dependent on China (Treaty of Lhasa, September 7, 1904).

After the defeat of the Yihetuan, the struggle between Russia and Japan for Northeast China came to the fore. Having won the Russo-Japanese War of 1904–1905, Japan significantly expanded its influence in the region; According to the Treaty of Portsmouth on September 5, 1905, Russian possessions on the Liaodong Peninsula (Lüshun and Dalian) were transferred to it. However, it failed to completely oust Russia from China. In 1907, Tokyo had to reach an agreement with St. Petersburg on the division of spheres of influence in Northeast China: Southern Manchuria became a zone of Japanese, and Northern Manchuria - a zone of Russian interests (Petersburg Treaty of July 30, 1907). On July 8, 1912, the parties signed an additional convention on Mongolia: Japan was recognized with special rights to the eastern part of Inner Mongolia, Russia - to its western part and to all of Outer Mongolia.

Korea.

Since the mid-1870s. The great powers competed for control over Korea (the Kingdom of Koryo), which was in vassal relations with China. The policy of Japan was the most active. By the Treaty of Shimonoseki, she forced China to give up suzerainty over the kingdom. However, in the mid-1890s, Japanese penetration encountered strong opposition from Russia. In 1896, Japan had to agree to grant Russia equal rights in Korea. But Japan's victory in the war of 1904–1905 dramatically changed the situation in its favor. According to the Treaty of Portsmouth, Russia recognized Korea as a zone of Japanese interests. In November 1905, Japan established control over Korean foreign policy, and on August 22, 1910, it annexed the kingdom of Goryeo.

Oceania section.

By 1870, most of the islands in the Pacific remained outside the control of the great powers. Colonial possessions were limited to Micronesia (the Caroline, Mariana and Marshall Islands, which belonged to the Spaniards since the 17th century), the southern Melanesian island of New Caledonia (French since 1853) and a number of islands in Eastern Polynesia (Marquesas Islands, the eastern part of the Society Islands and the western part of the Tuamotu archipelago, captured by France in 1840–1845; the Line Islands, occupied by the British in the late 1860s).

From the mid-1870s, the great powers launched an offensive in Oceania. In 1874, the British established a protectorate over the Fiji Islands in Southern Melanesia, and in 1877 over the Tokelau Islands in Western Polynesia. In 1876–1877, Great Britain, Germany and the United States entered into a struggle for the Western Polynesian archipelago of Samoa. From the beginning of the 1880s, the French began to actively expand their possessions in Eastern Polynesia: in 1880-1889 they subjugated Fr. Tahiti, Tubuai Islands, Gambier Islands, eastern Tuamotu Archipelago and western Society Islands. In 1882, the French tried to occupy the New Hebrides (modern Vanuatu) islands in Southern Melanesia, but in 1887, under pressure from Great Britain, they were forced to recognize the independence of the archipelago. In 1884–1885, Germany and Great Britain partitioned Western Melanesia: the northeastern part of New Guinea (Kaiser Wilhelm Land), the Bismarck Archipelago and the northern part of the Solomon Islands (Choiseul Island, Santa Isabel Island, Bougainville, Buka Island), to the British - the southeast of New Guinea and the southern part of the Solomon Islands (Guadalcanal Island, Savo Island, Malaita Island, San Cristobal Island). In 1885, Germany took the Marshall Islands from Spain, but its attempt to capture the Mariana Islands failed. In Western Polynesia, in 1886, France established itself on the Wallis and Futuna Islands, and Great Britain, Germany and the USA concluded an agreement on the neutral status of the strategically important Tonga Islands. In 1886–1887 English colony New Zealand with the consent of the British government annexed the Karmadec Islands. In 1888, the Germans captured the eastern Micronesian island of Nauru, and the British established a protectorate over the western Polynesian Cook Archipelago (transferred to New Zealand in 1901). In 1892, the Gilbert Islands (modern Kiribati) in Eastern Micronesia and the Ellis Islands (modern Tuvalu) in Western Polynesia also came under British control.

At the end of the 19th century. the struggle for the division of Oceania entered its final stage. In August 1898, the British occupied the Melanesian archipelago of Santa Cruz, and the United States occupied the Hawaiian Islands. As a result of the Spanish-American War, the Americans acquired the island of Western Micronesia. Guam (Treaty of Paris December 10, 1898). According to the Spanish-German agreement on February 12, 1899, Spain sold the Caroline, Mariana and Palau islands to Germany. On December 2, 1899, Great Britain, Germany and the USA agreed on controversial territorial issues in the Pacific Ocean: the western part (Savai Island and Upolu Island) went to Germany, and the eastern part of the island (Tutuila Island, Manua Islands) went to the USA. wow Samoa; for renouncing claims to Samoa, the British received the Tonga Islands and the northern part of the Solomon Islands, except for Bougainville and Buk. The division of Oceania ended in 1906 with the establishment of a Franco-British condominium over the New Hebrides.

