RUSSIAN INVENTORS OF THE 19TH CENTURY. "1802 V.V. Petrov (1761-1834) Physicist, developed the world's largest galvanic battery; discovered the electric arc. 1806 K.K. Prince (1778-?) Engineer, developed the world's first heavy-duty platform scales. 1814 P I. Prokopovich (1775-1850) was the first in the world to invent a frame hive, in which he used a magazine with frames. 1826 V. V. Lyubarsky and P. S. Sobolevsky Chemists, laid the foundation for powder metallurgy. N. I. Lobachevsky (1792- 1856) Mathematician, presented the manuscript of the work “Abridged presentation of the principles of geometry". This date is considered the year of birth of non-Euclidean geometry. 1837 D.A. Zagryazhsky (1807-1860) invented the caterpillar track. 1838 B.O. Jacobi (1801-1874) invented galvanoplasty . B. S. Yakobson Academician, created the world's first ship using galvanic elements. 1841 P. P. Anosov (1797-1851) Metallurgist, revealed the secret of making ancient damask steel. 1844 D. I. Zhuravsky (1821-1891) first developed theory of bridge truss calculations, currently used all over the world 1860 At the Prince-Mikhailovsky factory, the world's first steel cannon was cast using the Obukhov method. 1867 A.A. Inostrantsev (1843-1919) was the first in the world to use a microscope to study rocks. 1872 A.N. Lodygin (1847-1923) invented the carbon incandescent lamp. 1875 P.N. Yablochkov (1847-1894) invented the arc lamp. 1879 F.A. Blinov (1823-1899) was the first in the world to build a machine with caterpillar tracks - the prototype of a tractor and tank. 1880 G.G. Ignatiev (1846-1898) was the first in the world to develop a system of simultaneous telephone and telegraphy over one cable. K.S. Dzhevetsky (1843-1938) built the world's first submarine with an electric motor. 1881 N.I. Kibalchich (1854-1881) was the first in the world to develop a design for a rocket aircraft. 1882 N.N. Benardos (1842-1905) invented electric welding. A.F. Mozhaisky (1825-1890) built the world's first airplane. 1886 P.M. Golubitsky (1845-1911) developed the world's first portable microtelephone station. V.I. Sreznevsky (1849-1937) Engineer, invented the world's first aerial camera. 1887 A.G. Stoletov (1839-1896) Physicist, the first in the world to create a photocell based on the external photoelectric effect. P.D. Kuzminsky (1840-1900) built the world's first radial gas turbine. 1890 V.K.Tserasky (1849-1925) was the first in the world to melt metals at the solar focus. 1891 For the first time in the world, three-phase current was transmitted over a distance of 170 km (Laufen-Frankfurt, Germany). The author of this project is the Russian engineer M.O. Dolivo-Dobrovolsky (1861-1919). In Russia, for the first time in the world, the privilege of a ship with hydrofoils was obtained. On November 21, V. Shukhov and S. Gavrilov received the privilege to establish a facility for continuous distillation and splitting, i.e. oil cracking. A similar patent appeared in the USA in 1912. 1893 I.A. Timchenko (1852-1924) At the end of this year he developed the world's first cinema camera. In January of next year he is already showing the image on the screen. In 1893, the movie camera appeared in England. And only two years later (in 1895) the French Lumiere brothers developed a movie camera of their own design. S.M. Apostolov-Berdichevsky and M.F. Freidenberg created the world's first automatic telephone exchange. 1894 N.D. Pilchikov (1857-1908) Physicist, for the first time in the world he created and successfully demonstrated a wireless control system. Radio engineer N. Tesla completed work similar in principle in 1898. 1895 V.A. Gassiev Engineer, built the world's first phototypesetting machine. On May 7, physicist A.S. Popov (1859-1905) at a meeting of the Russian Physico-Chemical Society demonstrated the operation of the world's first radio receiver. The Italian radio engineer G. Marconi developed his radio receiver in 1897. 1896 K.E. Tsiolkovsky (1857-1935) began to systematically develop the theory of the movement of jet vehicles in outer space. V.G. Shukhov Engineer, received the privilege to design a tower, the surface of which is a hyperboloid of revolution. In the same year, such a tower was built at the Nizhny Novgorod Fair. The Americans used this invention of Shukhov to erect masts on their warships, because... they remain stable after many shell hits. Using Shukhov’s method, a tower was built in Moscow on Shabalovka. 1897 V.G. Shukhov (1853-1939) Engineer, according to his project, the world's largest oil pipeline, 835 km long, was built in Russia. 1899 P.N. Lebedev (1866-1912) Physicist, for the first time in science experimentally proved the existence of light pressure on solids. The world's first icebreaker, the Ermak, was built in Russia."
The 19th century laid the foundations for the development of 20th century science and created the preconditions for many of the future inventions and technological innovations that we enjoy today. Scientific discoveries of the 19th century were made in many fields and had a great influence on further development. Technological progress advanced uncontrollably. To whom are we grateful for the comfortable conditions in which modern humanity now lives?
Scientific discoveries of the 19th century: Physics and electrical engineering
James Clark Maxwell
A key feature in the development of science of this period of time is the widespread use of electricity in all branches of production. And people could no longer refuse to use electricity, having felt its significant benefits. Many scientific discoveries of the 19th century were made in this area of physics. At that time, scientists began to closely study electromagnetic waves and their effect on various materials. The introduction of electricity into medicine began.
In the 19th century, such famous scientists as the Frenchman Andre-Marie Ampère, two Englishmen Michael Faraday and James Clark Maxwell, and the Americans Joseph Henry and Thomas Edison worked in the field of electrical engineering.
In 1831, Michael Faraday noticed that if a copper wire moves in a magnetic field, crossing lines of force, an electric current arises in it. This is how the concept of electromagnetic induction appeared. This discovery paved the way for the invention of electric motors.
In 1865, James Clark Maxwell developed the electromagnetic theory of light. He suggested the existence of electromagnetic waves, through which electrical energy is transmitted in space. In 1883, Heinrich Hertz proved the existence of these waves. He also determined that their propagation speed is 300 thousand km/sec. Based on this discovery, Guglielmo Marconi and A. S. Popov created a wireless telegraph - radio. This invention became the basis for modern technologies for wireless information transmission, radio and television, including all types of mobile communications, the operation of which is based on the principle of data transmission via electromagnetic waves.
