LITHUANIA STATE AND Rus'
Questions in the text of the paragraph
What consequences did the entry of part of the Russian lands into the Grand Duchy of Lithuania have?
Which Russian principalities did not fall under the rule of the Golden Horde?
Polotsk, Vitebsk, Pinsk, Minsk, Brest lands, and Smolensk did not fall under the rule of the Golden Horde or subsequently left it.
What influence did the Russian lands have on the development of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania?
Russian lands had a great positive influence on the culture and traditions of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. With joint forces, the principality managed to resist threats from both the West and the Mongols. Highly developed culture of Russian lands, rich experience government controlled brought the culture and statehood of Lithuania to a new level. In addition, Russian was the state language of the principality, Russian Orthodox Church enjoyed great authority, and the nobility of the principality for a long time consisted mainly of Russians or Lithuanians who converted to Orthodoxy. True, since the adoption of Catholicism, Russians have become second-class citizens in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. Over time, the Orthodox population began to be subjected to religious and national oppression.
Why do you think the Lithuanian state adopted Catholicism?
Lithuania was essentially sandwiched between Orthodox Russia and Catholic Europe. The Lithuanians actively fought with the Germans - the Livonian and Teutonic orders, who took an anti-papal position (Ghibellines), and therefore supporters of the Guelph party, primarily Catholics in Poland, could become their objective allies in the fight against the orders. Probably in connection with this, Gediminas allowed his subjects to accept the Catholic faith. In addition, he probably took into account that, in addition to ideological unity, the Lithuanians had another basis for their alliance with the Poles. Lithuanians constantly raided Poland, from where they brought Polish girls. The final transition of Lithuania to the Catholic faith began after 1385, when the union of Lithuania with Poland was concluded, and the Grand Duke of Lithuania Jagiello himself converted to Catholicism, marrying the heiress of the Polish crown Jadwiga and taking the throne of Poland.
Questions and tasks for working with the text of a paragraph
1. What are the features of the formation of the State of Lithuania?
The peculiarity of the formation of the Lithuanian state is that the principalities of North-Western Rus' voluntarily united with the Lithuanians to jointly repel threats from the east and west. Most of the lands of the Lithuanian state were Russian principalities.
2. What was it like? religious politics Lithuanian princes inXIII-XIV centuries?
First in Lithuanian state no faith was oppressed. Orthodoxy was very popular. Lithuania successfully resisted attempts to impose Catholicism. Subsequently, after the signing of the union with Poland state religion Catholicism was recognized and the Orthodox population began to be subjected to oppression.
3. Why and how did the formation of the Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian nationalities begin?
4. What changes took place in the Lithuanian state at the endXIV - beginningXV century?
In 1385, the union of Lithuania with Poland was signed. Jagiello became the ruler of Lithuania and Poland. The process of Lithuania's final transition to the Catholic faith began. The Grand Duke of Lithuania Jagiello himself converted to Catholicism, marrying the heiress of the Polish crown Jadwiga and taking the throne of Poland, and in 1387 he officially baptized Lithuania into Catholicism. This decision was negatively received by the Orthodox population of Lithuania. The struggle for the independence of Lithuania began, led by cousin Jogaila Prince Vitovt. In 1392, Vytautas achieved the de facto independence of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and was recognized as the Grand Duke of Lithuania. At the same time, Vitovt formally recognized supreme power Polish king Jogaila. Vitovt continued the policy of expanding his possessions at the expense of Russian lands. In the south, his possessions reached the Black Sea, in the east - to Smolensk. Ultimately, Vytautas and Jogaila signed an agreement according to which, in exchange for recognizing the independence of Lithuania, Vytautas declared Catholicism the state religion of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. The signing of such an agreement led to the fact that Russian families gradually began to convert to Catholicism. And the Orthodox population began to be subjected to religious and national oppression.
Working with the map
Consider the map on page 38 of the second part of the textbook.
1. Show on the map the territory of the Principality of Lithuania in the 13th century; Russian lands that became part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania in the 13th - early 15th centuries.
Territory of the Principality of Lithuania in the 13th century. is painted on the map in bright orange with red dots and outlined with a blue line.
Russian lands that became part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania in the 13th - early 15th centuries. circled on the map with a thick line orange color, that is, these are territories painted in bright orange (without red dots), light orange, yellow, swamp (green) and territories painted with yellow-pink stripes.
2. Using the map, determine which states were neighbors of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.
Neighbors of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania there were the following states: Crimean Khanate, Principality of Moldavia, Kingdom of Poland, Teutonic Order, Pskov Land Novgorod Land, Grand Duchy of Moscow, Grand Duchy of Ryazan.
3. Show on the map the location of the Battle of Grunwald.
Site of the Battle of Grunwald circled on the map with a red oval.
We think, compare, reflect
1. Make a chronological table in your notebook “The emergence and strengthening of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.”
