§58. The Latin Patriarchy The advantages of the Roman Patriarch in comparison with the Patriarch of Constantinople were at the same time the leading causes of the emergence of the papacy, which we will now discuss in more detail. There is no doubt that the emergence of the papacy was the result of

Poetry and Music Flowers of Poetry 1 No, the routine of everyday prose Do not bind my dreams! And Poetry's flowers Will not fade like roses: The soil of joy and pain Is watered with beauty Inspiration holy rain, Divine Light

Poetry and Music 1 Poetry and Music are one seed sown by the Lord, In my soul sprouted Verses of the cherished grove. Nourishes inspiration juice In it, every leaf and

Poetry and Music Poetry and music are closely related art forms in which rhythm and harmony of consonances are important. Music and poetry are a figurative expression of the thoughts and feelings of people, the states of nature and human society. Poetry is musical and music is poetic. Flowers

When starting to read Latin verses, one must remember that there is a huge difference between modern and ancient poetry (whether Greek or Roman). For us, the concept of "verse" is associated with rhythm and rhyme, while for modern poetry rhyme is optional. In Latin poetry, the basis of verse is rhythm, and only rhythm, which is achieved by a regular, strictly defined alternation of long and short syllables. Another characteristic difference is that in modern poetry the stress in the word remains in its usual place, whether it be fiction, colloquial speech or poetry. And in Latin verse, the accent depends on the arrangement of syllables, and rhythmic stress often does not coincide with the usual stress in a word.

In order to demonstrate this, we will cite an excerpt from the first book of "Pan Tadeusz" by A. Mickiewicz, passing it first in prose form, and then comparing it with a poetic text:

a) Here a britzka drove through the open gate, and the gentry, reining in the horses at the turn, jumped to the ground, and the horses lazily trudged without supervision to the very fence. Everything is quiet in the yard and on the empty porch, but there is a bolt on the door and a peg in the ring. The visitor did not wait until the servants came, he removed the bolt and, like a friend, greeted the house.

Here the britzka drove into the open gate,
And the gentry, reining in the horses at the turn,
Jumped to the ground, and the horses without supervision
Lazily weaved ourselves to the very fence.
Everything is quiet in the yard and on the empty porch,
And on the doors there is a bolt and a peg in a ring.
The visitor did not wait until the servants came,
He removed the bolt and greeted the house like a friend.

per. S. Mar (Aksenova)

As we can see, the stress in a word does not change its place depending on the rhythm of the verse; if, however, a Latin poem is changed in this way, the difference between the ordinary stress in a word and the rhythmic one will be seen very clearly. For example, here is an excerpt from Ovid's "Fast" (see text II), first in prose form, and then in the poetic original:

a. Iam stéterant ácies parátae férro mortíque, iam lítuus datúrus érat sígna púgnae: cum ráptae véniunt ínter patrésque virósque ínque sínu tenent nátos, pígnora cára.

Iam steterant accies || ferro mortíque paratae,
iám lituús pugnáe || signa daturus erát:
Cúm raptáe veniúnt || inter patresque virosque
ínque sinú natos, || pignora cara, tenent.

Notes regarding the duration of syllables were stated in the pronunciation lesson, here we will only talk about the most important principles of metrics, or Latin versification, about the units of rhythm and poetic sizes of those fragments that were given in this Latin course.

Rhythm unit - foot

A measure of the duration of a syllable is the time required to pronounce one short syllable, the so-called mora. A short syllable contains one mora, a long one - two: - =.

The unit of rhythm in a verse is foot(pes), which, depending on poetic size, consists of one or another number of long and short syllables arranged in a certain order; the foot can have only long or only short syllables (this can be seen from the samples below). In the verses that will be discussed, three- or four-seater feet are presented.

Three-sea feet:

Four seas feet:

The stress, as a rule, falls on a long syllable; in sponde and tribrach it depends on what role this foot plays: a) if sponde is used in dactylic verse or replaces dactyl, the stress falls on the first syllable; if it replaces an anapaest, the stress falls on the second syllable; b) if tribrachium is used instead of troche, the stress falls on the first syllable, if instead of iambic, the stress is on the second syllable (we are talking about preserving the descending or ascending rhythm inherent in the verse):

dactyl
anapaest

spondey instead of dactyl -
sponde instead of anapaest -

trochee
iambic

tribrach instead of troche
tribrachium instead of iambic

If a dactyl appears in iambic verse, then the stress falls on the second syllable of the foot, that is, on the first short: -

There are also five- and six-foot feet (for example: kretik, horiyamb), but we will not talk about them, because we only analyze those sizes that are found in the tutorial.

