If after the incident it was not possible to find a compromise and prevent the further development of the conflict, then the first incident is followed by the second, third, etc. The conflict enters the next stage - it escalates, grows.

Escalation (from lat. scala - stairs) - a sharp intensification of the struggle of opponents. The escalation of the conflict is its key, most intense stage, when all the contradictions between its participants are aggravated and all possibilities are used to win the confrontation.

At this stage, any negotiations or other peaceful means of resolving the conflict become difficult. Emotions often begin to drown out the mind, logic gives way to feelings. The main task is to cause as much damage as possible to the enemy at any cost. Therefore, at this stage, the original cause and main goal of the conflict may be lost and new causes and new goals come to the fore. During this stage of the conflict, a change is also possible. value orientations, in particular, values-means and values-goals can change places. The development of the conflict acquires a spontaneous uncontrollable character.

Escalation signs:

• 1) narrowing of the cognitive sphere in behavior and activity, transition to more primitive ways of reflection;
• 2) the displacement of an adequate perception of the enemy by another image, the accentuation of negative qualities (both real and illusory). Warning signals indicating that the "image of the enemy" dominates:
  • - distrust (everything that comes from the enemy is either bad or, if it is reasonable, pursues dishonest goals);
  • - laying the blame on the enemy (the enemy is responsible for all the problems that have arisen and is to blame for everything);
  • - negative expectation (everything the enemy does, he does for the sole purpose of harming you);
  • - identification with evil (the enemy embodies the opposite of what you are and what you are striving for, he wants to destroy what you value and therefore must be destroyed himself);
  • - representation of "zero sum" (everything that is beneficial to the enemy harms you and vice versa);
  • - deindividualization (anyone who belongs to this group is automatically an enemy);
  • - denial of sympathy (you have nothing to do with your enemy, no information will be able to induce you to show humane feelings towards him, to be guided by ethical criteria in relation to the enemy is dangerous and imprudent).
• 3) Growth emotional tension. Arises as a reaction to the growth of the threat of possible damage; decrease in controllability of the opposite side; inability to realize their interests in the desired volume in a short time; opponent's resistance.
• 4) The transition from arguments to claims and personal attacks. The conflict usually begins with the statement of sufficiently reasonable arguments. But the arguments are accompanied by a bright emotional coloring. The opponent, as a rule, reacts not to the argument, but to the coloring. His answer is no longer perceived as a counterargument, but as an insult, a threat to the self-esteem of the individual. The conflict shifts from the rational plane to the level of emotions.
• 5) The growth of the hierarchical rank of violated and protected interests and their polarization. A more intense action affects the more important interests of the other side, in connection with which the escalation of the conflict can be seen as a process of deepening contradictions. During escalation, the interests of the conflicting parties seem to be divided into two opposite poles.
• 6) Use of violence. As a rule, aggression is associated with some kind of internal compensation, compensation for damage. It is important to bear in mind that at this stage, not only the real threat matters, but sometimes to a large extent more - the potential threat.
• 7) loss of the original subject of disagreement.
• 8) expansion of the boundaries of the conflict (generalization) - the transition to deeper contradictions, an increase in potential points of collision.
• 9) there may be an increase in the number of participants.

The first two stages reflect the development of the pre-conflict situation. The importance of one's own desires and arguments increases. There is a fear that the ground for a joint solution of the problem will be lost. The mental tension grows.

The third stage is the beginning of the escalation. Forceful action (not necessarily physical impact, but any effort) replaces useless discussions. The expectations of the participants are paradoxical: both sides hope, through pressure and firmness, to cause a change in the positions of the opponent, but no one is ready to voluntarily give in. This level of mental response, when rational behavior is replaced by emotional, corresponds to the age of 8-10 years.

The fourth stage is the age of 6-8 years, when the image of the "other" is still preserved, but the person no longer takes into account the thoughts, feelings, position of this "other". The emotional sphere is dominated by a black and white approach. Everything that is "not me" and "not we" is bad and is rejected.

At the fifth stage, the negative assessment of the opponent and the positive assessment of oneself are absolutized. "Sacred values" are at stake, all higher forms beliefs and higher moral obligations. The opponent becomes an absolute enemy and only an enemy, depreciates to the state of a thing and loses human features. But in parallel with this, in relation to other people, a person continues to behave like an adult, which prevents an inexperienced observer from understanding the essence of what is happening.

At the time of the escalation of the conflict, a person is often led by aggression - i.e. the desire to bring harm or pain to another. There are two types of aggression - aggression-an end in itself (hostile aggression) and aggression-a tool to achieve something (instrumental aggression).