Chemistry
DI. Mendelev - a scientist who made many scientific discoveries in the 19th century
In the field of chemistry in the 19th century, the most significant discovery was D.I. Mendeleev's Periodic Law. Based on this discovery, a table of chemical elements was developed, which Mendeleev saw in a dream. In accordance with this table, he suggested that there were chemical elements then unknown. The predicted chemical elements scandium, gallium and germanium were subsequently discovered between 1875 and 1886.
Astronomy
XIX century was the century of formation and rapid development of another field of science - astrophysics. Astrophysics is a branch of astronomy that studies the properties of celestial bodies. This term appeared in the mid-60s of the 19th century. At its origins stood the German professor at the University of Leipzig, astronomer Johann Karl Friedrich Zöllner. The main research methods used in astrophysics are photometry, photography and spectral analysis. One of the inventors of spectral analysis is Kirchhoff. He conducted the first studies of the spectrum of the Sun. As a result of these studies, in 1859 he was able to obtain a picture of the solar spectrum and more accurately determine the chemical composition of the Sun.
Medicine and Biology
With the advent of the 19th century, science begins to develop at an unprecedented speed. There are so many scientific discoveries being made that it is difficult to track them in detail. Medicine and biology are not lagging behind in this regard. The most significant contributions in this area were made by the German microbiologist Robert Koch, the French physician Claude Bernard and the microbiological chemist Louis Pasteur.
Bernard laid the foundations of endocrinology - the science of the functions and structure of the endocrine glands. Louis Pasteur became one of the founders of immunology and microbiology. Pasteurization technology is named after this scientist- This is a method of heat treatment of mainly liquid products. This technology is used to destroy vegetative forms of microorganisms to increase the shelf life of food products such as beer and milk.
Robert Koch discovered the causative agent of tuberculosis, anthrax bacillus and Vibrio cholerae. He was awarded the Nobel Prize for his discovery of the tuberculosis bacillus.
Computers
Although it is believed that the first computer appeared in the 20th century, the first prototypes of modern machine tools with numerical control were built already in the 19th century. Joseph Marie Jacquard, a French inventor, came up with a way to program a weaving loom in 1804. The essence of the invention was that the thread could be controlled using punched cards with holes in certain places where the thread was supposed to be applied to the fabric.
Mechanical engineering and industry
Already at the beginning of the 19th century, a gradual revolution in mechanical engineering began. Oliver Evans was one of the first to demonstrate a steam-powered car in Philadelphia (USA) in 1804.
At the end of the 18th century, the first lathes appeared. They were developed by English mechanic Henry Maudsley.
With the help of such machines, it was possible to replace manual labor when it was necessary to process metal with great precision.
In the 19th century, the principle of operation of a heat engine was discovered and the internal combustion engine was invented, which served as an impetus for the development of faster means of transportation: steam locomotives, steamships and self-propelled vehicles, which we now call cars.
Railways also began to develop. In 1825, George Stephenson built the first railway in England. It provided rail links to the cities of Stockton and Darlington. In 1829, a branch line was laid that connected Liverpool and Manchester. If in 1840 the total length of railways was 7,700 km, then by the end of the 19th century it was already 1,080,000 km.
The 19th century is the century of the industrial revolution, the century of electricity, the century of railways. He had a significant impact on the culture and worldview of mankind and radically changed the human value system. The advent of the first electric motors, the invention of the telephone and telegraph, radio and heating devices, as well as incandescent lamps - all these scientific discoveries of the 19th century turned the lives of people of that time upside down.
The Industrial Revolution, an innovative period in the mid-18th and 19th centuries, moved people from a predominantly agrarian existence to a relatively urban lifestyle. And although we call this era a “revolution,” its name is somewhat misleading. This movement, which originated in Britain, was not a sudden explosion of achievement, but a series of successive breakthroughs that built on or fed each other.
Spinning Jenny
Be it socks or any fashion item, it was the advances in the textile industry during the Industrial Revolution that made these items possible for the masses.
The spinning jenny, or Hargreaves spinning machine, made a major contribution to the development of this process. After the raw material - cotton or wool - is collected, it needs to be made into yarn, and this work is often very laborious for people.
James Hargreaves solved this issue. Taking on a challenge from Britain's Royal Society of Arts, Hargreaves developed a device that far exceeded the competition's requirement that it weave at least six yarns at a time. Hargreaves built a machine that produced eight streams simultaneously, dramatically increasing the efficiency of this activity.
The device consisted of a spinning wheel that controlled the flow of material. At one end of the device there was a rotating material, and at the other the threads were collected into yarn from under a hand wheel.
Conservation
Open your kitchen cabinet and you're sure to find at least one useful invention from the Industrial Revolution. The same period that gave us the steam engine changed the way we stored food.
After Britain spread to other parts of the world, inventions began to fuel the Industrial Revolution at a steady pace. For example, this happened with a French chef and innovator named Nicolas Appert. In search of ways to preserve food without losing taste and freshness, Apper regularly experimented with storing food in containers. In the end, he came to the conclusion that storing food, associated with drying or salting, does not lead to improved taste, but quite the opposite.
Appert thought that storing food in containers would be especially useful for sailors suffering from malnutrition at sea. The Frenchman was working on a boiling technique that involved placing food in a jar, sealing it, and then boiling it in water to create a vacuum seal. Appert achieved his goal by developing a special autoclave for preservation in the early 1800s. The basic concept still remains today.
Photo
Many world-changing inventions appeared during the Industrial Revolution. The camera wasn't one of them. In fact, the camera's predecessor, known as the camera obscura, dates back to the late 1500s.
However, saving camera shots has long been a challenge, especially if you don't have time to render them. Then Nikephore Niépce came. In the 1820s, a Frenchman came up with the idea of applying coated paper filled with light-sensitive chemicals to the image projected by a camera obscura. Eight hours later, the world's first photograph appeared.
Realizing that eight hours was too long to pose for a family portrait, Niepce joined forces with Louis Daguerre to improve his design, and it was Daguerre who carried on Niepce's work after his death in 1833. The so-called daggerotype first aroused enthusiasm in the French parliament and then throughout the world. However, although the daguerreotype could produce highly detailed images, it could not be replicated.