A characteristic feature of Latin poetry is the inadmissibility (with very rare exceptions) of gaping (hiatus), that is, the vowel at the end of a word cannot be combined with the initial vowel of the next word; e.g. in Latin verse impossible combination: “... the light decided that oh oh n smart and about very nice"; if two words standing next to each other meet, one of which ends and the other begins with a vowel sound, the so-called elision, i.e., the loss of the final vowel of the first word. Elimination occurs in the following cases:

1. If the first word ends and the second begins with a vowel:

in vento et rapida scribere oportet aqua

in vent’ ét rapidá scriber’ opórtet aquá.

2. If the first word ends in a vowel and the next word begins with a h(actually, this is a sign of aspiration):

Perque vias vidisse hominum simulacra

Pérque viás vidiss' hominúm simulacra.

3. If the first word ends in a consonant -m, and the following begins with a vowel or sound h, then the first word is not pronounced m and the preceding vowel:

monstrum horrendum informe ingens

mónstr' horrend' inform' ingéns.

4. A somewhat different phenomenon has a phenomenon called apheresis: if after a word ending in a vowel or sound m, follows the form of the auxiliary verb esse: es - you're,est- he is, then the vowel is not pronounced e- in verb form:

formosa est messibus aestas

formósa 'st méssibus aestas;

vilius argentum est auro

vilius argentum 'st auro.

It is difficult to pronounce a long poetic line in one breath, especially since semantic pauses are also necessary; therefore, when reading aloud, the so-called caesura- stop, pause inside the foot; it does not break words, it is always used after it, and often coincides with a semantic pause. The caesura will be considered in more detail when analyzing the dactylic hexameter.

Poetic dimensions

We limit ourselves to parsing only those sizes that are found in our tutorial.

1. Dactylic hexameter - Hexameter dactylicus

The name itself shows that the main foot here is the dactyl and that the poetic line consists of six feet ( Greek hex= lat. sex - "six"). Dactylic hexameter sometimes called heroic verse - versus heroicus, because ancient epic (or heroic) poems, both Greek (Iliad and Odyssey) and Latin (Virgil's Aeneid), were written in this size. In addition, satyrs and bucolics wrote with dactylic hexameter.

Dactylic feet in hexameter can be replaced by spondees, especially often in the first four feet; in the fifth foot this is very rare; the last, sixth foot often has two syllables and can contain both sponde and troche.

Example: Gū́ttă că|vā́t lăpĭ|dḗm || nōn| vī́ sēd | sáepĕ că|dḗndō.

This hexameter consists of two dactyls, two spondees, a dactyl, a spondee. The caesura is made after the stressed syllable of the third foot (the stressed syllable of the foot is called arsis). This caesura is called five-half(i.e., located after the fifth half-foot), or male.

Male caesura can also occur after the seventh half-foot, i.e. after the arsis of the fourth foot (it is called seven-half), for example:

prī́ncĭpĭ|bū́s plăcŭ|ī́ssĕ vĭ|rī́s || nōn |ū́ltĭmă | laus est.

This poetic line consists of three dactyls, spondee, dactyl, spondee.

Women's the caesura occurs in the third foot after the first short (i.e., unstressed) syllable of the dactyl:

fḗrtŭr ĕ|quī́s aū|rī́ga || nĕqu(e) | āudīt| cū́rrŭs hă|bḗnās.

2. Dactylic pentameter - Pentameter dactylicus

The main foot of this type of verse is also a dactyl, but as the name suggests, a line of poetry consists of five feet ( Greek pente = lat. quinque - "five"). The peculiarity of the pentameter is that it does not contain full five dactyls consecutively one after another, but consists of two identical parts built according to this scheme: two dactyls and one long syllable, then two more dactyls and one long syllable; these two long syllables separated from each other make four mora together. The dactylic pentameter is divided into two equal parts by a pause called diarrhoea(pause coinciding with the end of the foot); dactyls can be replaced by spondees only in the first part of the verse; after the dieresis, dactylic feet are necessarily preserved.

Example: Vū́lgŭs ă|mī́cĭtĭ|ā́s || ū́tĭlĭ|tā́tĕ prŏ|bā́t
This verse consists of two dactyls before the dieresis and two dactyls after it.