The problem of conflict situations, one way or another, affects a large number of of people. She has been repeatedly affected by various specialists and psychologists. However, it is impossible to completely avoid such collisions. Psychologists in this regard very often talk about the escalation of the conflict, its models and types, characteristics, ways of its development and what it leads to.

The meaning of the concept

First of all, you need to decide on the conceptual apparatus and define what “escalation” means. This concept is used in different areas Keywords: management, jurisprudence, business technologies. It originated in business communication with the meaning "to increase, ascend". The concept is used in resolving such situations that are associated with disputes, incidents and organizational problems. Also, escalation is one of the main tools, which is used in the process of managing all kinds of risks.

Escalation is growth confrontation between its parties. At the same time, types, tactics, models and phases can be different. Escalation is also understood as the development of a dispute and the aggravation of confrontation, which progressing t in time, while the following destructive actions of opponents against each other are stronger than the previous ones in terms of intensity. Escalation is the part that starts with an incident, and ends weakening of the struggle, that is, it goes to the end of the collision.

Signs of escalation

Conflict escalation has certain properties. The essential characteristics of conflict escalation are:

Models of conflict escalation

"Attack is an attack." This is such a conflict situation, which manifests itself in a constant increase in the aggression of the parties. For example, a more stringent requirement may be the answer to any requests. In this case, both parties can no longer get rid of negative emotions, and the most harmless proposals of the other are considered unacceptable and are immediately rejected. Both parties to the conflict are guided by a thirst to take revenge on their opponent for his actions and thoughts.

"Attack - defense." With this conflict model, one of the participants makes any demands, and the second refuses them, advocating the preservation of their principles and interests. If one of the parties does not comply with the requests of the other, then this sets the person up to put forward new and more stringent requirements. This tactic involves the transition to irrational behavior and causes the manifestation of anger, despair and anger.

spiral escalation

The spiral model of conflict escalation is characterized by the result of various actions and reactions that form a vicious circle. This type of escalation is characterized by the following features:

Those offensive tactics used by the first side cause similar behavior on the other side.

Stages of conflict development

The development of the conflict is reminiscent of going down the stairs, with each step down the step, consciousness and sobriety of the mind are reduced. H. Braudel distinguishes 3 phases of the development of conflict situations and 9 stages of their development. All of them differ in the psychological states of the two sides.

From hope to fear:

• Debate and argumentation
• Arguments and taking the showdown to the extreme
• Time to act, not talk. Is the threshold of fear

From fear to loss of appearance: In every confrontation, there comes a moment when the conflicting parties exhaust their resources, the dispute gradually stops escalating. Often after this, the peak point of the dispute intersects and the conflict de-escalates. It represents the attenuation of confrontation, the decrease in tension between people. Gradual de-escalation helps to narrow the boundaries of those territories that fall under the zone of disagreement.

Incident - action or inaction of subjects, which is the reason for the conflict to reach a new level. An incident is a temporary event. It can be provoked or spontaneous.

Escalation - the use by the parties to the conflict of increasingly harsh tactics, increasing the tension of the conflict as a whole.

Escalation characteristics

Further, more objects of the dispute appeartransition from private to general disagreementsincreasing concentration on the opponent of the conflict and less and less on the subject of the disputeincrease in the number of participants in the conflict.

Escalation Models

1. 
   Aggressive model

1. 
   spiral model

1. 
   Structural change model

The same as the first two. Only instead of a psychological reaction, structural changes are put.

Stages of conflict escalation:

1. 
   Each side recognizes the right of the other to the problem, the parties adhere to aesthetic norms and are determined to solve problems without forceful actions.
2. 
   The problem fades into the background, the confrontation of the parties begins, opponents become opponents.
3. 
   The original cause is forgotten, the problem is not solved.
4. 
   Side polarization stage. The parties do not communicate, but only recruit supporters.
5. 
   The stage of violence.

Factors affecting escalation:

1. 
   A perceived divergence of interests.
2. 
   High expectations
3. 
   The low stability of the situation is strongly influenced by the balance of power, external conditions, norms)
4. 
   Means of deterrence (creating a threat)

dead center of conflict - the stage when the escalation stops. There are no actions to end the conflict from the parties, but one (or both) parties do not want to continue the conflict (for example, when it has exhausted its resources or considers that further actions will entail too much cost). At this stage, the parity of forces is formed. The way is open for the de-escalation process.

This can happen at any stage in the development of a conflict. Further, either de-escalation may occur, or the conflict will move to a “new level” of development.

De-escalation can also be associated with the emergence of new relationships between the parties (for example, they will have to work together).

Also, de-escalation may be associated with disagreements in one of the conflicting parties.

De-escalation leads to the end of the conflict. But after completion, it can start again if at least one of the three levels of some claims is not satisfied.