Daguerre's contemporary, William Henry Fox Talbot, also worked to improve photographic images in the 1830s and made the first negative, through which light could be exposed to photographic paper and create a positive. Similar advances quickly began to take hold, and gradually cameras became capable of even capturing moving objects, and exposure times became shorter. A photo of a horse taken in 1877 ended a long-standing debate about whether all four of a horse's legs leave the ground during a gallop (they do). So the next time you whip out your smartphone to take a photo, take a second to think about the centuries of innovation that allowed that photo to be born.
Roads and mines
Building the infrastructure to support the Industrial Revolution was not easy. Demand for metals, including iron, spurred industry to come up with more efficient methods of extracting and transporting the raw materials.
For several decades, iron mining companies supplied large quantities of iron to factories and manufacturing companies. To obtain cheap metal, mining companies supplied more pig iron than wrought iron. In addition, people began to use metallurgy or simply explore the physical properties of materials in industrial settings.
Massive iron mining enabled the mechanization of other inventions of the Industrial Revolution. Without the metallurgical industry, railways and steam locomotives would not have developed, and there could have been stagnation in the development of transport and other industries.
Difference and analytical machines
For many of us, the phrase “put away your calculators during the exam” will always cause anxiety, but such exams without calculators clearly demonstrate what life was like for Charles Babbage. The English inventor and mathematician was born in 1791, and over time his task became to study mathematical tables in search of errors. Such tables were typically used in astronomy, banking, and engineering, and because they were created by hand, they often contained errors. Babbage set out to create a calculator and eventually developed several models.
Of course, Babbage could not have had modern computer components like transistors, so his computers were purely mechanical. They were surprisingly large, complex, and difficult to build (none of Babbage's machines appeared during his lifetime). For example, difference engine number one could solve polynomials, but its design consisted of 25,000 individual parts weighing a total of 15 tons. The "number two" difference engine was developed between 1847 and 1849 and was more elegant, along with comparable power and one-third the weight.
There was another design that earned Babbage the title of the father of modern computing, according to some people. In 1834, Babbage decided to create a machine that could be programmed. Like modern computers, Babbage's machine could store data for later use in other calculations and perform logical if-then operations. Babbage wasn't as involved in the design of the Analytical Engine as he was with the Difference Engines, but to imagine the enormity of the former, you need to know that it was so massive that it needed a steam engine to operate.
Anesthesia
Inventions like the light bulb take up many pages in the history book, but we are sure that any practicing surgeon would call anesthesia the best product of the Industrial Revolution. Before its invention, correcting any illness was, perhaps, more painful than the illness itself. One of the biggest problems associated with removing a tooth or limb was keeping the patient in a relaxed state, often with the help of alcohol and opium. Today, of course, we can all thank anesthesia for the fact that few of us can remember the painful sensations of surgery at all.
Nitrous oxide and ether were discovered in the early 1800s, but both drugs had little practical use beyond being a useless intoxication. Nitrous oxide was generally better known as laughing gas and was used to entertain audiences. During one of these demonstrations, a young dentist, Horace Wells, saw someone inhale the gas and injure his leg. When the man returned to his seat, Wells asked if the victim was in pain and was told that he was not. After this, the dentist decided to use laughing gas in his work, and volunteered to be the first test subject. The next day, Wells and Gardner Colton, the show's organizer, tested laughing gas in Wells' office. The gas worked great.
Soon after this, ether was also tested as an anesthesia for long-term operations, although who was actually behind the use of this drug is not known for certain.
Steam engine
James Watt, a Scottish engineer, did not develop the steam engine, but he did manage to make a more efficient version of one in the 1760s by adding a separate condenser. This changed the mining industry forever.
Initially, some inventors used the steam engine to pump and remove water from mines, allowing for improved access to resources. As these engines gained popularity, engineers wondered how they could be improved. Watt's version of the steam engine did not require cooling after each blow, which accompanied resource extraction at the time.
Others wondered: What if, instead of transporting raw materials, goods and people by horse, they used a steam-powered machine? These thoughts inspired inventors to explore the potential of steam engines outside the mining world. Watt's modification of the steam engine led to other developments of the Industrial Revolution, including the first steam locomotives and steam-powered ships.
Telegraph
Through an electrical system of networks, the telegraph could transmit messages from one place to another over long distances. The recipient of the message had to interpret the markings produced by the machine using Morse code.
The first message was sent in 1844 by Samuel Morse, inventor of the telegraph, and it accurately captures his excitement. He conveyed “What is the Lord doing?” using his new system, hinting that he had discovered something big. And so it was. The Morse telegraph allowed people to communicate almost instantly over long distances.
Information transmitted via telegraph lines also greatly contributed to the development of the media and allowed governments to exchange information more quickly. The development of the telegraph even gave birth to the first news service, the Associated Press. In the end, Morse's invention connected America with Europe - and this was very important at that time.
Pneumatic tire.
Like many inventions of this era, the pneumatic tire "stood on the shoulders of giants", ushering in a new wave of inventions. Thus, although John Dunlop is often credited with the invention of this important thing, before him, Charles Goodyear patented the process of vulcanizing rubber in 1839.
Before Goodyear's experiments, rubber was a very new product with a relatively small range of uses, but this, due to its properties, changed very quickly. Vulcanization, in which rubber was strengthened with sulfur and lead, created a stronger material suitable for the manufacturing process.
While rubber technology advanced rapidly, other accompanying inventions of the Industrial Revolution developed much more slowly. Despite advances such as pedals and steering wheels, bicycles remained more of a curiosity than a practical mode of transport for much of the 19th century, as they were bulky, their frames heavy, and their wheels rigid and difficult to maneuver.
Dunlop, a veterinarian by profession, noticed all these shortcomings when he watched his son struggle with a tricycle and decided to correct them. First, he tried to twist a garden hose into a ring and wrap it in liquid rubber. This option turned out to be significantly superior to existing tires made of leather and reinforced rubber. Very soon Dunlop began producing bicycle tires through W. Edlin and Co., which later became the Dunlop Rubber Company. It quickly captured the market and greatly increased bicycle production. Shortly thereafter, the Dunlop Rubber Company began producing rubber tires for another product of the Industrial Revolution: the automobile.