As a result, Germany controlled the western part, Great Britain controlled the central part, the USA controlled the north-eastern part, and France controlled the south-western and south-eastern parts of Oceania.

Results.

By 1914, the entire world was divided between colonial powers. The largest colonial empires were created by Great Britain (27,621 thousand sq. km; about 340 million people) and France (10,634 thousand sq. km; more than 59 million people); The Netherlands (2,109 thousand sq. km; more than 32 million people), Germany (2,593 thousand sq. km; more than 13 million people), Belgium (2,253 thousand sq. km; 14 million people) also had extensive possessions. , Portugal (2,146 thousand sq. km; more than 14 million people) and the USA (566 thousand sq. km; more than 11 million people). Having completed the division of the “free” territories of Africa, Asia and Oceania, the great powers moved on to the struggle for the redivision of the world. The period of world wars has begun.

As a result of active colonial expansion in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The “unification” of the world under the auspices of the West was completed. The process of globalization and the creation of a single world political, economic and cultural space has intensified. For the conquered countries, this era, on the one hand, brought the gradual destruction or transformation of traditional forms of existence, one or another degree of political, economic and ideological subordination; on the other, slow familiarization with the technological, cultural and political achievements of the West.

Ivan Krivushin

Literature:

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Foreign and colonial policy of Great Britain in the 18th–20th centuries. Yaroslavl, 1993
Davidson A.B. Cecil Rhodes is an empire builder. M., 1998
Kiselev K.A. British colonial policy in the Sudanese-Egyptian subregion(second half of the 19th – first half of the 20th century): Author's abstract. ...cand. ist. Sci. M., 1998
Buyko O.L. French Parliament, Jules Ferry and the colonial question: the 80s of the 19th century.– From the history of European parliamentarism: France. M., 1999
Lashkova L.T. The colonial question in the German Reichstag at the beginning of the 20th century. – History and historiography: foreign countries. Vol. 10, Bryansk, 2001
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USA used various ways to annex new lands. They were conquered, annexed, bought, annexed at the request of local residents and rented. The 13 states that originally made up the United States of America then occupied an area comparable in size to the Philippines. Over the course of a century, most of the continent of North America, the Philippines, and islands in the Atlantic and Pacific oceans came under US control.

Robert Leckie, author of the study "From Sea to Shining Sea: From the War of 1812 to the Mexican War, the Saga of America's Expansion", notes that not a single country the world did not increase the size of its territory as quickly as the United States. The reasons for the emergence of new lands within the United States were very diverse. American politicians did not at all crave the expansion of territories just for the sake of expansion itself. In many cases, a significant part of American society was cool about such actions of the authorities, and sometimes she protested against them.

The process of acquiring new lands began a quarter century after the United States gained independence from British Empire(1776). In 1803, President Thomas Jefferson\Thomas Jefferson (1801-1809) decided to buy from France its colonial possession - the “Louisiana Territory”, with an area of ​​more than 2 million square meters. km. France, which for a number of reasons did not need Louisiana, asked for $15 million for it, and the bulk of this amount, $11 million 250 thousand, had to be paid immediately, and the rest was compensated by paying off France's debt to US citizens. As a result, the territory of the United States practically doubled, and 13 new states were formed on this piece of land. Many US residents were very skeptical of Jefferson's decision. Similar views on land growth often prevailed subsequently.

In 1819, the United States purchased the Florida Peninsula from Spain. The United States decided to acquire these lands for security reasons: local Indians from the Seminole tribe constantly carried out destructive raids on the neighboring state of Georgia. Spain agreed to sell these lands, which it could not fully control because it did not have the strength or desire to deal with them - it was at the beginning of the 19th century that it faced massive unrest in its colonies in America. Florida went to the United States for $5 million - in fact, Washington did not pay this money, since these funds were used to pay off claims of US citizens to the Spanish crown.