Functions

2. Optimization of social connections

Strengthening alignment in achieving the goal

The inconsistency of these actions

3. Diagnostic function

Contradictions are actualized

Protest actions due to the actualization of contradictions

4. Innovative function

Development of new decision methods, organizational changes

Growing resistance to change

Creating additional barriers to work.

5. Communication function

Development of formal and informal communication channels

Deterioration of the socio-psychological climate, the possibility of the formation of hostile relationships within groups.

6. Preventive function (associated with the institutionalization of the conflict)

Creation of norms regulating interaction and weakening the confrontation of participants,

Through the development of norms, in the future, any contradictions may be hushed up.

Strategies of the participants in the conflict

Double Interest Model (Thomas Model)

Assignment Cooperation
Compromise

Withdrawal Confrontation, coercion

X - the level of focus on one's own interests

Y - the level of focus on the interests of other parties

People make concessions (x-axis) if:

They view conflict from a positive perspective,

They are afraid of the enemy, they are afraid of the escalation of the conflict, etc.

They were on good terms before the conflict

Conflict affects the interests of the group

People make concessions (y-axis) if:

There is general form activities (his affairs are my affairs)

There is a psychological connection (he feels good, so I feel good too)

There is an instrumental interest (one side has power over the other).

Characteristics of the main strategies of behavior

Coercion strategy (sharks) (high-bottom).

Tough tactics

Destructive model, destruction of interactions between parties

The power resource is actively used

Rule: “Either everything is mine, or nothing to anyone!!!”

Striving for dominance

Characterized by the psychologization of the conflict

This strategy is effective when:

It is about protecting the interests of the case (organization) from some conflict personality, from encroachment, when there is a threat to its existence,

There is a tough confrontation.

Are used:

Threats (threats cost nothing, implementation is optional)

Escape strategy (conflict avoidance) (tortoise) (bottom-bottom).

Complete surrender, surrender of everything.

There are 2 display options:

The subject of the conflict is not significant (for one or for both),

The subject of the dispute has an objective value, but she evaluates it as unimportant (or the strength of the other side is overestimated).

With this strategy, a relapse of the conflict is possible.

There is a psychological type of people who often choose this strategy (i.e. do not come into conflict). These are reflective introverts (or turtles).

Tactics:

- retreat without making counterclaims,

Procrastination, delay in making a decision, waiting attitude (due to psychological type, because often turtles seek support and information, consult, etc.)

Cancellation of negotiations.

Yield strategy (bear) (bottom-high)

The person is focused on smoothing out the conflict. He sacrifices his own interests for the sake of maintaining relations with the enemy. Quite resolutely applied tactics of struggle. Those who adhere to this strategy can stand firm enough in their position. It can be dominant for a person due to his psychological characteristics, it is typical for conformists. It can turn into a conflict avoidance strategy.

It may also be appropriate if the subject of the dispute is not yet fully defined.

Compromise strategy (fox ) (Wednesday-Wednesday)

Motto - you to me, I to you!

Concessions are made in exchange for other concessions.

Compromise cannot be seen as a resolution of the conflict, the removal of a contradiction. But, nevertheless, sometimes he can exhaust the conflict situation, if you can share the subject of the conflict.

Compromise can take an active (agreements, obligations) and passive (refusal to take any action to achieve mutual concessions) form. This can be effective if time is needed.

Compromise can only be reached if both parties adequately and equally perceive the subject of the conflict. If not, then there may be an imaginary compromise (calm before the storm).

Such a strategy is possible either if the subject is clearly divisible, or in a situation of standard, recurring conflicts.

Cooperation strategy (owl) (high-high).

The strategy is based on the balance of interests and interpersonal relations between the parties. If an object is indivisible and has great importance for the parties, then with this strategy it is hardly possible to apply this strategy.

Tactics: withdrawal, concession, compromise, confrontation…

Such a strategy is possible in non-standard, creative situations if there is a lot of time for the negotiation process.

Tactics (for everyone):

1. 
   Seduction (influence on a person with the help of her praise). The more we are interested in this strategy, the less successful it will be.

Flattery (preferably a positive statement in a conversation with a third person with the hope of being passed on to the addressee)

Unity of opinion (agreement with the other side on any issue, but not by deceit, but selectively. Or even better, demonstrate disagreement with what your opponent does not agree with, and it is more effective not to agree with what was said, but to anticipate his statement).

Provision of services (better "secret").

self-presentation

The main thing in this tactic is that the other side does not guess the true intentions. It is used in strategies of compromise, cooperation. It is better not to deceive, but simply to focus on something.

1. 
   The art of ruffling feathers. The goal is to confuse, to confuse.

- Maintain a different pace of activity.