Phonograph
Not long ago, live performances were the only way to listen to music. Thomas Edison changed that forever by developing a method for transcribing telegraph messages, which led him to the idea of the phonograph. The idea is simple but beautiful: a recording stylus extrudes grooves corresponding to the sound waves of music or speech into a rotating cylinder coated with tin, and another stylus reproduces the original sound based on those grooves.
Unlike Babbage and his ten-year attempts to see his designs come to fruition, Edison commissioned his mechanic John Kruesi to build the machine and, 30 hours later, had a working prototype in his hands. But Edison did not stop there. His first tin cylinders could only play music a few times, so Edison later replaced the tin with wax. By that time, Edison's phonograph was no longer the only one on the market, and over time, people began to abandon Edison's cylinders. The main mechanism has been preserved and is still in use today. Not bad for a random invention.
Door closer
A door closer is a mechanical device designed to automatically close open doors.
Back in the ancient period, the prototype of the modern door closer appeared. Even then they tried to close the doors with a stone tied to a rope. In the 19th century, a design similar to the modern hinge for pendulum doors appeared; this design made it possible to open the door in both directions and close it using spring force.
In Soviet times, springs were widely used, which were installed on the door to close it.
The door closer that is widely known today was developed by the American Baunt. The closer was mounted in the upper part of the door leaf; it operated using a crank mechanism and a piston. The closing speed was changed using oil. Until now, many manufacturers use this principle of operation of a door closer.
Plan
Introduction
1. Scientific and technical inventions
2. Structural changes in industry
3. The impact of the scientific and technological revolution on the world economy
Bibliography
Introduction
Development of world productive forces at the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries. occurred at an unusually high pace (for example, total steel production from 1870 to 1900 increased 20 times), as a result of which the volume of world industrial production increased. Quantitative changes were accompanied by the rapid development of technology, the innovations of which covered various areas of production, transport, and everyday life. Radical changes have occurred in the organization of industrial production and its technology. Many new industries arose that the world did not know before. There have been significant shifts in the distribution of productive forces both between countries and within individual states.
Such a leap in the development of world industrial potential is associated with the scientific and technological revolution that occurred during the period under review.
The relevance of the topic “Scientific and technological discoveries (late 19th – early 20th centuries), their impact on world economic development” is that thanks to the introduction of scientific and technological progress, the development of industry over the last two centuries has led to fundamental changes in the conditions and lifestyle of all humanity.
The object of the study is scientific and technical discoveries, and its subject is their impact of discoveries on economic world development
The purpose of the study is to consider scientific and technological discoveries (late 19th - early 20th century), their impact on global economic development.
Research objectives to consider:
Scientific and technical inventions;
Structural changes in industry;
The impact of the scientific and technological revolution on the world economy
1. Scientific and technical inventions
Based on electricity, a new energy basis for industry and transport was created, i.e. The biggest technical problem has been solved. In 1867 in Germany, W. Siemens invented a self-excited electromagnetic generator, which, by rotating a conductor in a magnetic field, can receive and generate electric current. In the 70s a dynamo was invented, which could be used not only as a generator of electricity, but also as a motor that converts electrical energy into mechanical energy. In 1883, T. Edison (USA) created the first modern generator. The next successfully solved problem was the transmission of electricity through wires over considerable distances (in 1891, Edison created a transformer). Thus, a modern technical chain was formed: receipt - transmission - reception of electricity, thanks to which industrial enterprises could be located far from energy bases. Electricity production was organized at special enterprises - power plants.
At first, electricity was sent to workplaces through an electric drive, which was common to the entire machine complex. Then it became group and finally individual. From that moment on, each car had a separate engine. Equipping machines with electric motors increased the speed of machines, increased labor productivity and created the prerequisites for subsequent automation of the production process.
As the demand for electricity grew steadily, technical thought was busy searching for new types of prime movers: more powerful, faster, more compact, and more economical. The most successful invention was the multi-stage steam turbine of the English engineer Charles Parsons (1884), which played a significant role in the development of energy - it made it possible to increase the rotation speed many times over.
Along with thermal turbines, hydraulic turbines were being developed; they were first installed at the Niagara Hydroelectric Power Plant in 1896, one of the largest power plants of its time.
Internal combustion engines have received particular importance. Models of such engines running on liquid fuel (gasoline) were created by German engineers in the mid-80s. Daimler and K. Benz. These engines were used by motorized trackless vehicles.
In 1896-1987 German engineer R. Diesel invented an internal combustion engine with high efficiency. Then it was adapted to work on heavy liquid fuel and was extremely widely used in all branches of industry and transport. In 1906, tractors with internal combustion engines appeared in the USA. Their use in agriculture began in 1907. Mass production of such tractors was mastered during the First World War.
Electrical engineering is becoming one of the leading industries, and its sub-sectors are developing. Thus, electric lighting is becoming widespread due to the construction of large industrial enterprises, the growth of large cities, and increased electricity production.
The invention of the incandescent lamp belongs to Russian scientists: A.N. Lodygin (incandescent lamp with a carbon rod in a glass flask, 1873) and P.N. Yablochkov (design of an electric arc lamp, “electric candle”, 1875).
In 1879, the American inventor T. Edison proposed a vacuum incandescent lamp with a carbon filament. Subsequently, improvements were made to the design of incandescent lamps by inventors in various countries. Thus, A. N. Lodygin developed lamps with metal filaments, including tungsten ones, which are still used today. Although many countries around the world retained gas lighting for a long time, it could no longer resist the spread of electric lighting systems.
The second scientific and technological revolution is a period of widespread development of such a branch of electrical engineering as communications technology. At the end of the 19th century. Wire telegraph equipment was significantly improved, and by the beginning of the 80s, much work had been done on the design and practical use of telephone equipment. The inventor of the telephone is the American A.G. Bell, who received the first patent in 1876. The microphone, which was absent from Bell’s apparatus, was invented by T. Edison and, independently of him, by the Englishman D. Hughes. Thanks to the microphone, the operating range of the telephone increased. Telephone communications began to quickly spread throughout all countries of the world. The first telephone exchange in the USA was built in 1877
Two years later, a telephone exchange was put into operation in Paris, and in 1881 - in Ber. line, St. Petersburg, Moscow, Odessa, Riga and Warsaw. The automatic telephone exchange was patented by the American A. B. Strowger in 1889.