| 1230s | Mindovg stood at the head of the Principality of Lithuania. It included the lands of Samogitia, Lithuania, as well as Grodno, Brestye, Pinsk. |
| 1251 | Mindaugas established relations with the Pope and accepted Catholicism, which he later renounced. |
| 1253 | The state received recognition as a full European kingdom. |
| 1255 | Complaints from the Bishop of Lithuania to the Pope about Mindaugas. Mindovg marches on the Polish city of Lublin and burns it. The Pope announces crusade against Lithuania (crusades were also declared in 1257, 1260, 1261. |
| 1260 | Mindovg tore the peace with Teutonic Order. |
| 1260-1263 | Mindovg makes several devastating campaigns in Livonia, Prussia, and Poland. |
| 1263 | Mindovg was killed by the conspirators. |
| 1265 | Voishelk, the son of Mindovg, invited Orthodox priests and founded a monastery to spread Orthodoxy in Lithuania. |
| 1267-1316 | Change of dynasties, the period is little discussed in the sources |
| 1316-1341 | The reign of Gediminas. The Principality of Lithuania included almost all the lands of Western Rus': Polotsk, Vitebsk, Minsk, Brest |
| 1330 | The government of Gediminas recognized Principality of Kiev(some sources deny the historical accuracy of information about the subjugation of Kyiv by Gediminas). The state became known as the Grand Duchy of Lithuania |
| 1340-1392 | Lithuania's struggle with Poland for the Galician-Volyn principality |
| 1341-1345 | After the death of Gediminas, Lithuania practically disintegrated into independent lands, which were under the control of Gediminas' brother Voin and the sons of Gediminas. |
| 1343 | The Crusaders conclude an agreement with Poland and prepare a campaign against Lithuania. |
| 1345-1377 | An agreement was concluded according to which the sons of Gediminas recognize the power of Olgerd. Bryansk, Seversk, Chernigov, Podolsk lands and Volyn were annexed. |
| 1385 | Union of Lithuania with Poland. Jagiello became the ruler of Lithuania and Poland |
| 1387 | Jogaila officially baptized Lithuania into Catholicism |
| 1392 | Independence of Lithuania led by Prince Vytautas. |
| 1395 | Vytautas captured Smolensk |
| 1399 | Vitovt, who supported the overthrown Horde Khan Tokhtamysh against Tamerlane's protege Timur-Kutluk, suffered a heavy blow from the Tatar Murza Edigei in the Battle of Vorskla. As a result of the defeat, Vitovt was forced to make peace with the Novgorodians and lost Smolensk. |
| 1405 | Vytautas recaptured Smolensk with the help of Polish troops. |
| 1405 | Vitovt began military operations against Pskov. Pskov turned to Moscow for help. |
| 1406 | Muscovy declared war on Lithuania. However, there were no major military actions. Vytautas and Prince Vasily I of Moscow concluded an “eternal peace”, establishing for the first time common border two states. |
| 1410 | The combined troops of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania defeated the troops of the Teutonic Order at the Battle of Grunwald. |
2. Compare the government systems that existed in the 14th century. in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and in Rus'.
The Grand Duchy of Lithuania somewhat resembled Rus' during the times of the first princes. The Lithuanian prince did not set out to establish strict control over the Russian lands. They retained their customs and traditions, the previous order of government. Gedimin replaced only the rulers of the principalities, placing his relatives - the Gediminovichs - on local thrones, which had previously been occupied by Russian princes. The prince-deputies collected tribute and paid it to the Grand Duke of Lithuania. The Lithuanian tribute was less than the Horde output. The population viewed it as payment for maintaining calm on the territory of a huge state. This was very important for the development of agriculture, crafts, and trade. Many Lithuanian princes In order to get closer to the Russian population, they converted to Orthodoxy. Gediminas did not infringe on the rights of the Russian Orthodox Church.
3. Using the Internet and further reading, prepare short biography one of the Lithuanian princes mentioned in the paragraph.
Almost nothing is known about the childhood and youth of Prince Gediminas. He became Grand Duke at the age of 41. Some historians believe that Gediminas was the son of the Lithuanian prince Viten, others believe that he was younger brother Vitenya.
Gediminas, uniting many Russian lands under his rule, relied heavily on the Russian element (for example, he appointed Russian people to foreign embassies; his most prominent associate David, the headman of Grodno, was also Russian). Principle government under Gediminas was the following: “Do not destroy the old, do not introduce new things.” This meant respect for the lands of the feudal lords and the preservation of the historical traditions of the population, continuity in political and social life.
Therefore, many lands were annexed to the Principality of Lithuania peacefully. In addition, Gediminas actively used dynastic marriages to expand his influence. During the 23 years of his reign, Gediminas created a strong and large state. Russian lands made up two-thirds of the territory of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.
Knightly orders increased pressure on Lithuania. Gediminas also intensified his policy. In 1325 he made peace with Polish king Vladislav Loketok, sealing it with the marriage of the royal son Casimir with his daughter Aldona. Peace was concluded with Novgorod. So Gedimin created a coalition against the Orders: Poland, Riga, Novgorod, Pskov. Gediminas before recent years his life he fought with the German knights and fell during the siege of the order's castle of Bayerurg.
Remaining a pagan until the end of his life, Gedimin was distinguished by religious tolerance: residents of the Russian regions under his control freely professed the Orthodox faith, and he did not prevent the Lithuanians from accepting it.
4. What did it consist of? historical meaning the entry of part of the Russian lands into the Grand Duchy of Lithuania?
1) liberation from the devastating Horde raids;
2) successfully countering the threat from both the east and the west;
3) mutual influence and interpenetration of Russian and Lithuanian cultures;
4) part of the Lithuanian nobility accepted the Orthodox faith.
Possible questions during the lesson
What threat hangs over Northwestern Russia?
The northwestern lands of Rus', protected by forests and swamps, escaped the Mongol invasion, but they were also threatened with conquest by the Crusaders.
The Lithuanian tribes have long been Rus''s neighbors in the north-west. By the beginning of the 13th century, many of them were weakened by strife and were conquered or exterminated by the crusaders. Only the tribes living along the Neman River and its tributaries retained independence.
What are the main reasons for the formation of the State of Lithuania?
To resist the German invaders, the Lithuanian tribes united and created the Lithuanian state.
Who was the head of the Lithuanian state?
Mindovg became the head of the Lithuanian state.
What policy did Mindovg pursue?
As a ruler, Mindaugas was distinguished by cunning and resourcefulness. In 1250 he converted to Catholicism, but “his baptism was flattering,” says the chronicler. After 10 years, Mindaugas renounced the religion forcibly imposed on him and became the worst enemy of the Crusaders and Catholics.