Make the enemy feel incompetent and irresponsible.

It is used by a fox, maybe an owl ...

1. 
   Hidden reproaches (make the enemy suffer remorse).
2. 
   Persuasive reasoning:

- An attempt to convince the other side of their legal grounds for resolving the conflict in their favor, to prove the legitimacy of their claims.

Trying to convince the other party that lowering their demands will do them good.

Used by owl, fox, bear.

1. 
   Threat. It can provoke an escalation of the conflict.

It is characteristic of a shark, partly of a fox and an owl.

1. 
   Inviolable Commitments

Commitments are given to do something regardless of the actions of the other party. Responsibility is shifted to the shoulders of the other party. There is a big risk that it won't work.

non-violent resistance.

Typology of conflicts

1. Related to the development of culture (Smelser):

cultural delay,

Alien influence.

2. According to the complexity of subjects (also Smelzer):

interindividual,

between associations,

Intra and inter-institutional,

Between sectors of society (division of labor),

Interstate,

Between cultures and types of cultures.

3. Zaitsev-Deutch classification:

cooperation conflict,

Competition conflict.

16 interaction types:

		Socio-emotional		Task Aimed
		informal	formal	informal	formal
competition	Unequal	The bully is the victim	Expert - Novice	Power - rebels	Security - prisoners
	Equal	Personal Enemies	Divorcing couple	Opponents in an informal game	Business competitors
cooperation	Unequal	mother and child	Cop is a child	professor - graduate	leader - subordinate
	Equal	lovers	Club members	Colleagues	Working group members

1. 
   According to flow patterns:

- violent,
- …,

Nonviolent.

1. 
   Classification from a psychological point of view (also Deutsch):

- Actual conflict (cause is cause. Example - dependent conflict),

Displaced conflict (the cause of the conflict is transferred to another sphere of relations),

Latent conflict (participants are not aware of the causes of conflicts),

False conflict (there are no reasons, but the participants believe that there is. An example is a person getting into another culture),

Pathological conflict, conflict of understanding (based on misunderstanding of the actions or words of the opponent, incorrect interpretation).

6. By type of subjects:

		In system	Out of the system
Subject levels	personal	Intrapersonal	interpersonal
	Group	Intragroup	Intergroup
	Organizational	Intraorganizational	interorganizational
	State	Intrastate	Interstate

1. 
   As a result of the conflict:

- Structurally - resolved (there is no reason for the emergence of a new conflict situation),

Unconstructively allowed.

8. According to the duration of the course:

Short-term (the subject is exhausted in the process of contact interactions),

long,

Chronic.

9. In relation to the organization:

Positional (source within the formal structure of the organization),

Interpersonal (informal).

10. At the beginning (Shaynov):

The use by participants of conflictogens (i.e. anything that can lead to the development of a conflict). The use of one conflictogen can lead to the development of a conflict.

Formation of a conflict situation

Types of conflictogens:

Direct negative attitude (threats, criticism, accusations, harsh orders),

The manifestation of a condescending attitude (demonstration of one's superiority, consolation, reproaches, imposing one's point of view, assessment, judgment),

Boasting,

Dishonesty / insincerity, deceit, withholding information,

Violation of various norms of a moral, ethical or organizational nature.

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61. Functions and barriers of communications

During the development of a conflict situation, communications perform a number of functions, the most important of which is the transfer of information, content or meaning, which is the semantic (semantic) side of the communicative process. It is this that has a visible influence on a person's behavior, determining his actions and forming a certain state. The specificity of communications lies in the fact that they act as tools for the interaction of the psyche of individuals communicating with each other, performing three main functions: information-communicative, regulatory-communicative, emotional-communicative.

Information and communication function is implemented during the transmission and reception of information:

1) the information received and received acquires an appropriate design, which is an important incentive for creative communication;

2) differences in the awareness of participants in the communication process are smoothed out;

3) there is a desire to understand the point of view of the communication partner, compare it with one's own, accept (or reject) it;

4) the possibility of obtaining new results is provided.

Regulatory-communicative function is applied in order to influence the behavior of the parties in the communication process, which allows:

1) regulate the behavior of all participants;

2) coordinate their actions;

3) manage the communication process taking into account the individual characteristics of the participants.

The emotional-communicative function is directly related to the emotional state caused by the process of communication, the need for which is due to the need to improve this state. The process of communication can change it qualitatively: bring it closer (or separate), mutually reinforce (or weaken) the emotional state of the participants in the communication process. This allows you to get emotional release, or, conversely, increase the emotional tension of communication partners.