One of the most important achievements of the second scientific and technological revolution is the invention of radio - wireless telecommunications based on the use of electromagnetic waves (radio waves). These waves were first discovered by the German physicist G. Hertz. The practical creation of such a connection was carried out by the outstanding Russian scientist AS. Popov, who demonstrated the world's first radio receiver on May 7, 1885. This was followed by the transmission of a radiogram over a distance; in 1897, radiotelegraph communication was carried out between ships at a distance of 5 km. In 1899, stable long-term transmission of radiograms was achieved over a distance of 43 km.
The Italian engineer G. Marconi in 1896 patented a method for transmitting electrical impulses without wires. Significant material support from English capitalist circles allowed him to carry out transfers across the English Channel in 1899, and across the Atlantic Ocean in 1901.
At the beginning of the 20th century. Another branch of electrical engineering was born - electronics. In 1904, the English scientist J. A. Fleming developed a two-electrode lamp (diode), which could be used to convert the frequencies of electrical oscillations. In 1907, the American designer Lee de Forest proposed a three-electrode lamp (triode), with the help of which it was possible not only to convert the frequency of electrical vibrations, but also to amplify weak vibrations. Industrial electronics began with the introduction of mercury rectifiers to convert alternating current to direct current.
Thus, the industrial use of electrical energy, the construction of power plants, the expansion of electric lighting in cities, the development of telephone communications, etc. led to the rapid development of the electrical industry.
The second scientific and technological revolution was marked not only by the creation of new industries, but also affected old industries, primarily metallurgy. The rapid development of productive forces - mechanical engineering, shipbuilding, military production, railway transport - created a demand for ferrous metals. Technical innovations were introduced in metallurgy, and metallurgical technology achieved enormous success. The designs of blast furnaces have changed significantly and the volumes of blast furnaces have increased. New methods of steel production were introduced through the processing of cast iron in a converter under strong blast (G. Bessemer, England, patent 1856) and in a special furnace - cast steel (P. Martin, France, 1864). In 1878, the English metallurgist S. Thomas proposed using iron ore with large phosphorus impurities for smelting. This method made it possible to free the metal from impurities of sulfur and phosphorus.
In the 80s, an electrolytic method for producing aluminum was introduced, which made it possible to develop non-ferrous metallurgy. The electrolytic method was also used to obtain copper (1878). These methods formed the basis of modern steel production, although the Thomas method in the second half of the 20th century. was replaced by the oxygen-converter process.
The most important direction of the second scientific and technological revolution was transport - new types of transport appeared and existing means of communication were improved.
Such practical needs as an increase in the volume and speed of transportation contributed to the improvement of railway technology. In the last decades of the 19th century. The transition to steel railway rails was completed. Steel was increasingly used in bridge construction. “Erustal Bridges” was opened by an arched bridge built in the USA in 1874 across the river. Mississippi near the city of St. Louis. Its author is J. Ide. The carriageway of the Brooklyn Suspension Bridge (near New York) with a central span of 486 m was supported by steel cables. The Hall Gate Arch Bridge in New York was built in 1917 entirely from alloy steel (high carbon). The largest steel bridges were built in Russia across the Volga (1879) and Yenisei (1896) under the leadership of an NA engineer. Bogolyubsky. Since the 1980s, reinforced concrete began to be used more widely in the construction of bridges, along with steel. The largest tunnels were dug on the railways laid in the Alps: St. Gotthard (1880), Simplon (1905). The most significant of the underwater tunnels was the seven-kilometer Severn Tunnel in England (1885).
During these same years, tunnels were also built in Russia: through the Suramsky mountain range in the Caucasus, the Yablonovy Ridge in the Far East, etc.
The rolling stock on the railways was improved - the power, traction force, speed, weight and size of locomotives, and the carrying capacity of cars increased sharply. Since 1872, automatic brakes were introduced in railway transport, and in 1876, an automatic coupling design was developed.
At the end of the 19th century. In Germany, Russia, and the USA, experiments were conducted on the introduction of electric traction on railways. The first electric city tram line opened in Germany in 1881. In Russia, the construction of tram lines began in 1892. In the 90s, suburban and intercity electric railways appeared in a number of countries. However, railway, coal, and oil companies actively opposed this.
The fleet was developing. Since the 60s, piston steam engines with multiple steam expansion began to be used on sea vessels. In 1894-1895 The first experiments were carried out to replace piston engines with steam turbines. They also sought to increase the power and speed of sea and ocean steam ships: crossing the Atlantic Ocean was now possible in seven to five days. We started building ships with internal combustion engines - motor ships. The first motor ship, the oil tanker Vandal, was built by Russian designers in 1903. In Western Europe, the construction of motor ships began in 1912. The largest event in the development of maritime transport was the construction of the Panama Canal in 1914, which had not only economic, but also political and military significance.
A new type of transport, born in the era of the second scientific and technological revolution, is the automobile. The first cars were designed by German engineers K. Benz and G. Daimler. Industrial production of cars began in the 90s, and in several countries. The invention of rubber tires in 1895 by Irish engineer J. Dunlop contributed to the success of automobiles. The high pace of development of the automobile industry led to the construction of highways.
A new type of transport at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries. - airborne It is divided into lighter-than-air vehicles - airships and heavier-than-air vehicles - airplanes (airplanes). In 1896, the German designer G. Selfert used an internal combustion engine running on liquid fuel for airships, which contributed to the development of airship construction in many countries. But airplanes played a decisive role in the development of air transport.
Russian scientists and inventors, the founders of modern hydro- and aerodynamics D.I. Mendeleev, L.M. Pomortsev, S.K., made a huge contribution to the development of aviation problems and aeronautics issues. Dzhevetsky, K. E. Tsiolkovsky and especially N. E. Zhukovsky. Much credit for mastering flight technology belongs to the German engineer O. Lilienthal.