Vḗr prāe|bḗt flō|rḗs || ī́gnĕ lĕ|vā́tŭr hĭ|ḗms.
In this verse there are two spondees in the first part, and two dactyls in the second, according to the obligatory rule.

The dactylic pentameter is never used on its own, but only in conjunction with the dactylic hexameter (hexameter + pentameter).

Together they form a couplet called elegiac distich. The elegiac distich was used in elegies, short poems, and epigrams.

An example of an elegiac distich:

Pṓmă dăt |ā́utūm|nū́s, fōr|mṓsā (e)st | mḗssĭbŭs | āestās,
Vḗr prāe|bḗt flō|rḗs || ī́gnĕ lĕ|vā́tŭr hĭ|ḗms.

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GBOU SPO MO "Orekhovo-Zuevsky Medical College"

By discipline: Latin

On the topic: "Poetry in Latin"

Performed by a student of the specialty

060101 General medicine group 11F

Riche Svetlana

1) Latin language

2) History

3) Archaic Latin

4) Classical Latin

5) Postclassical Latin

6) Late Latin

7) Medieval Latin

9) Latin in biology

10) Influence on other languages

11) New Latin poets

latin language medical medieval

1) Latin language

(self-name - lingua Latina), or Latin, is the language of the Latin-Fali branch of the Italic languages ​​\u200b\u200bof the Indo-European language family. To date, it is the only actively used Italian language (it is a dead language). Latin is one of the most ancient written Indo-European languages. Today, Latin is the official language of the Holy See, the Order of Malta and the Vatican City State, as well as, to some extent, the Roman Catholic Church. A large number of words in European (and not only) languages ​​are of Latin origin. The Latin alphabet is the basis of writing for many modern languages.

2) History

Latin, along with Falian (Latin-Falian subgroup), together with Oscan and Umbrian languages ​​(Osco-Umbrian subgroup), constituted the Italic branch of the Indo-European family of languages. In the course of the historical development of ancient Italy, the Latin language supplanted the other Italic languages ​​and eventually assumed a dominant position in the western Mediterranean. It is one of the so-called dead languages, like ancient Indian (Sanskrit), ancient Greek, etc. In the historical development of the Latin language, several stages are noted, characteristic from the point of view of its internal evolution and interaction with other languages.

3) Archaic Latin

The appearance of Latin as a language is attributed to the middle of the 2nd millennium BC. e. At the beginning of the 1st millennium BC. e. Latin was spoken by the population of a small region of Latium (lat. Latium), located in the west of the middle part of the Apennine Peninsula, along the lower reaches of the Tiber. The tribe that inhabited Latium was called the Latins (lat. Latini), its language was Latin. The center of this region was the city of Rome (lat. Roma), after which the Italic tribes united around it began to call themselves the Romans (lat. Romani).

The earliest written monuments of the Latin language date back, presumably, to the end of the 6th - the beginning of the 5th centuries BC. e. This is a dedicatory inscription found in 1978 from ancient city Satrica (50 km south of Rome), dated last decade 6th century BC e., and a fragment of a sacred inscription on a fragment of a black stone found in 1899 during excavations of the Roman forum, dating back to about 500 BC. The ancient monuments of archaic Latin also include quite numerous tombstone inscriptions and official documents of the middle of the 3rd - beginning of the 2nd century BC. e., of which the most famous are the epitaphs of the Roman politicians Scipio and the text of the Senate decree on the sanctuaries of the god Bacchus.

The largest representative of the archaic period in the field of literary language is the ancient Roman comedian Plautus (c. 245-184 BC), from whom 20 comedies in their entirety and one in fragments have come down to our time. However, it should be noted that the vocabulary of Plautus' comedies and the phonetic structure of his language are already largely approaching the norms of classical Latin of the 1st century BC. e. - beginning of the 1st century A.D. e.

4) Classical Latin

Classical Latin refers to the literary language that reached its greatest expressiveness and syntactic harmony in the prose writings of Cicero (106-43 BC) and Caesar (100-44 BC) and in the poetic works of Virgil (70-19 BC). e.), Horace (65-8 BC) and Ovid (43 BC - 18 AD).