When analyzing communication barriers, one should take into account such a natural condition for the psychological activity of a person as the phenomenon of autocommunication, which is a process of constant communication with oneself, which can provoke the emergence of an intrapersonal conflict. The mechanism of autocommunication is directly related to the style of communication with others, which influences the choice of forms of methods of intrapersonal communication, which in complex life situations may lose its function.

However, in most cases, communication barriers are the result of a disagreement in goals, which exacerbates interpersonal contradictions and causes conflict. Such disagreements may arise as a result of the forcible imposition of one's own vision of the current situation on the communication partner, which becomes an important obstacle to reaching agreement and mutual understanding.

Can be distinguished three main communication forms, which impede productive communication of partners with each other, which stimulate misunderstanding and force the use of protective mechanisms.

1. Communications perceived by the partner as requirements, which deprives the communication partner of the opportunity to independently form his own opinion and the corresponding model of behavior. Demand means submission or resistance.

2. Communications perceived by the communication partner as a judgment or diagnosis beyond doubt.

3. Communications that leave no room for free choice.

In addition, lack of skills or ignorance of channels for obtaining information can act as communication barriers. necessary information and precise definition of effective methods of assimilation of information by communication partners.

62. Types of communication channels and the problem of their choice

The communication process begins with the desire of one of the communication partners to express their idea (point of view) or express the feeling that has appeared. This is precisely the meaning of the message sent to another individual. In order to most accurately convey this meaning, various means of communication are used, sent through different channels. The choice of channel directly depends on the type of characters transmitted by the sender.

The most common communication channels include: the transmission of speech and written materials, modern electronic means communications (including local computer networks, Email, video materials, audio and video conferences). The selected channel must fully correspond to the physical transmission of the required characters. In all other cases, the exchange of information may be difficult (ineffective) or even impossible. If it is necessary to transmit particularly important information, one should not be limited to one channel (even the most convenient one), but it is recommended to duplicate the transmitted message. In this case, the sender of the message must establish the appropriate sequence of using different communication channels and determine the time intervals for transmitting the message as accurately as possible.

Practice shows that the parallel transmission of information in oral and written form is much more effective than any of them. Simultaneous receipt of information through two channels at once forms a serious attitude towards it and allows you to more quickly receive a reaction to the transmitted message. In addition, when choosing a suitable communication channel, one should take into account the peculiarities of information perception inherent in individuals associated with different sense organs. Accordingly, they differ:

1) visuals(focused on visual perception), which are characterized by concreteness, rigidity, a tendency to indictments;

2) auditory(oriented to auditory images, for example, music, speech, sounds in nature);

3) kinestatics(based on somatosensory) perceive information received from the external environment through the state of their body (i.e., experience it emotionally).

According to the method of transmitting information, they also distinguish three types of channels:

1) straight;

2) indirect (or indirect);

3) controlled indirect.

direct channel means to send the message explicitly. Indirect(or indirect) means the transmission of information related to that transmitted over a direct channel, for the correct understanding of which certain efforts are required, since it exists in an implicit (veiled) form. This requires a high degree of trust in relation to the sender, which eliminates the possibility of transmitting false information and complements the previously received message. In the absence of trust in the sender, the indirect channel performs a control function, which makes it possible to evaluate the match (or mismatch) of the previously received message. For example, the interlocutor says that he will continue the process of communication with pleasure, and he involuntarily glances at his watch.

Controlled Indirect Channel serves to convey a message that the sender wants to make unintentional, although this is done with specific goals. For example, demonstrating a direct look and a confident tone in an extremely dubious situation, which is designed to convince a communication partner of the truth of the information being communicated. In such doubtful situations, body language should be analyzed, which can tell the addressee the real state of affairs and avoid serious danger.

63. Escalation and de-escalation of conflict

Term escalation, which has Latin roots (from lat. scala-"ladder"), means a sharp increase in the intensity of the conflict actions of opponents in the process of deploying a conflict situation. The escalation of the conflict is usually characterized by the following features:

1) the deterioration of the cognitive abilities of the opposing sides, which is manifested in the use of more rude and aggressive methods of attack and defense;

2) a decrease in the possibility of an adequate perception of the opponent by both conflicting parties at once, the development of an image of the enemy based on emphasizing both real and imaginary negative qualities and actions.