The first experiments in constructing aircraft with steam engines were carried out by A. F. Mozhaisky (1882-1885, Russia), K. Ader (1890-1893, France) X. Maxim (1892-1894, USA). The widespread development of aviation became possible after the installation of light and compact gasoline engines. In 1903, in the USA, the brothers W. and O. Wright made four flights in an airplane powered by an internal combustion engine. At first, the aircraft had a sporting value, then they began to be used in military affairs, and then for transporting passengers.
The second scientific and technological revolution is characterized by the penetration and organization of chemical methods for processing raw materials into almost all branches of production. In industries such as mechanical engineering, electrical engineering, and the textile industry, the chemistry of synthetic fibers - plastics, insulating materials, artificial fibers, etc. - began to be widely used. The American chemist J. Hiett obtained cellulolide in 1869. In 1906, L. Baekeland produced bakelite, then carbolite and other plastic masses were produced. The method of producing artificial fiber developed by the French engineer G. Chardonnay in 1884 became the basis for the production of nitro-silk, and since 1903 - artificial silk and viscose.
In 1899-1900 The works of the Russian scientist I. L. Kond made it possible to obtain synthetic rubber from carbohydrates. Methods have been proposed for the production of ammonia, which serves as a starting material for nitric acid, and other nitrogen compounds necessary in the production of dyes, fertilizers and explosives. The best method turned out to be the method of German scientists F. Haber and K. Bosch.
The achievement of the second scientific and technological revolution is the cracking process - a method of decomposition of oil at high pressures and temperatures. It made it possible to ensure an increased yield of gasoline, since the need for light liquid fuel increased sharply. The foundations of the method were laid by D. I. Mendeleev, developed by Russian scientists and engineers, in particular V. G. Shukhov. Similar research was carried out in the USA, where in 1916 this process was mastered in industrial production.
Before World War I, synthetic gasoline was produced. Back in 1903-1904. Russian chemists of the school of A.E. Favorsky discovered a method for producing liquid fuel from solid fuel, but this greatest achievement of Russian technical thought was not used. The industrial method of producing light fuel from coal was carried out by the German engineer F. Bergius, which was of great economic and military importance for Germany, which did not have natural oil resources.
Scientific and technological revolution has introduced a lot of new things to improve the technical sphere of light, printing and other industries. These are automatic loom, automatic bottle making machine, mechanical typesetting machine, etc.
At the end of the 19th century. the production of standardized products created the preconditions for the development of an in-line system. The system of mass flow production requires a rational organization of labor; processing machines and workplaces are located along the technological process. The manufacturing process is divided into a large number of simple operations and is carried out non-stop, continuously. Initially, such a system was introduced in the canning and match production, and then spread to many industries. It played a particularly important role in the automotive industry. This was explained, on the one hand, by the need to quickly increase car production due to a sharp increase in demand for them, and on the other hand, by the peculiarities of automobile production, built on the principles of interchangeability and normalization (standardization) of parts and assemblies. At H. Ford's automobile factories in the USA, mass production for the first time acquired a complete form (using conveyors). In 1914, the assembly speed of one car was increased to one and a half hours.
The introduction of continuous production has changed the nature of factory equipment in mechanical engineering. Specialized machines began to be introduced for the manufacture of parts - screws, washers, nuts, bolts, etc. In the textile industry in 1890, an automatic loom by the English designer J. Northrop appeared.
The scientific and technological progress of military technology was significant. The main directions of its development included:
automation of small arms. The heavy machine guns of the American engineer were adopted for service. X. Maxim (1883), Maxim and Hotchkiss heavy machine guns, Lewis light machine guns. Several types of automatic rifles were created;
artillery automation. Before and during the First World War, new rapid-fire guns were designed - semi-automatic and automatic. The firing distance increased from 16-18 km to 120 km. (for example, the unique German cannon “Big Bertha”). A number of tractors with internal combustion engines were introduced to move heavy artillery. Anti-aircraft artillery appeared to combat enemy air raids. Tanks and armored vehicles armed with machine guns and small-caliber guns were created;
production of explosives. Their production has increased in colossal proportions. New inventions were made (smokeless powder), and the production of bound nitrogen from the air (a raw material for producing explosives) was developed. The use of toxic substances during the First World War required means of protection against them - in 1915, the Russian engineer N.D. Zelinsky developed a coal gas mask. Construction of gas shelters began;
widespread use of aeronautics and aviation. Airplanes served not only as military reconnaissance, but also as fighters. Since the summer of 1915, airplanes began to be equipped with machine guns. The speed of fighter aircraft was increased to 190-220 km per hour. Bomber planes appeared. Even before the war (in 1913), aircraft designer I. Sikorsky built the first four-engine aircraft “Russian Knight” in Russia. During the course of the war, the warring countries improved bomber aircraft;
creation of large surface ships - battleships, dreadnoughts. Scuba diving has become a reality. In the last years of the 19th century. submarines were built in various countries. When on the surface they were driven by internal combustion engines, and when submerged they were driven by electric motors. Germany paid especially great attention to the construction of submarines, having established their production by the beginning of the First World War.
2.Structural changes in industry
In the relatively short time (since the beginning of the 19th century) the establishment of machine production, more tangible results were achieved in the economic progress of society than in its entire previous history.
The dynamism of needs, which is a powerful engine for the development of production, combined with the desire of capital to increase profits, and therefore to master new technological principles, greatly accelerated the progress of production and brought to life a whole series of technical revolutions.
The rapid development of science, starting from the end of the 19th century, led to a significant number of fundamental discoveries that laid the foundation for new directions in scientific and technological progress. This is the rapid development and practical use of electrical energy (electric motors, three-phase power transmission lines); creation of an internal combustion engine; rapid growth of the chemical and petrochemical industry based on the widespread use of oil as fuel and raw material; introduction of new technologies in metallurgy. The progress of science, technology and production has increased the interpenetration and integration of science and technology in various fields
The development of industry over the last two centuries has led to dramatic changes in the conditions and way of life of all mankind. Thanks to the introduction of scientific and technological progress, the scale of production in absolute terms in all industries of the world continues to increase.
The leading industries at the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th centuries were: production of electricity, organic and inorganic chemical products, mining, metallurgical, engineering, and transport industries.
New industries developed: steelmaking, oil production, oil refining, electrical engineering, aluminum, and automotive.