The period of formation and flourishing of the classical Latin language was associated with the transformation of Rome into the largest slave-owning state in the Mediterranean, subjugating vast territories in western and southeastern Europe, northern Africa and Asia Minor. In the eastern provinces of the Roman state (in Greece, Asia Minor and on the northern coast of Africa), where by the time of their conquest by the Romans the Greek language and highly developed Greek culture were widespread, the Latin language was not widely used. The situation was different in the western Mediterranean.

By the end of the 2nd century BC. e. Latin dominates not only throughout Italy, but also as an official state language penetrates into the areas of the Iberian Peninsula conquered by the Romans and present-day southern France. Through Roman soldiers and merchants, the Latin language in its colloquial form finds access to the masses of the local population, being one of the most effective means of Romanization of the conquered territories. At the same time, the closest neighbors of the Romans are most actively Romanized - the Celtic tribes living in Gaul (the territory of present-day France, Belgium, partly the Netherlands and Switzerland). The conquest of Gaul by the Romans began in the second half of the 2nd century BC. e. and was completed at the very end of the 50s of the 1st century BC. e. as a result of prolonged hostilities under the command of Julius Caesar (Gallic wars 58-51 BC). At the same time, the Roman troops came into close contact with the Germanic tribes who lived in vast areas east of the Rhine. Caesar also makes two trips to Britain, but these short-term expeditions (in 55 and 54 BC) did not have serious consequences for relations between the Romans and the British (Celts). Only 100 years later, in 43 AD. e., Britain was conquered by Roman troops, who were there until 407 AD. e.

Thus, for about five centuries, until the fall of the Roman Empire in 476 AD. e., the tribes that inhabited Gaul and Britain, as well as the Germans, experience the strongest influence of the Latin language.

5) Postclassical Latin

It is customary to distinguish from classical Latin the language of Roman fiction of the postclassical (postclassical, late antique) period, which chronologically coincides with the first two centuries of our chronology (the so-called era of the early empire). Indeed, the language of prose writers and poets of this time (Seneca, Tacitus, Juvenal, Martial, Apuleius) is distinguished by a significant originality in the choice of stylistic means; but since the norms of the grammatical structure of the Latin language developed over the previous centuries are not violated, the indicated division of the Latin language into classical and postclassical has a literary rather than linguistic significance.

6) Late Latin

As a separate period in the history of the Latin language, the so-called. late Latin, whose chronological boundaries are the III-VI centuries - the era of the late empire and the emergence, after its fall, of barbarian states. Many morphological and syntactical phenomena, which prepare the transition to the new Romance languages, already find a place in the works of writers of this time - mainly historians and Christian theologians.

7) Medieval Latin

Medieval or Christianized Latin is primarily liturgical (liturgical) texts - hymns, hymns, prayers. At the end of the 4th century, Saint Jerome translated the entire Bible into Latin. This translation, known as the Vulgate (that is, the People's Bible), was recognized as equivalent to the original at the Catholic Council of Trent in the 16th century. Since then, Latin, along with Hebrew and Ancient Greek, has been considered one of the sacred languages ​​of the Bible. The Renaissance left us a huge amount of scientific works in Latin. These are medical treatises of physicians of the Italian school of the 16th century: Andreas Vesalius’s On the Structure of the Human Body (1543), Gabriel Fallopius’ Anatomical Observations (1561), Bartholomew Eustachio’s Anatomical Works (1552), Girolamo’s On Contagious Diseases and Their Treatment Fracastoro (1546) and others. In Latin, the teacher Jan Amos Comenius (1658) created his book “The World of Sensual Things in Pictures” (“ORBIS SENSUALIUM PICTUS. Omnium rerum pictura et nomenclatura”), in which the whole world is described with illustrations, from inanimate nature to the structure of society. Many generations of children from different countries of the world have learned from this book. Its last Russian edition was published in Moscow in 1957.

8) Stylistic features Liturgical Latin

Since the books of the New Testament were written in Greek, it remained the main language of worship in Rome during the early decades of Christianity; However, under Pope St. Victor I (189--199) made the transition to Latin here. Christian Latin is characterized by the borrowing of a large amount of Greek and, in part, Hebrew vocabulary, the presence of neologisms, big influence colloquial, from the point of view of ancient tradition, style. At the same time, many words of proper Latin origin and language constructions are used directly in liturgical texts, which were already archaic by the time these texts were compiled, which turns liturgical Latin into a sacred language that differs from spoken (for example, instead of the verb oro - "to pray" - the ancient precor is used, instead of the Greek word episcopus - the traditional official Roman terms pontifex and antistes; instead of the Greek presbyter - the Roman praesul). The solemn style of liturgical Latin, quite different from the colloquial one, is a harmonious combination of biblical and ancient Roman style.