Signs of the formation of the image of the enemy can be considered:

1) the appearance of distrust in relation to everything emanating from the opponent (all his actions are interpreted as knowingly harmful or hypocritical);

2) a situation where the blame for all the consequences of the conflict is fully placed on the opposite side, which should be responsible for what is happening;

3) expectation from the opponent exclusively negative actions, each designed to cause irreparable damage;

4) direct identification of the enemy with evil, since he becomes its real embodiment, as a result - calls for the destruction of the enemy;

5) the impossibility of reaching any compromise (what can be accepted by one of the parties can only bring harm to the opposite and vice versa);

6) a tendency to deindividualization, meaning that anyone who belongs to another group automatically becomes an enemy;

7) a complete refusal to show sympathy for the opposite side; based on the unwillingness to have nothing in common and show understanding for the position of the opposing side;

8) a significant increase in the level of emotional stress resulting from a response to the possible destructive consequences of an unfolding conflict (for example, serious moral or material damage). This worsens the degree of controllability, increases the resistance of the opponent, which leads to the impossibility of realizing interests in full;

9) the transition of opponents from logical arguments to claims and direct personal attacks, each of which is perceived by the parties as a personal insult, carrying a real threat of reducing the self-esteem of the individual in the eyes of others, i.e., there is a transfer of the conflict from the rational area to the emotional field;

10) an increase in the number of interests violated and protected by both opposing sides, accompanied by their increasing polarization (i.e., escalation acts as a process of deepening the contradictions that have arisen, which are increasingly moving away from each other);

11) the widespread use of violence, when aggression occurs not only in the event of a real, but also a potential threat;

12) loss of the original subject of the conflict;

13) expansion of the boundaries of the conflict, the formation of a set of deeper contradictions, an increase in conflict zones;

14) involvement of new participants in the field of conflict, when, as it develops, it covers new zones.

De-escalation of the conflict represents the exact opposite process, when the strength of the conflict gradually decreases. During the de-escalation of the conflict, there is a decrease in the level of emotional tension among the warring parties, a gradual convergence of positions, the degree of aggressiveness and intensity of conflict actions of participants who are already tired of the conflict is significantly reduced. All this leads to the emergence of real hope for a constructive resolution of the conflict.

64. Main patterns and reasons for the escalation of the conflict

Escalation of the conflict occurs when its participants follow destructive patterns of behavior. It is characterized by an increase in the destructive impact of the parties on each other (interference, pressure, use of force, etc.). When the conflict escalates, the actions of one side can lead to retaliatory actions of the other, but already many times stronger and, in turn, causing new aggressive counter-actions. The escalation of the conflict often contributes to the complication of the current situation, which makes it almost impossible to find right and wrong sides.

It does not follow from the recognition of the symmetry of the development of interaction that the parties are in the process of struggle in an equal position, pursuing similar goals. One side may seek to change the existing balance and pursue a mainly offensive strategy; the other is to try to maintain the former position and adhere entirely to the defensive strategy. At the same time, it is obvious that intensive offensive actions will cause intensive defense, and vice versa. This happens not only in political (including military), but also in interpersonal conflicts.

Therefore, in order to successfully manage a conflict, one should master the skills of timely recognition of signals of such an escalation. Conflict escalation signals are:

1) attitude towards the opponent as an enemy, all actions of which are considered as an encroachment on the interests of the enemy;

2) lack of controlled attention to the opposing side;

3) unwillingness to take responsibility by one or both conflicting parties;

4) a decrease in the ability for an open model of behavior, which prevents the disclosure of the parties to each other;

5) decreased willingness to accept the point of view of the opposite side;

6) a decrease in communications between the warring parties, which may even completely stop;

7) decrease in the perception of the arguments of the opposite side or their significant distortion.

One of the typical and common reasons for the intensification and deepening of the conflict is a change in behavioral tactics, for example, a transition in a dispute, discussion, discussion from arguments to claims, personal attacks, even physical impact. Many forms of interpersonal interaction are nothing more than cognitive conflicts (conflicts of different points of view in scientific discussions), which can be won only through the use of convincing arguments and logical constructions. Nevertheless, many people, refusing logic, act with the help of pressure, insults, from a position of strength. All this happens because the original subject of disagreement is largely tripled, a new one appears, and the relationship of the parties that develops in the course of the conflict becomes its independent element.

The nature of actions in a conflict is in a certain way related to the type and level of conflicting interests. The intensity of conflict actions is also connected with this characteristic, since each subsequent intensive destructive action affects the more and more important interests of the other side. Therefore, the escalation of a conflict of interest can be characterized as a process of growth of the corresponding position of violated and protected interests, i.e., as a situation of development of contradictions. As already noted, in a conflict of interest, a change in the subject itself can occur. One of the most typical examples is even the complete loss of the subject of the conflict, when the parties begin to forget what caused the conflict. Nevertheless, opponents may continue to carry out sharp conflicting actions in relation to each other.