In 1845, Texas, which had previously belonged to Spain and then to Mexico, became part of the United States. The annexation of Texas had a very complex and confusing history. A quarter century earlier, Americans received permission from the Mexican government to settle in Texas. The settlers were required to remain loyal to Mexico, learn Spanish and convert to Catholicism. However, the Mexican authorities did not pay much attention to compliance with these rules. Settlers organized large-scale cotton production in Texas, and already in the 1830s the number of English-speaking Texans exceeded the number of Spanish-speaking ones. That's when the crisis broke out. In 1831, Mexico abolished slavery (in the United States, slavery continued for another three decades), which could have caused financial ruin for Texas planters who needed cheap labor. In addition, the Mexican government restricted immigration into Texas and sharply increased customs duties. In 1833, General Antonio Lopez de Santa Ana, supported by nationalists, came to power in Mexico. The general decided to restore, de facto, lost control over Texas. In 1835, Mexican soldiers tried to capture cannons located in the town of Gonzales. The settlers rebelled and drove the Mexican troops out of the city. This was the beginning of the war. The Mexican forces were led by Santa Ana himself. When suppressing the uprising, he showed extreme cruelty - all captured insurgents were shot on the spot. This, in fact, decided the fate of Texas. Separatist ideas, which were initially not very popular, gained many fans. In 1836, the Texas militia defeated the Mexican army, and Santa Ana was captured. In exchange for his release, he granted Texas independence. In 1836, secessionist leader Samuel Houston became president of the Republic of Texas.

The United States openly sympathized with Texas, but for a number of reasons (primarily because of the problem of slavery, whose opponents were gaining increasing influence in the United States, and the economic crisis) for a long time did not want to include Texas in the United States (the corresponding appeal from the Texas government was received in Washington almost immediately after Houston's inauguration) and even refused to recognize the independence of the new state, fearing war with Mexico. Texas has even begun similar negotiations with other states. The reasons for this were the political, economic and military weakness of the new state, constant friction with the Mexicans and Indians. The British Empire reacted most favorably to this annexation of Texas, but it was also deterred by Texas slavery (slavery on the territory of the empire was declared illegal in 1833). However, in 1845, the United States annexed Texas, which received statehood (one of the most important reasons for this decision was fears that the newborn republic would come under the rule of the British crown). Texans and some Americans (supporters of preserving the institution of slavery) reacted to this decision with delight. However, Mexico went to war with the United States. Historian Joel Silbey, author of the study “Storm over Texas: The Annexation Controversy and the Road to Civil War,” believes that the controversial annexation of Texas was one of the factors that indirectly caused the outbreak of the American Civil War (which began after a decade and a half).

A year later, the “Oregon Territory” joined the United States, which is now occupied by the states of Oregon, Washington, Idaho, and parts of Montana and Wyoming. These were disputed lands with a mixed population, originally claimed by Great Britain, the United States, Russia and Spain. Gradually, the number of contenders for a huge piece of land was reduced to two - the United States and the British Empire. In 1818, both sides agreed to jointly own the territory. However, tensions persisted as both countries had different ideas about where the boundaries of their dominions should lie. Time worked for the United States, since the Americans were actively developing the Oregon Territory. In 1844, US presidential candidate James K. Polk stated that the United States should gain control of the territories south of the 54th parallel. Then the slogan “Fifty-Four or War” appeared in the USA. After Polk's victory in the elections, American-British negotiations began, as a result of which the United States received lands south of the 49th parallel (1846). However, all controversial issues were not resolved, which resulted in a war that broke out in 1859.

The war with Mexico, which began after the annexation of Texas, led to the fact that the current states of New Mexico, Arizona, California, part of Colorado, Utah and Nevada became part of the United States. Mexico, which started fighting in 1847, was quickly defeated (American troops occupied Mexico City). The treaty was signed in 1848: Mexico lost a significant part of its territory. In return, the United States paid Mexico $15 million and pledged to repay the financial claims of the affected US citizens against the Mexican government (in the amount of approximately $3 million).

Five years later (1853), Mexico again sold part of its lands to the United States (now southern California and Arizona). The reason was the construction of the transcontinental railway, which was supposed to connect the West and East of the United States - it was profitable to lay it along this route. The US proposal was accepted by the same President (and General) Santa Ana. Historian David M. Pletcher, author of The Diplomacy of Annexation: Texas, Oregon, and the Mexican War, believes that Santa Ana took this extremely unpopular step in Mexico due to the economic bankruptcy of their government. The United States paid $10 million for an area of ​​approximately 70 thousand square meters. km.