Why did residents of Western Russian cities voluntarily recognize the power of the Lithuanian prince?
Residents of Western Russian lands voluntarily recognized the power of the Lithuanian prince, hoping for protection from the Mongols and crusaders.
For what purpose did the Russian and Lithuanian lands unite in single state?
Russian and Lithuanian lands united into a single state in order to resist enemies from both the West and the East.
How did the relations of the Lithuanian state with the crusaders develop during the reign of Gediminas?
Gediminas had a difficult relationship with the crusaders. The Order was advancing on the Principality of Lithuania and Gediminas had to engage in open struggle with them. In 1320, Gediminas, taking advantage of the support of the Mongol and Russian troops, defeated the crusader troops led by Heinrich von Plock. Then he turns to the Pope with a letter in which he talks about the bloody nature of the Order’s conquests and promises to baptize Lithuania. Dad did not answer the letter. In 1323, ambassadors of the Archbishop of Riga and representatives of the Livonian Order arrived in Vilnia. The ambassadors asked Gediminas whether he would fulfill his promise. The Grand Duke deviated from a direct answer. Gediminas either changed his mind about accepting the Catholic faith, or doubted the correctness of his decision, and there were serious reasons for this. As soon as it became known about Gediminas’ desire to baptize Lithuania, the Zhemoit feudal lords opposed him. They threatened the Grand Duke to capture him and his family and, with the help of the crusaders, drive him out of the state or kill him. Despite everything, peace was concluded with the Livonian Order, but it was not always respected. However, this allowed Gediminas to transfer his forces to fight the Teutonic Order.
In 1324, papal legates came to Gediminas. However, Gediminas, realizing that the baptism of Lithuania would not bring the desired peace with the Order, but would only lead to discord with Zhemoitia and the Orthodox population of the state, abandoned his intentions. “I am ready to respect the pope, for he is the eldest for me, and I also respect Mr. Archbishop as a father, for he is the eldest for me, and I will respect my peers as brothers, and those who are younger than me as sons. I do not forbid Christians to serve God according to their customs. For Russians, in our own way, we serve God according to our custom, and we all have one God,” answered Gedimin.
The Order had no intention of keeping peace with the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and planned to raise Europe against it. Gediminas also intensified his politics. In 1325, he made peace with the Polish king Władysław Loketok, sealing it with the marriage of the royal son Casimir to his daughter Aldona. Peace was concluded with Novgorod. So Gedimin created a coalition against the Order: Poland, Riga, Novgorod, Pskov. Gediminas fought against the German knights until the last years of his life and fell during the siege of the order's castle of Bayerurg.
Thus, we can say that Gediminas alternated diplomatic receptions and open struggle in confrontation with the crusaders.
What are the reasons for the growth of the territory of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania?
Gediminas pursued a policy of unifying the Belarusian lands. After his death in 1341, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania included the Polotsk, Vitebsk, Mensk, Pinsk, Brest lands and Podlasie, as well as the Galicia-Volyn land. Historical documents do not say anything about how this unification took place. Therefore, we can assume that this process was peaceful. It is assumed that various lands were part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania because the principality was united public education With strong army, with low taxes, with a tolerant attitude towards different religions. Residents of different lands believed that under the rule of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania they would receive protection from the Mongols and the Crusaders and order in their lands.
What are the main directions domestic policy Russian-Lithuanian state?
The Lithuanian princes did not pursue the goal of establishing strict control over the annexed lands. On these lands, the previous order of management and old customs and traditions were preserved. Thus, one of the most authoritative religions in the Russian-Lithuanian state was Orthodoxy, and the Russian language became the main language in this state. The prince-deputies collected tribute from the population. However, the size of this tribute was not too large. Russian population considered this tribute as payment to the Lithuanian prince for protection from foreign invaders and maintaining order on the territory of the state.
The beginning of the formation of the Russian people
North-Eastern Rus', although it became dependent on the Golden Horde, most fully preserved the ancient Russian culture and language. Gradually, local peculiarities in language, culture and way of life were smoothed out here. At the same time, wide connections with the peoples of the Volga region and the Golden Horde led to the fact that Russian people here began to use some of their words, elements of clothing, and adopt the customs of these peoples. Mutual language, peculiarities economic life, culture and way of life united people into the Great Russian, or Russian, nationality.
The beginning of the formation of the Belarusian and Ukrainian nationalities
The lands of Southwestern and Western Rus' were included in the possessions of Poland, Lithuania, and Hungary. But their inhabitants did not dissolve among the peoples of these states, largely because they were united by the Orthodox faith. At the same time, not being able to communicate with North-Eastern Russia, they preserved the features of local dialects, life and culture. The peoples with whom they found themselves in the same state also had a significant influence on the Russians here. In the southwest, speech patterns common to the entire population have developed. In the western lands of Rus', a characteristic harshness and firmness appeared. Gradually, some customs and traditions, culture and art, preferences in food and clothing, and character traits began to take shape.
Why did the Lithuanian nobility decide to unite with Poland?
The Lithuanian nobility decided to unite with Poland, as the Teutonic Order increased its pressure. Lithuania and Poland decided to unite in order to jointly fight against the crusaders.
What caused outrage among the Orthodox population of the principality?
The Orthodox population of the principality was outraged by the decision of Jagiello, who became both the Polish and Lithuanian king, to declare Catholicism the state religion.
Who led the fight for Lithuanian independence?
The struggle for the independence of Lithuania was led by Jogaila's cousin, Prince Vytautas.
What are the results of the activities of Prince Vitovt?