65. Patterns of conflict escalation

The totality of hostile actions, characterized as the conflict behavior of the opposing sides, appears in reality as the most acute stage of conflict actions. Most often, when this process is approached in a simplified way, it is this stage that is passed off as the conflict itself, although in fact it does not begin and end at all with it. Conflict behavior, which is the main content of the escalation, is the conscious actions of the participants in the conflict aimed at achieving their own goals and countering the implementation of the goals of a competitor. Escalation is characterized by the unfolding of two opposing tendencies. One of them is that a general destabilization of the situation is taking place, and the existing contradictions, which led to the emergence of a potential for tension and its development into real tension, are escalating to the limit, splashing out in the form of unusually sharp emotional outbursts characteristic of the behavior of the warring parties. The second trend is characterized by more intense interaction between the parties to the conflict, which makes it possible to more adequately assess the positions of the opposing parties and the degree of severity and scale of the objectively existing conflict situation itself. Both of these tendencies continuously interact with each other, and if the first prevails, then this leads to an increase in the escalation of the conflict and its aggravation, but if the second becomes stronger, then under certain conditions prerequisites are created for the attenuation and cessation of conflict actions.

Sometimes, in the course of a conflict, its object is completely lost, however, due to serious damage (both moral and material) caused by the parties to each other during the implementation of conflict actions. This can serve as a new impetus for the escalation of tension and the emergence of a new, even more protracted and violent conflict. In some cases, this may further deepen the contradictions between the conflicting parties, change the core of the conflict and spread it to new fields of interaction (conflict generalization).

The escalation of the conflict can lead to the enlargement of the parties, i.e., the accession of new subjects to the conflicting parties and an increase in total number participants in the conflict. Transformation of interpersonal conflict into intergroup conflict, increase in the number of participants in the conflict, modification of conflicting social groups, leads to a change in the nature of the conflict itself, causes the use of other means, as a rule, more effective methods of force.

The extreme means of struggle of the conflicting parties is violence - the most important factor and result of the escalation of the conflict.

There are various models of conflict escalation. Escalation can be continuous or undulating; cool and lethargic.

Continuous escalation- this is an ever-increasing degree of tension in the relations of the conflicting parties and the strength of the conflict actions carried out by them. With a wave-like escalation, the tension in relations either intensifies or subsides, periods of active confrontation give way to lulls and a temporary improvement in relations.

The escalation scheme can be steeply directed upwards, reaching the most severe and sharp manifestations of the hostility of the parties to each other. In other cases, the escalation rhythm may be rather sluggish and remain at this level for a long period of time. The latter situation is typical for chronic conflicts of a protracted nature, which can remain at the escalation stage for many years or even decades (international or interethnic conflicts).

66. Conflict resolution

Regulation is the most rational form of influence on the conflict. At the same time, one should distinguish between the concepts of "regulation" and "resolution", which is the process of eliminating the basis of the conflict: its subject and causes. In the process of such liquidation, the conflictants change. Unlike resolution, regulation consists in identifying individual elements of the conflict that are subject to managerial influence. In this context, regulation is the transfer of the conflict to the most favorable field, which allows the use of standard conflict interaction schemes in order to bring the positions of the warring parties closer together, as well as limit the spread of the conflict, maintaining it at an acceptable level.

Thus, regulation is aimed primarily at mitigating or weakening the conflict interactions of the warring parties, its transfer to a qualitatively different level of relations. Therefore, the problem of conflict regulation lies in the possible limitation of its influence on the entire system. public relations, allows you to control its development and accurately determine its possible consequences. At the same time, it should be noted that in one form or another, an element of regulation is inherent in any conflict. This gives it a certain form, which allows to some extent mitigate the consequences of the escalation of the conflict, reduce the level of economic, social and moral damage to those involved in the conflict field.

Conflict management, by analogy with the management process, includes a number of stages, starting with conflict identification. The identification of the conflict is the initial action aimed at identifying its essence and recognizing it as a reality. At the same time, fixing the conflict is a difficult task, since the opposing sides can mask their conflict actions, completely denying the existence of a conflict situation. Therefore, the recognition of the existence of a conflict becomes the first step towards its settlement.

The conflict resolution process can be seen as the most effective method reducing tension and intensity of conflict confrontation, allows you to introduce controls into the conflict field. Currently, a variety of technologies are used in conflict management: communicative, socio-psychological, organizational, information. The latter make it possible to eliminate distorted data concerning the behavior and actions of opposing subjects from the existing information field, to eliminate the existing lack of information on controversial issues, which has a positive effect on the conflict relations of the participants.

An important role in the process of conflict resolution is given to communication technologies, which allow to establish productive interaction between interested parties (both individuals and groups as a whole). Effective organization in the process of communication of conflictants allows reducing the influence of the emotional background, forming agreed positions and opinions. The use of organizational technologies is most justified for the regulation of organizational conflicts. In this case, a certain system of measures is developed, including methods of encouragement and punishment, with the aim at the earliest stage of development:

1) to block the conflict situation in the event that its further development can lead to the emergence of a destructive conflict;

2) maximize the constructive potential of the conflict situation.