9) Latin in biology

Latin in biology can be considered as an independent scientific language, derived from the Latin language of the Renaissance, but enriched with many words borrowed from Greek and other languages. In addition, many words of the Latin language are used in biological texts in a new, special sense. The grammar in the Latin biological language is noticeably simplified. The alphabet has been supplemented: unlike classical Latin, the letters "j", "u", "w" are used.

Modern Codes of Biological Nomenclature require that scientific names living organisms were Latin in form, that is, they were written in the letters of the Latin alphabet and obeyed the rules of Latin grammar, regardless of which language they were borrowed from.

10) Influence on other languages

The Latin language in its folk (colloquial) variety - the so-called vulgar Latin (meaning - folk) - was the basis language for new national languages, united under the general name of Romance. To them belongs Italian language, created on the territory of the Apennine Peninsula as a result of a historical change in the Latin language, French and Provencal languages ​​that developed in the former Gaul, Spanish, Catalan and Portuguese on the Iberian Peninsula, Romansh on the territory of the Roman colony of Rezia (in part of present-day Switzerland and in the north -Eastern Italy), Romanian - on the territory of the Roman province of Dacia (present-day Romania), Moldavian and some others, of which Sardinian should be especially noted, as the closest to classical Latin of all modern Romance languages.

Despite the common origin of the Romance languages, there are now significant differences between them. This is explained by the fact that the Latin language penetrated the conquered territories over a number of centuries, during which it itself, as the base language, changed somewhat and entered into complex interaction with local tribal languages ​​and dialects. A well-known imprint on the emerging related Romance languages ​​was also left by the difference in the historical fate of the territories in which they were formed for a long time.

Nevertheless, all Romance languages ​​retain Latin features in their vocabulary, and also, although to a much lesser extent, in morphology. For example, the verbal system of the French language represents a further development of the forms of the verb, which was already outlined in popular Latin. During the formation of the French literary language, it was strongly influenced by Latin syntax, under the influence of which the rules of agreement and sequence of tenses, separate participial constructions, and infinitive turns were formed in French grammar.

Attempts by the Romans to subjugate the Germanic tribes, repeatedly undertaken at the turn of the 1st century BC. e. and 1st century A.D. e., were not successful, but the economic relations of the Romans with the Germans existed for a long time; they went mainly through the Roman garrison colonies located along the Rhine and Danube. This is reminiscent of the names of German cities: Cologne (German Köln, from Latin colonia - settlement), Koblenz (German Koblenz, from Latin confluentes - literally flocking, Koblenz is located at the confluence of the Moselle with the Rhine), Regensburg (German Regensburg, from lat. regina castra), Vienna (from lat. vindobona), etc.

In Britain, the most ancient traces of the Latin language are the names of cities with the component -chester, -caster or -castle from lat. castra - military camp and castellum - fortification, foss - from lat. fossa -- ditch, col(n) from lat. colonia -- settlement: Manchester, Lancaster, Newcastle, Fossbrook, Lincoln, Colchester. The conquest of Britain in the 5th-6th centuries by the Germanic tribes of the Angles, Saxons and Jutes increased the number of Latin borrowings adopted by the British tribes at the expense of words already adopted by the Germans from the Romans.

The importance of the Latin language for the gradual and long-term formation of new Western European languages ​​persists even after the fall of the Western Roman Empire (the traditional date is 476). Latin continued to be the language of state and school in the early feudal Frankish kingdom (formed at the end of the 5th century), which absorbed a significant part of the territory of the Western Roman Empire; the Frankish state, which became an empire (Charlemagne took the title of emperor in 800), disintegrated in the middle of the ninth century (in 843) into independent states of Western Europe - Italy, France and Germany. The absence in these states for several centuries of national literary languages ​​forced them to resort to the help of the Latin language in relations between them. Throughout the Middle Ages and later, Latin was the language of the Catholic Church. At the same time, Latin was the language of science and university teaching and the main subject of school teaching. Finally, Latin was the language of jurisprudence, and even in those countries where legislation was transferred to national languages ​​already in the Middle Ages (as, for example, in France), the study of Roman law and reception from it was an essential component of jurisprudence. Hence the wide penetration of Latin vocabulary into the new European languages, primarily as a scientific, theological, legal and generally abstract terminology.

in Russia until the 18th century. Church Slavonic and (to a lesser extent) Greek were used as a source of terminology; however, starting from the time of Peter I, an increased penetration of Latin vocabulary into the Russian language began, to a lesser extent directly, to a greater extent through the new European languages. It should be noted, however, that in the Old Russian language itself there are several very early borrowings from Latin, partly directly, partly through Greek ("bath", "ward", "mint", "cherry").