In 1392, Vytautas achieved the de facto independence of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and was recognized as the Grand Duke of Lithuania. At the same time, Vytautas formally recognized the supreme power of the Polish king Jogaila.
How did the territory of the Principality of Lithuania expand under Vytautas?
Vitovt continued the policy of expanding his possessions at the expense of Russian lands. In the south, his possessions reached the Black Sea, in the east - to Smolensk.
What agreement did Vytautas and Jagiello sign?
Vytautas and Jogaila signed an agreement according to which, in exchange for recognizing the independence of Lithuania, Vytautas declared Catholicism the state religion of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.
What did this lead to?
The signing of such an agreement led to the fact that Russian families gradually began to convert to Catholicism. And the Orthodox population began to be subjected to religious and national oppression.
History of decline. Why the Baltics didn’t work out Nosovich Alexander Alexandrovich
1. Lithuanian dialectics: Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the national Lithuanian state
The Lithuanian nation was formed in the 19th century, and the national Lithuanian state arose in the 20th century, but played a huge role in their creation historical memory about the medieval imperial project - the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. Its images and symbols - the state emblem of Vytis, the capital Vilnius, Gediminas' Tower, the "Pillars of Gediminas" and others - have become important symbolic foundations for the nation-state building of modern Lithuania.
Although there is practically nothing in common between the ancient Lithuanian Empire and present-day Lithuania, the existence of Lithuanian statehood is officially counted from the date of the establishment of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania - July 6, 1253, when the coronation of Prince Mindaugas or Mindaugas took place, proclaimed King of Lithuania.
Lithuanian political genesis took place under strong pressure from the German crusaders: the Livonian Order from the north and the Teutonic Order from the south. In 1255–1261, the Pope declared a crusade against Lithuania four times, although Mindaugas himself converted to Catholicism back in 1251 and was crowned with the blessing of the Pope (a few years later, seeing the futility of this measure, he renounced Christianity).
At the same time, the influence of Orthodoxy and ancient Russian principalities the formation of Lithuanian statehood was initially not inferior to Western Catholic influence. Mindovg's son Voishelk first took monastic vows in a monastery in Galich, and then contributed to the activities of Orthodox missionaries in Lithuania. Subsequently, the influence of Russian culture in the Lithuanian principality only increased. Grand Duke Gediminas (1316–1341), who in fact founded the multinational empire, called himself “king of the Lithuanians and Russians,” was married to the Russian princess Olga and gave his daughters in marriage to both the Polish king and Russian princes. Among other great historical figures, Gediminas is depicted on the “Millennium of Russia” monument in Veliky Novgorod.
The Grand Duchy of Lithuania in the 14th–15th centuries competed with Moscow and Tver as a potential center for the unification of Russian lands into a single state. Lithuania, along with Moscow, became one of two centralized states that emerged from the ruins Kievan Rus.
If the Moscow principality united the northern and eastern Russian lands, then the Lithuanian principality united the southern and western ones. Under Olgerd, the son of Gediminas, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, in addition to Lithuania itself, included all of modern Belarus, northern and northwestern Ukraine (Kyiv, Chernigov, Galicia, Volyn), thus stretching from the Baltic Sea to the Black Sea steppes. Two-thirds of the empire's territory comprised the lands of the former Kievan Rus; office work was conducted in the Western Russian language, formed on the basis of Old Russian dialects and Church Slavonic. The legal system was also initially based on ancient Russian law - “Russian Truth”, etc.
In relation to the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and Kievan Rus, the famous phrase of Horace is sometimes used: “Greece, taken captive, captured the victors of the wild,” but this is not entirely true. The ease with which Polotsk, Galicia-Volyn and other principalities came under the authority of the Lithuanian princes and voluntarily remained there was due to the fact that the Lithuanian princes by that time were already quite Russified. The Grand Duchy of Lithuania seemed to the Eastern Slavs the best alternative to the crusaders and the Golden Horde - a protector from both.
“The Russian people have prevailed since the reign of Olgerd, both numerically and territorially, and in terms of their cultural development should have undeniably taken a dominant place in the state, which continued to be called the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, but in fact became from the end of the 14th century in all respects Great the Western Russian principality,” writes Ukrainian historian Vladimir Antonovich in the 19th century. Also in pre-revolutionary Russian historiography, the terms Lithuanian-Russian state and Lithuanian Rus were popular.
Officially, since the reign of Grand Duke Vytautas, this state was called the “Grand Duchy of Lithuania, Samogit and Russia.”
All historians emphasize its not only multinational, but also multi-confessional character, religious tolerance: paganism, Orthodoxy and Catholicism coexisted both among the people and among the elite. In addition to them, Judaism and Islam were also professed. Speaking modern language, multiculturalism triumphed in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.
“From the very beginning of the power of the Grand Dukes of Lithuania over the Russian lands, despite the great difference in faith, there has never been intolerance of Christianity; on the contrary, the princes, respecting the rights, language and customs of the conquered peoples, themselves borrowed from them what they recognized as wise; therefore, the Orthodox faith, through gentle conviction in the holy truths, spread throughout Lithuania before the government thought to take measures against it... Orthodox Rusyns and pagan Lithuanians, having one common fatherland and one sovereign, sat on the same bench and talked together about the common good; they went into battle together and laid their bones in one grave,” wrote the Polish historian Theodor Narbut in the 19th century.
At the same time, Polish cultural influence gradually increased in Lithuania along with Russian influence. Orthodox and Catholic monasteries were opened at the same time, Russian and Polish preachers were simultaneously engaged in missionary activity in the territory of present-day Lithuania.
Qualitatively new stage Polish influence is associated with the Union of Krevo in 1385, when the Grand Duke of Lithuania Jagiello converted to Catholicism and, having married the Polish Queen Jadwiga, also became the King of Poland. In 1387, Jagiello baptized Lithuania into Catholicism.