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Escalation, i.e. development, is the most important stage in the dynamics of a conflict that occurs in its open period. An escalation occurs after an incident if it has not been resolved peacefully. The end of the escalation implies the easing of the intensity of the struggle and the transition to the completion stage. This stage is characterized by the progressive development of the conflict, the aggravation of the confrontation, when the actions of the opponents, aimed at causing harm to each other, have a high degree activity.

The escalation of the conflict has its own signs.

1. Narrowing of the cognitive sphere when the reflection of reality
carried out in more primitive ways.

2. Formation of the image of the enemy, which negatively affects
adequate perception of the opponent, displacing him. The image of the enemy
is settled on the basis of the predominance of negative assessments of the opponents
one that can take shape even in the pre-conflict period.
The image of the enemy can be both real and imaginary, i.e. art
deliberately invented for specific purposes, for example, for the purpose of
strengthening group unity. Creating an image of the enemy is one thing
from effective means of struggle.

3. An increase in emotional tension that can fuss
kat as a reaction to various situations or actions of the enemy: ug
damage rose, controllability reduction and standard
behavior of the opponent, the inability to realize
own goals and interests in the necessary, desired volume
and for the desired time, the opponent's obvious resistance, refusal
compromise, etc.

4. Change of arguments to specific claims.

5. Formation of a hierarchy of violated and protected information
teres, their polarization, when the process of deepening

1 Antsupov A. Ya., Shipilova A. AND. Decree. op. S. 288.

contradictions: the interests of the opponents are increasingly beginning to clash and talk about TIVO to each other and therefore get divorced into different fields!. At this stage (as opposed to the pre-conflict stage and the incident stage), the interests of one side can only be realized by ignoring the interests of the other side.

6. Demonstration of force and the threat of its use, the purposes of which
swarm are Intimidation of the enemy, the formation of his feelings
the presence of uncertainty, a decrease in its activity, the introduction of dezor
organizations. Demonstration of strength most often leads to an increase
emotional tension, enmity, hatred for the enemy,
as well as activating the actions of the opposite side.

7. The direct use of violence as the last "ar
gument”, which is a marker that the development of the conflict before
reached its peak. Violence can spread to
completely different spheres of human activity (economic
musical, political, domestic, etc.) and levels of organization
social system (individual, group, community, society).

8. Loss of the original point of contention, outgrowth
confrontation over a certain object in a more global
ballroom, when the original object ceases to play such a significant
significant role, as in the beginning of the conflict. The conflict is getting
independence from the reasons that caused it.

9. Expanding the boundaries of the conflict, when the contradictions become
become deeper, new points of collision appear,
expanding territory, space-time boundaries
conflict.

10. An increase in the number of participants in the conflict, in connection with which
there may be a transformation of interpersonal conflict into interpersonal
group, etc. This can naturally lead to
to a change in the nature, structure of the conflict and, consequently,
to changes in his forecasts.

The escalation of the conflict has its own stages, which correlate with the ontogeny of the human psyche, but in the opposite direction, since the aggravation of the conflict leads to the regression of the conscious part of the psyche. There are five stages in the escalation of a conflict.

In the first and second stages there is an increase in the significance and importance of one's own desires and aspirations, and there is also a fear of losing the grounds for jointly solving the problem that has arisen. The signal for the further development of the conflict for one of the parties are the measures that the other side takes to change the position of the enemy.

Warmed up this p is actually the beginning of the escalation. The discussions that were used as a means of influence in the previous stages are replaced by concrete actions. This stage is characterized by a paradox of expectations: both sides believe that they can change the opponent's position with the help of their

Her firmness. A simplified approach to reality becomes the leader, as it is easier to keep it emotionally. The real problems of the conflict cease to be important and significant, and in the first place there is an interest in the personality of the enemy, which is now in the spotlight.

Fourth stage characterized by an even greater regression in the functioning of the psyche. The opponent does not take into account the thoughts, feelings and position of another person - his opponent. The polarization of views and opinions begins to prevail, the division into “we” and “them”, “bad - good”, “black - white”, respectively, everything that is not “ours” is rejected, denied.

On the fifth stage the negative assessment of the opponent and the positive assessment of oneself are absolutized. Sacred and lofty ideals and values, beliefs, and the highest moral obligations are used as justifying mechanisms for their actions. Violence becomes impersonal, and the image of the enemy acquires rigidity, depreciates, the presence of any human feelings and positive qualities and intentions is denied. That is, there is a deep regression of perception. At the same time, agreement reigns within the group of like-minded people and their behavior is not distinguished by inadequacy.