The leading place in the organization and management of production belonged to joint-stock, collective property companies. The growth of banking and industrial capital led to the formation of a financial oligarchy. Free competition capitalism has developed into monopoly capitalism.
3. The impact of the scientific and technological revolution on the world economy
By the turn of the XIX-XX centuries. the foundations of scientific thinking have changed dramatically; Natural science is flourishing, and a unified system of sciences is being created. This was facilitated by the discovery of the electron and radioactivity
A new scientific revolution took place, starting in physics and covering all major branches of science. It is represented by M. Planck, who created the quantum theory, and A. Einstein, who created the theory of relativity, which marked a breakthrough in the field of the microworld.
At the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries. the connection between science and production has become more durable and systematic; a close relationship between science and technology is established, stipulating the gradual transformation of science into the direct productive force of society. If until the end of the nineteenth century. science remained “small” (a small number of people were employed in this area), but at the turn of the 20th century the way of organizing science changed - large scientific institutes and laboratories emerged, equipped with a powerful technical base. “Small” science turns into “big” - the number of employees in This area has increased, special units of research activity have emerged, the task of which is to quickly bring theoretical solutions to technical implementation, including experimental design developments, production research, technological, experimental, etc.
The process of revolutionary transformations in the field of science then embraced engineering and technology.
The First World War brought about enormous developments in military technology. Thus, the second scientific and technological revolution covered various areas of industrial production. It surpassed the previous era in the pace of technological progress. At the beginning of the 19th century. the order of inventions was calculated in a two-digit number, in the era of the second scientific and technological revolution - in a four-digit number, i.e. in the thousands. The largest number of inventions was patented by the American T. Edison (more than 1000).
The nature of the second scientific and technological revolution differed from the industrial revolution of the 18th-19th centuries. If the industrial revolution led to the formation of machine industry and a change in the social structure of society (the formation of two new classes - the bourgeoisie and the working class) and the establishment of the dominance of the bourgeoisie, then the second scientific and technological revolution did not affect the type of production and social structure and the nature of socio-economic relations. Its results are changes in technology and production technology, the reconstruction of the machine industry, the transformation of science from small to large. Therefore, it is not called the industrial revolution, but the scientific and technological revolution.
There was not only diversification of industries, but also sub-sectors. This can be seen in the structure of, for example, mechanical engineering. Transport engineering showed itself in full force (production of locomotives, cars, airplanes, river and sea vessels, trams, etc.). During these years, the most dynamically developing branch of mechanical engineering was the automotive industry. The first cars with a gasoline engine began to be created in Germany by K. Benz and G. Daimler (November 1886). but soon they already had foreign competitors. If the first car was produced at the H. Ford plant in the USA in 1892, then by the beginning of the 20th century this enterprise was producing 4 thousand cars a year.
The rapid development of new branches of mechanical engineering caused a change in the structure of ferrous metallurgy - the demand for steel increased and the rate of its smelting significantly exceeded the increase in pig iron production.
Technical changes at the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries. and the rapid development of new industries predetermined a change in the structure of world industrial production. If BEFORE the start of the second scientific and technological revolution, the share of industries of group “B” (production of consumer goods) prevailed in the total volume of manufactured products, then as a result of the second scientific and technological revolution the share of industries of group “A” (production of means of production, heavy industry) increased. This led to increased concentration of production and large enterprises began to dominate. In turn, large-scale production required large capital investments and necessitated the consolidation of private capital, which was carried out by the formation of joint-stock companies. The completion of this chain of changes was the creation of monopolistic unions, i.e. monopolies both in the field of production and in the field of capital (financial sources).
Thus, as a result of changes in technology and production technology and the development of productive forces caused by the second scientific and technological revolution, the material prerequisites were created for the formation of monopolies and the transition of capitalism from the industrial stage and free competition to the monopolistic stage. The process of monopolization was also facilitated by the economic crises that regularly occurred at the end of the 19th century, as well as the beginning of the 20th century. (1873,1883,1893, 1901-1902, etc.). Since during the crises it was primarily small and medium-sized enterprises that perished, this contributed to the concentration and centralization of production and capital.
Monopoly as a form of organization of production and capital at the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries. took a dominant position in the socio-economic life of the leading countries of the world, although the degree of concentration and monopolization was not the same across countries; The prevailing forms of monopolies were different. As a result of the second scientific and technological revolution, instead of an individual form of ownership, the main form of ownership becomes joint stock, and in agriculture - farm ownership; cooperative, as well as municipal, is developing.
At this historical stage, the leading place in the world in industrial development is occupied by young capitalist countries - the USA and Germany, Japan is advancing significantly, while the former leaders - England and France are lagging behind. The center of world economic development during the transition to the monopoly stage of capitalism moves from Europe to North America. The United States of America became the first power in the world in terms of economic development.
Conclusion
The rapid development of science, starting from the end of the 19th century, led to a significant number of fundamental discoveries that laid the foundation for new directions in scientific and technological progress.
In 1867 in Germany, W. Siemens invented a self-excited electromagnetic generator, which, by rotating a conductor in a magnetic field, can receive and generate electric current. In the 70s a dynamo was invented, which could be used not only as a generator of electricity, but also as a motor that converts electrical energy into mechanical energy. In 1883, T. Edison (USA) created the first modern generator. In 1891, Edison created a transformer. The most successful invention was the multi-stage steam turbine of the English engineer Charles Parsons (1884)
Internal combustion engines have received particular importance. Models of such engines running on liquid fuel (gasoline) were created in the mid-80s by German engineers Daimler and K. Benz. These engines were used by motorized trackless vehicles. In 1896-1987 German engineer R. Diesel invented an internal combustion engine with high efficiency.
The invention of the incandescent lamp belongs to Russian scientists: A.N. Lodygin (incandescent lamp with a carbon rod in a glass flask.
The inventor of the telephone is the American A. G. Bell, who received the first patent in 1876. One of the most important achievements of the second scientific and technological revolution is the invention of radio
At the beginning of the 20th century. Another branch of electrical engineering was born - electronics. Technical innovations were introduced in metallurgy, and metallurgical technology achieved enormous success.
Characteristic is the penetration and organization of chemical methods of processing raw materials into almost all branches of production.