Lithuanians became the last European people to accept Christianity - in the 19th century this fact had an impact big influence on the formation of Lithuanian national identity.
The union of Jagiello with Poland was caused by the need to resist the Teutonic Order, which threatened both Poland and Lithuania. At the same time, the Lithuanian principality retained its political subjectivity, either breaking the union with Poland or concluding it again. During the 15th century, some Lithuanian princes tried to turn their principality into a kingdom and established relations with the Grand Duchy of Moscow (Vytautas), others became Polish kings, restored the union and contributed to strengthening the influence of Poland in Lithuania. The latter concept increasingly prevailed.
The process of rapprochement between Poland and Lithuania reached its logical conclusion in 1569, when the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania as a result of the Union of Lublin were united into one state - the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. “The state of both peoples” - Polish and Lithuanian - was united by a common monarch, chosen jointly by the Sejm, a single foreign policy and the general monetary system. At the same time, the Crown (Poland) and the Principality (Lithuania) maintained the interstate border, had their own authorities, their own army and budget. Therefore, the question remains debatable: can the creation of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth be considered a loss of Lithuania’s statehood? In the official historiography of modern Lithuania, it is believed that it is impossible - the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth became a continuation of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, which had already been in a union with the Kingdom of Poland for the last centuries.
Although the Lithuanians themselves have a bitter joke that no people have lost their state as often as the Lithuanians - this means the loss first of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, then the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, then the Soviet, German and again Soviet “occupation”.
In any case, there is no doubt that after the creation of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania ceased to exist as an imperial project, since it ceded to Poland a significant part of its Slavic territories, where the enslavement of the population by the Polish lords and the forced spread of the Uniate Greek Catholic Church began.
More importantly, the Lithuanians themselves were subjected to Polish enslavement. With formal political equality at the social and cultural level, Polish dominance is established on the territory of modern Lithuania. This was due, among other things, to the fact that the local Lithuanian gentry became increasingly Polonized over time and associated themselves with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, and not with the poor and downtrodden fellow tribesmen.
As a result, there was a dramatic gap between the political class of Lithuania and the “common people” that still persists, despite the change of several eras and the introduction of new social and political institutions.
Ordinary Lithuanians in a narrow elite circle are contemptuously called “buroks”, that is, beets are “scoops”, red on the inside. The population, in turn, pays the political class with extremely low legitimacy, and it seems difficult to talk about the existence of a political nation in Lithuania in view of such relationships.
“If the Lithuanians had managed to merge with the conquered majority of the cultural population of their state, they would have become a great power. But this was prevented by a sweet temptation - Catholic Poland, which had already absorbed a fair share of European civilization. “There is no queen in the world more beautiful than a Polish maiden,” wrote Adam Mickiewicz. The Lithuanian knights could not resist the charm of a developed culture that had already reached the Renaissance, and half of Lithuania was drawn into the Western European superethnos,” writes Russian historian and geographer Lev Gumilev about the fate of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.
Perhaps the numerous psychological deviations of Lithuanian politicians and the national intelligentsia are connected precisely with this - with the realization that the former imperial people turned into farm laborers of the Polish gentry, and their country, the former imperial center, after the divisions of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth became a remote national outskirts Russian Empire?
Be that as it may, the formation of national identity and the emergence of a national movement among Lithuanians was the same as among most European peoples in the 19th century. Lithuanian nationalism was exclusively ethnic in nature and was based on the formula “one language, one people, one history.” At the same time, the national liberation movement among the Lithuanians (which began in the second half of the 19th century) was primarily of a social rather than political nature - the territory of modern Lithuania after the partitions of Poland was part of the Russian Empire, but Polish domination remained there at the everyday level. Therefore, the formation of the Lithuanian nation was largely based on overcoming the influence of Polish culture.
This includes the development of the literary Lithuanian language through the dissemination of the poem “The Seasons” by the semi-legendary 18th-century Lithuanian poet-priest Kristionas Donelaitis, the appearance of periodicals in Lithuanian, and the activities of the philosopher and educator Vidunas. And popularization in educated environment Lithuanian folk culture, manifested in the activities of the poet and playwright Jonas Maciulis-Maironis, historian and ethnographer Simonas Daukantas, composers Mikalojus Konstantinos Ciurlionis and Vincas Kudirka (author of the current national anthem of Lithuania). And interest in Lithuanian paganism in defiance of Polish Catholicism.
That is, the formation of the Lithuanian nation took place through the appeal of the humanitarian intelligentsia (the creative minority, according to A. Toynbee) to the culture of the lower classes as opposed to the culture of the upper classes - Polish, Russian, German culture.
At the same time, the catalyst, which sharply activated national movement, in Lithuania, as in all national outskirts of the Russian Empire, the policy of forced Russification, proclaimed by St. Petersburg in 1864, began.
From that time on, Lithuanian nationalism irrevocably acquired an anti-imperial character.
The so-called Lithuania Minor or Prussian Lithuania, considered the cradle of Lithuanian culture, played a special role in the formation of the Lithuanian nation. Historically, the area of residence of the autochthonous Lithuanian population, which was part of East Prussia. Nowadays Lithuania Minor is eastern regions Kaliningrad region of Russia. The founder of Lithuania lived his life in Lithuania Minor literary language Christionis Donelaitis, in Königsberg in 1547 the first book was printed on Lithuanian language. The entry of the “cradle of Lithuanian culture” into Lithuania was and remains a fixed idea of radical Lithuanian nationalists: Lithuanian experts and politicians regularly throw into the public space the idea of the legal doubtfulness of the Kaliningrad region belonging to Russia, Kaliningrad in Lithuania is officially called Karaliaučius and in the mass consciousness of Lithuanians is firmly the idea is that the Kaliningrad region should belong to Lithuania, because Karaliaučius is originally Lithuanian land. Paradoxically, these expansionist dreams in the heads of Lithuanian radicals do not in any way contradict their own phobias that Poland will someday “chop off” the Vilnius region from Lithuania again.