A number of small island territories in Pacific Ocean The United States annexed on the basis of the Guano Act, adopted by the US Congress under pressure from farmers in 1856. Jimmy Skaggs\Jimmy M. Skaggs, author of the study "The Great Guano Rush: Entrepreneurs and American Overseas Expansion", notes that guano - deposits of bird droppings - was then considered the best fertilizer and was extremely expensive (the main supplier of guano is Peru - in the mid-19th century it received income comparable to the income of modern oil exporting countries). The law stated that if a US citizen discovered deposits of guano on any island or rock that does not fall under the jurisdiction of another state and is not occupied by foreign citizens, then this land area passes to the United States. As a result, the United States included 79 Pacific islands, islets and atolls, many of which subsequently gained independence - now the American flag flies over the practically uninhabited islands of Bayer, Jarvis, Howland, Johnston Atoll, etc., discovered in 1857-1858 . However, sometimes there was no need to use the Guano Law. For example, in 1859, the uninhabited Midway Atoll was discovered by an American captain, and in 1867 it was declared US possession. This was a common practice during the colonial era. The origin of the name Midway (can be translated as “middle of the path”) is curious - the atoll was so named because it lies in the middle between California and Japan.

In 1876 the USA and Russian empire concluded an agreement on the sale of Russian America - Alaska. Russia began negotiations on this deal in 1866, but the US government has long doubted the wisdom of such an acquisition. Most Americans did not understand how the United States could benefit from buying a piece of land on the edge of the earth, where it is almost impossible to live due to severe frosts. The idea of ​​buying Alaska was actively supported by President Andrew Johnson and his Secretary of State William H. Seward. They were actively criticized by political opponents of Johnson, who for a long time could not get support for this deal in Congress. As a result, Alaska was purchased, and this deal (and the state of Alaska itself) was long called "Seward's Folly" or "Seward's Ice Box." The United States paid Russia $7.2 million. For several decades, the United States paid virtually no attention to Alaska - this vast territory was controlled by the military. Civil administration did not appear until 1884, but its influence was minimal. The situation changed first as a result of the discovery of gold deposits (1896), and later during World War II, when the strategic importance of Alaska became clear to everyone. In 1959, Alaska became a US state.
In 1898, the United States annexed Hawaii, a previously independent kingdom ruled by Polynesian leaders (it was the Hawaiians who killed the famous navigator James Cook). In the 19th century, the United States, Great Britain and France fought for control of Hawaii. However, the United States won, due to the fact that Hawaii and the United States were the most tightly connected economically. American businessmen were active in Hawaii, primarily planters who produced sugar. In 1893, the Hawaiian throne was inherited by Queen Liliuokalani, who attempted to strengthen the institution of royal power. Strengthening was carried out with the help of a new constitution, and since the monarchy was absolute, through the issuance of royal edicts. Among other things, the queen was going to strengthen the budget by increasing tariffs on the export of Hawaiian sugar. However, these plans could not be realized. A group of angry planters led by Samuel Dole (18 people in total) overthrew the queen. Historian Tom Coffman, author of the study "The History of the American Annexation of the Nation of Hawaii"\Nation Within: The Story of America's Annexation of the Nation of Hawaii, notes that the coup took place in conditions of almost complete indifference of the Hawaiians. The coup was carried out with the support American military and the US Ambassador. It is curious that US President Grover Cleveland reacted extremely negatively to this act, apologized to the Queen and even fired the US Ambassador who supported the coup. Nevertheless, in 1894 a republic was created in Hawaii, Dole became president . The republic was immediately recognized by the United States. However, the days of Hawaii's independence were numbered. The new authorities turned to the United States with a request for annexation. The US Congress discussed this issue until 1898 - a positive decision was made in the wake of the war with Spain. The final green light was given by the new president William McKinley In 1900, Dole became the first governor of Hawaii to become an annexed territory. In 1959, Hawaii became the 50th US state. Ex-Queen Liliuokalani died in 1917; all these years she lived on her native island.

Some of the former US possessions have gained independence and are now sovereign states. For example, in 1898, the United States defeated Spain and acquired the Philippines, Puerto Rico and Guam from the defeated. The Philippines became independent in 1946. The famous historian Walter La Faber, author of The New Empire: An Interpretation of American Expansion, 1860-1898, believes that the victory over Spain was the most important turning point in the history of the United States. In his opinion, after this the United States felt like a full-fledged international player, capable of challenging the world primacy of the European colonial powers. This radically influenced the ideology of the American elite and contributed to the struggle for new territories.

In 1903, the United States leased from the newborn state of Panama (with the support of the United States, which gained independence from Colombia) a piece of land adjacent to the future Panama Canal (for $10 million in one-time payments plus $250,000 in annual rent) - in 1999, the zone and canal were returned to Panama . In 1947, the United States received a UN mandate to manage the Mariana, Caroline and Marshall Islands - in 1986, the independent Federated States of Micronesia appeared on the Caroline Islands, the other two archipelagos de facto remained under US jurisdiction, reports