Synthetic gasoline was produced before World War I
Among the most important inventions of this time are the Singer sewing machine, the rotary printing machine, the Morse telegraph, the revolving, grinding, milling machine, the McCormick mower, and the Heirham combined thresher-winnower.
At the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries. There have been structural changes in the industry:
Structural changes in the economies of individual countries: the creation of large machine production, predominantly heavy industry over light industry, giving preference to industry over agriculture;
New industries are emerging, old ones are being modernized;
The share of enterprises in the production of gross national product (GNP) and national income is increasing;
There is a concentration of production - monopolistic associations arise;
The formation of the world market was completed at the end of the 19th century - at the beginning of the 20th century;
The unevenness in the development of individual countries is deepening;
Interstate contradictions are intensifying.
Scientific and technological revolution led to the emergence of many new branches of industrial production, which history had not known. These are electrical engineering, chemical, oil production, oil refining and petrochemical, automotive industry, aircraft manufacturing, production of Portland cement and reinforced concrete, etc.
Bibliography
1. Economics course: Textbook. – 3rd ed., add. / Ed. B.A. Raizberg: – M.: INFRA – M., 2001. – 716 p.
2. Course of economic theory: Textbook. manual / Ed. prof. M.N. Chepurina, prof. E.A. Kiseleva. - M.: Publishing house. “ASA”, 1996. - 624 p.
3. History of the world economy: Textbook for universities / Ed. G.B. Polyak, A.N. Markova. – M.:UNITY, 1999. –727s
4. Fundamentals of economic theory: polyeconomic aspect. Podruchnik. /G.N.Klimko, V.P.Nesterenko. – K., Vishcha school, 1997.
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The 19th century was revolutionary for the evolution of technology. So, it was during this period that mechanisms were invented that radically changed the entire course of human development. Most of these technologies, although significantly improved, are still used today.
What technical inventions of the 19th century changed the entire course of human development? Before you now will be a list of important technical innovations that have brought about a technical revolution. This list will not be a ranking; all technical inventions have an equal degree of importance for the global technical revolution.
Technical inventions XIX.
1.
Invention of the stethoscope. In 1816, the French doctor Rene Laennec invented the first stethoscope - a medical device for listening to the sounds of internal organs (lungs, heart, bronchi, intestines). Thanks to it, doctors can, for example, hear wheezing in the lungs, thereby diagnosing a number of dangerous diseases. This device has undergone significant changes, but the mechanism remains the same and is an important diagnostic tool today.
2.
Invention of the lighter and matches. In 1823, the German chemist Johann Döbereiner invented the first lighter - an effective means of producing fire. Now fire could be lit in any conditions, which played an important role in the lives of people, including the military. And in 1827, the inventor John Walker invented the first matches, based on the friction mechanism.
3.
Invention of Portland cement. In 1824, William Aspdin developed a type of cement that is used today in almost every country in the world.
4.
Internal combustion engine. In 1824, Samuel Brown invented the first engine that had an internal combustion system. This important invention gave rise to the development of automobile manufacturing, shipbuilding and many other mechanisms operating with the help of an engine. As a result of evolution, this invention has undergone many changes, but the operating system has remained the same.
5.
Photo. In 1826, the French inventor Joseph Niepce invented the first photograph, based on a method of fixing an image. This invention gave an important impetus to the further development of photography.
6
. Electric generator. The first electric power generator was invented in 1831 by Michael Faraday. This device is capable of converting all types of energy into electrical energy.
7.
Morse code. In 1838, the American inventor Samuel Morse created the famous coding method called Morse code. This method is still used in naval warfare and in navigation in general.
8
. Anesthesia. In 1842, one of the most important medical discoveries took place - the invention of anesthesia. Its inventor is considered to be Dr. Crawford Long. This allowed surgeons to perform operations on an unconscious patient, which significantly increased survival rate, since before this they operated on patients in full consciousness, from which they died from painful shock.
9.
Syringe. In 1853 there was another important medical discovery - the invention of the familiar syringe. Its inventor is the French doctor Charles-Gabriel Pravas.
10.
Oil and gas drilling rig. The first oil and gas drilling rig was invented in 1859 by Edwin Drake. This invention marked the beginning of oil and natural gas production, which led to a revolution in the fuel industry.
11.
Gatling gun. In 1862, the world's first machine gun, the Gatling gun, was created by the then famous American inventor Richard Gatling. The invention of the machine gun was a revolution in military craft and in subsequent years, this weapon became one of the most deadly on the battlefield.
12.
Dynamite. In 1866, Alfred Nobel invented the famous dynamite. This mixture completely changed the foundations of the mining industry and also laid the foundation for modern explosives.
13
. Jeans. In 1873, American industrialist Levi Strauss invented the first jeans - trousers made of incredibly durable fabric, which have become a staple type of clothing for more than a century and a half.
14
. Automobile. The world's first automobile was patented by George Selden in 1879.
15.
Gasoline internal combustion engine. In 1886, one of the greatest discoveries of mankind was made - the gasoline internal combustion engine. This device is used all over the world on an incredible scale.
16.
Electric welding. In 1888, a Russian engineer invented the well-known and used throughout the world electric welding, which makes it possible to connect various iron parts in a short time.
17.
Radio transmitter. In 1893, the famous inventor Nikola Tesla invented the first radio transmitter.
18.
Cinema. In 1895, the Lumiere brothers shot the first world film - the famous film with the arrival of a train at the station.
19.
X-ray radiation. Another important breakthrough in medicine was made in 1895 by the German physicist Wilhelm Roentgen. He invented an apparatus for filming using X-rays. This device, for example, can detect a broken human bone.
20.
Gas turbine. In 1899, inventor Charles Curtis invented a mechanism, or rather a continuous internal combustion engine. Such engines were significantly more powerful than piston engines, but also more expensive. They are actively used in the modern world.
21.
Magnetic sound recording or tape recorder. In 1899, the Danish engineer Waldemar Poulsen made the first tape recorder - a device for recording and playing sound using magnetic tape.
Here is a list of some of the most important technical inventions of the 19th century. Of course, during this period there were a very large number of other inventions, in addition, they are no less important, but these inventions deserve special attention.