It should be noted that in Russia the second half of the 19th century centuries, there were national policy projects in the “divide and conquer” style, aimed at encouraging the development of Lithuanian national identity as a counterweight to the Polish and Polonized Lithuanian aristocracy that was initially disloyal to St. Petersburg. “Separatism in the Lithuanian region can only be based on the dominance of the Polish elements, on the inaction of the native folk element. We can counteract separatism in this country only by developing the native folk element, which alone will be able to liberate the Lithuanian region from the moral domination of the Polish elements,” wrote Russian ethnographer Alexander Hilferding. However, sufficient practical efforts were not made to implement such projects, and by the beginning of the 20th century, Lithuanian nationalism finally assumed not only an anti-Polish, but also an anti-Russian character.
The state of Lithuania was created in 1918 by the national intelligentsia led by historian and folklorist Jonas Basanavičius. It was restored to its pre-war form in 1991 by the national intelligentsia, led by musicologist and researcher of Čiurlionis’ works Vytautas Landsbergis.
Both times, the humanitarian intelligentsia created the Republic of Lithuania on the basis of ethnic nationalism, which was initially formed on isolation and mute opposition to other cultural influences in their region. At the same time, twice the builders of the national state tried to proclaim it the historical successor of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.
It is this circumstance that explains the completely wild and seemingly impossible in nature mixture of post-imperial syndrome with full-blown nationalism and xenophobia among Lithuanian politicians. Moreover, geopolitical messianism in the countries former USSR It’s the hardline nationalist conservatives who are most active. In some incomprehensible way, their missionary preaching of liberal values and an open society in Belarus, Ukraine or the Transcaucasian countries is combined with spy mania, “witch hunts,” censorship and all kinds of prohibitions in their homeland.
The probable explanation for this paradox is still the same: an appeal to the image of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania during the formation of the Lithuanian national state. At the same time, the national intelligentsia, which created the Lithuanian nation and the Republic of Lithuania, was able to use only the spectacular external side of the medieval empire, located on the territories of four modern states at once. This intelligentsia was inevitably forced to ignore the inner essence of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania: a multicultural, multinational and tolerant state, under whose rule, due to these qualities, many lands and peoples willingly passed.
Now, however, a state created on the careful and pedantic separation of its ethnic identity from the cultures of the neighboring Polish, Russian, German, and Belarusian peoples is trying to rely on the former glory and power of this imperial project and declare itself its heir.
The result is the already mentioned paradox: the status of a regional leader, bringing the light of democracy, freedom and human rights to the European part of the post-Soviet space, is desperately sought by a closed, xenophobic, paranoid, and quarreling country - a “besieged fortress.”
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This century was more for the Smolensk land
more favorable than the previous one. There were no severe epidemics (in the 14th century
this happened twice), there were no debilitating strife between Smolensk
Rurikovich, because the eldest among them in position is Yuri Svyatoslavovich
fled, while others remained in their possessions and with their rights, recognizing
the supreme power of Vytautas.
There is an opinion that during the so-called “Lithuanian period” in Smolensk they had
place of religious oppression. This is a misconception. notice, that
"Lithuania", "Litvins" in Muscovite Rus' called everyone who lived in
within the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and Russia (VKLR), Smolensk is also
number. In the VKLR, the Orthodox population retained their faith, in fact
Lithuanians - former pagans accepted the faith of their choice, many
The Olgerdovichs became Orthodox, like their mothers. According to the terms of Krevskaya
union (1385), when Jagiello - Jagiello Olgerdovich became Polish
king, it was intended to introduce Catholicism and the principality itself
be included in Poland. However, soon Jagiello, fearing an uprising,
renounced some of the provisions of this union.
In 1392 it was signed, and in 1401 the provision was confirmed, according to which
the old order was maintained, without Catholicization and incorporation into Poland.
It was beneficial for feudal lords to accept Christianity according to the Catholic rite:
they were extended all the rights and privileges available to the feudal lords
Poland, and they were the kind that Muscovites may have dreamed of, but
which never existed either in the Moscow principality or in the Russian
a centralized state, nor in the Russian Empire.
In the Kingdom of Poland there were very rich feudal lords, who had both money and
Sometimes there were more troops than the king - magnates (from lat.
"rich"), the poorer feudal lords and the very poor were called gentry (from
old "kind", "breed"). They all had their rights and responsibilities, like,
and so is the king. Their property could not be taken away, they could not
punished without trial and even in court could not be subjected to humiliating
punishment. They had the right to agree among themselves (to create
confederation), to raise a rebellion against the king (rokosh), if he does not
fulfilled his obligations. They had the right to leave with all their
land to another ruler (which is what the Orthodox princes did later), and
no one considered them traitors. And if the Orthodox Vishnevetsky and
Catholic Mniszech supported a contender for the throne of a neighboring state, and
nobles who wanted military glory and booty joined his army, it was theirs
a personal matter, not a state or royal one. Their rights, for them
no one is in charge.
During the XIV - early XV centuries. many territories that were previously part of Kievan Rus came under the rule of the Grand Dukes of Lithuania. These are Polotsk, Chernigov, Kyiv, Bryansk lands, Volyn. At the beginning of the 15th century. Vitovt was able to capture and annex the Smolensk principality to his possessions. Lithuania thus turned out to be the largest state in Eastern Europe.
The Slavic population made up the majority of the subjects of this state and, since it was at a higher level of cultural development than the Lithuanians themselves, had a significant influence on them. The language of the Slavic population became official language of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, many Lithuanian princes accepted Orthodoxy and became Russified, and legal norms dating back to the Russian Truth continued to apply. Lithuanian rulers initially did not interfere in the internal life of the annexed Slavic lands, limiting themselves only to demanding payment of tribute and military service.
However, from the second half of the 14th century. Polish influence in Lithuania is increasing. This process began with the marriage of the Grand Duke of Lithuania Jagiello with the Polish Queen Jadwiga (1385). These two states were pushed towards an alliance by common foreign policy interests - the fight against the expansion of the Teutonic Order, which equally threatened Lithuania and Poland. One of the conditions for the marriage of Jagiello with Jadwiga was the introduction of Catholicism as the official religion in Lithuania. Jagiello himself was baptized according to the Catholic rite and became both the King of Poland (under the name Vladislav) and the Grand Duke of Lithuania. Thus the first Polish-Lithuanian union took place.
Part of the Lithuanian nobility was dissatisfied with the beginning of the penetration of Polish orders into Lithuania. With her support, Jogaila's cousin Vytautas seized power in the Grand Duchy. Ultimately, Lithuania remained a de facto independent state, and the provisions of the union remained on paper. Only the main directions were coordinated foreign policy two states. This policy led to the decisive victory of the united forces of Poland and Lithuania over the troops of the Teutonic Order in the famous Battle of Grunwald (July 15, 1410). The main role in the defeat of the Germans was played by the Russian regiments that were part of the Lithuanian army of Vytautas.
In 1413, the second Polish-Lithuanian Union (Gorodel) was concluded. Under the terms of the agreement, Lithuanian Catholics received advantages over representatives of the Orthodox nobility when occupying certain government posts; Lithuanian nobles (szlachta) who converted to Catholicism now received the rights of Polish szlachta. Local government was gradually restructured in the Polish manner: local diets were introduced and so on. The penetration of Polish language and culture accelerated.
The gradual expansion of the privileges of the Catholic gentry led to the fact that many representatives of the Orthodox nobility converted to Catholicism and became Polish, adopting Polish language and culture. Over time, especially after the adoption of the Church Union of Florence, pressure on the Orthodox population of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania increased, which caused discontent among many Orthodox magnates and the Slavic population. The deterioration of the position of the Orthodox in Lithuania was clearly evident during the internecine war that broke out after the death of Vytautas. The Grand Duchy of Lithuania was actually divided into two parts: in Lithuania itself, Sigismund Keistutievich was proclaimed Grand Duke, and the Russian lands supported Svidrigailo Olgerdovich - he was declared Grand Duke of Russia. However, as a result of bloody clashes, Sigismund won, continuing the policy of Polonization, which increasingly tied Lithuania to Poland. This policy continued under the following great princes: Casimir, Alexander and others.
The process of merging Poland and Lithuania was finally completed under the Grand Duke Sigismund Augustus (at the same time he was the king of Poland). In 1569, the Union of Ljubljana was concluded. As a result, one state was formed - the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. The Grand Duchy of Lithuania, however, continued to maintain some autonomy, but was reduced in size.
In the 15th century Ukrainian and Belarusian nationalities begin to form. Some differences in language, material culture among Eastern Slavs were observed earlier, but at this time the Old Belarusian language was being formed on the territory of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania on the basis of the Old Russian literary language. Then, on its basis, as a result of the penetration into it of turns of living colloquial speech and individual words from the Polish language, Ukrainian and Belarusian languages. In addition to language, a certain commonality of economic life, culture and way of life is emerging. However, this took more than one century, and in the 15th century. this process was just beginning.
So, throughout the XIV century. Lithuanian princes actively annexed Russian lands to their possessions. The methods of joining were different. Of course, there was also a direct seizure, but often the Russian princes recognized the power of the Lithuanian prince voluntarily, and the local boyars entered into a “row” (agreement) with him. The reason for this was the unfavorable foreign policy situation of the Russian principalities and, to a large extent, Tatar-Mongol yoke. The Lithuanian princes were not vassals of the Horde, and therefore, their power brought liberation from the power of the khan. The growing Moscow principality could not yet provide the lands of Southern and Southwestern Rus' with sufficient effective support. The inclusion of Russian lands into the Grand Duchy of Lithuania was also facilitated by the long-standing and multilateral ties of the Lithuanian tribes with Russia. The Russian lands within the Lithuanian state, more numerous than the Lithuanian ones proper, and at a higher stage of development, had a significant impact on the social relations and culture of Lithuania. The share of Russians among the feudal nobility was very high. This was explained, among other things, by the fact that in Lithuania itself for a long time there remained a free peasantry, subordinate directly to the prince, and local feudal lords were few in number. Russian princes and boyars in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania participated in resolving all the most important issues of internal politics and in diplomatic negotiations.
Russian law became part of Lithuanian legislation. “Russian Truth” was a valid set of laws on the territory of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and later served as one of the sources for the Code of Laws of Grand Duke Casimir (son of Jagiello) adopted in 1468. The Old Russian language in its Western version was the state language of the principality. Subsequently, it served as the basis for the formation of the Belarusian and Ukrainian languages. In terms of its functions, this language is comparable to in Latin in Western Europe.
Question to point 1. Which Russian principalities did not fall under the rule of the Golden Horde?
The principalities in the Neman basin, as well as its tributaries: Polotsk, Turov, Pinsk, Novogrudok, Grodno, etc., did not fall under the rule of the Golden Horde.
Question to point I 2. What are the reasons for the growth of the territory of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania?
Grew up military power Lithuanian princes, they simply captured some cities;
Other cities voluntarily submitted to them on different terms to combat common dangers.
Question for point III. What influence did the Russian lands have on the development of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania?
The state received its culture mainly from the Russian lands, official language, institutions of power and much more.
Question for point V. Why do you think the Lithuanian state adopted Catholicism?
Catholicism did not accept the principality as a whole, but specifically Jagiello. At that time, he was fighting for the throne with his relatives and was forced to seek help abroad. He found it in Poland, and prerequisite Poles began to convert to Catholicism.
Question to paragraph No. 1. What are the features of the formation of the Lithuanian state?
Peculiarities:
It arose on the basis of both Russian principalities and Baltic tribes;
The new state inherited culture and other achievements of civilization from the Russian principalities;
The submission of the Russian principalities to the Lithuanian princes was often voluntary;
The Grand Duchy of Lithuania dealt with several threats at once, the main ones coming from the German crusaders and from the Mongols (initially from the Galician-Volyn principality, which was subordinate to the Mongols and often acted with their support);
The Lithuanian princes, despite formal baptism, remained pagans for a long time, and therefore were tolerant of all religions.
Question for paragraph No. 2. What was the religious policy of the Lithuanian princes in the 13th-14th centuries?
The Lithuanian princes were formally baptized, but in fact they remained pagans. So, for example, the body of the deceased Olgerd was burned at the stake; The victims were also burned at the same bonfire, including three living German knights in their own armor. Like other pagans on the throne, the Lithuanian princes were tolerant of all religions. But the main thing in their state before the Union of Krevo remained Orthodoxy, because it was the faith of the Russian principalities, which over time began to make up the majority of its territory.
Question to paragraph No. 3. Why and how did the formation of the Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian nationalities begin?
These nationalities began to separate when they came under the authority of different states. The ancestors of the Russians in the northeastern principalities remained under Mongol rule. The ancestors of Belarusians and Ukrainians in the northwestern, western and southern principalities found themselves part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, also partially under the rule of Poland and Hungary. It is for this reason that the ancestors of the Russians stood out, the ancestors of the Ukrainians and Belarusians separated later.
Question for paragraph No. 4. What changes took place in the state of Lithuania at the end of the 14th – beginning of the 15th centuries?
In 1385 Grand Duke Jagiello signed the Union of Krevo, according to which he accepted Catholicism, became the king of Poland, and annexed his former possessions to the new ones.
As a result of the struggle between Jagiello and Vytautas, many conditions changed. The Grand Duchy of Lithuania retained its independence, but now it was closely connected with Poland and one dynasty was established on the throne of both states. Because of this, unions were then repeated.
In addition, the spread of Catholicism and the struggle between it and Orthodoxy began in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. The tolerance of past princes has been forgotten.
However, the alliance with Poland strengthened the principality. In particular, thanks to him, it was possible to win such a significant victory over the German crusaders at the Battle of Grunwald in 1410 that the Teutonic Order barely (and for a relatively short time) retained its independence, while ceasing to be a threat to its neighbors.
We think, compare, reflect: question No. 1. Make a chronological table in your notebook “The emergence and strengthening of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.”
1230s - Mindovg becomes the head of the Lithuanian tribe;
1253 - Mindovg takes the royal crown;
1316-1341 - the reign of Prince Gediminas, who greatly strengthened his state;
1320s - 1330s – subordination of Kyiv to Gediminas;
1345-1377 - the reign of Olgerd, who expanded the Grand Duchy of Lithuania from the Baltic Sea almost to the Black Sea;
1340-1392 - the gradual fall of the Galician-Volyn principality and the division of its lands between its neighbors, including the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, which received many southern Russian principalities; conventionally called the War of Galician-Volynian Inheritance;
1385 - Union of Krevo, the transition of Grand Duke Jagiello to Catholicism and the subordination of the Grand Duchy to Poland; the beginning of the struggle of Vytautas against Jagiello for the independence of the principality;
1392 - Ostrov agreement according to which the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, led by Vytautas, became virtually independent from Poland, led by Jagiello;
1399 – Vytautas’ defeat from the Tatars in the Battle of Vorskla, the end of his program to annex new Russian lands to the Grand Duchy;
1410 – joint victory of the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania over the Teutonic Order, effectively ending the centuries-old threat of the Crusaders.
We think, compare, reflect: question No. 2. Compare the government systems that existed in the 14th century. in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and in Rus'.
The Grand Duchy of Lithuania received the orders of the Western and Northwestern principalities. The head of state was the prince, but at the same time he took into account his boyars (over time they began to be called rada lords), just as the princes before Batu consulted with their boyars from the senior squad. The cities were subordinate to the Grand Duke, but at the same time, as in the period of fragmentation, they had their own veche, at which all their internal affairs were decided. That is, self-government was maintained in cities. This was the case before the rise of Lithuania. For example, the veche expelled princes from Polotsk several times during the period of fragmentation and invited new ones, although a true republic like in Novgorod was not created there.
We think, compare, reflect: question No. 3. Using the Internet and additional literature, prepare a short biography of one of the Lithuanian princes mentioned in the paragraph.
Levitsky, G. Jagiello - Prince of Lithuania. – M., 2013;
Shabuldo, F. M. Lands of South-Western Rus' as part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. – Kyiv, 1987.
We think, compare, reflect: question No. 4. What was the historical significance of the entry of part of the Russian lands into the Grand Duchy of Lithuania?
Firstly, it was precisely because of this that the Moscow state fought for those lands for many centuries (later Russian kingdom) and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (and when it united with Poland, the resulting Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth). Russian rulers tried over and over again to subjugate all the lands of the Old Russian state.
Secondly, largely because of this political division, the Old Russian people were divided into Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian.