Latin vocabulary had a significant impact on English through French, as a result of the conquest of England in the 11th century by the French Normans (Normans). Many borrowings were made into English during the Renaissance and directly from Latin.

Medieval Latin went quite far from the classical samples, and in the XIV century. In Italy, a movement began to return to the exemplary Latin of Cicero, as opposed to the Latin of the church and universities, which the humanists contemptuously called "kitchen Latin". Humanists actively spoke and wrote in Latin; for example, it is enough to name the names of those who wrote in Latin Thomas More (1478-1535) in England, Erasmus of Rotterdam (1466-1536) in Holland, Tommaso Campanella (1568-1639) in Italy. The Latin language remains during this period the most important means of international cultural and scientific communication. However, at the same time, the Reformation, the secularization of cultural life, etc., increasingly limited the use of Latin, bringing new languages ​​to the fore. In diplomacy, Latin is being supplanted by French: the Treaty of Westphalia of 1648 was the first document of its kind not written in Latin.

Until the 18th century, Latin remained the international language of science. In Latin translation, Amerigo Vespucci's report on the discovery of the New World became widely known in Europe in 1503; the first document in the history of Russian-Chinese relations was compiled in Latin - the Nerchinsk Treaty of 1689. The Dutch philosopher Spinoza (1632-1677), the English scientist Newton (1643-1727), the Russian scientist Lomonosov (1711- -1765) and many others. However, after the French Revolution, university teaching was translated from Latin into new languages, and this decisively undermined the status of Latin as the main language of science. As a result, in the 19th century Latin is almost out of use; it lasted longest in philology (especially classical) and medicine. In the 20th century, Latin remained essentially only the language of the Catholic Church, but even as such it was strongly pressed in the second half of the century, with the permission of services in national languages. IN last years in Western European countries and South America there was a movement to revive the use of the Latin language as a international language science. Several congresses of an international organization created for this purpose have taken place, and a special journal is being published.

Finally, the Latin language, along with the ancient Greek, has long been a source for the formation of international socio-political and scientific terminology.

11) New Latin poets

New Latin poets are the name of poets who, after the revival of classical antiquity, wrote poems in a language similar to the ancient, Latin classics. Even the early Middle Ages produced a whole series of Latin poems that strove to approach the ancient language and forms (medieval Latin literature). Later, under the dominance of scholasticism, both in the use of the Latin language in general and in Latin poetry, a strong deviation from the models manifested itself. One of the first who tried to revive the ancient form in poetry was Dante; but Petrarch, who wrote bucolic eclogues like Virgil, epistles in the spirit of Horace, and the epic "Africa" ​​(about the second Punic war), should be considered the real father of New Latin poetry. His example found wide imitation, especially as many classical writers were brought back from oblivion. The word "poetae" became the designation of the adherents of the humanist movement. Petrarch himself put his "Rime" much lower than his Latin works, since in Italy, until the end of the 15th century, the post office wrote poems in vernacular was considered more of an empty game than an occupation that could bring glory. In all countries that joined the humanistic direction, the zeal for the Latin version, which occupied a prominent place in the schools of the Reformation and among the Jesuits, as alumna eloquentiae, also passed. This versification remained in circulation until the end of the 17th century, in some places much longer, along with national poetry. Many of the N. works of the Renaissance were considered ancient for a long time, and vice versa, some ancient poems were attributed to this time. In most New Latin poems, the dexterity of the external form is the main thing; however, between there was no shortage of poets from various countries who, in relation to their content, deserved the title of poets. There were many such poets in Italy, especially in the 15th and early 16th centuries; the most famous of them are the philologist Cristoforo Landino (see the corresponding article), Angelo Polizano, Jacob Sannazaro (d. 1580), Cardinal Peter Bembo (see the corresponding article), Jacob Sadolet (d. 1547), whose poem about Laocoon Lessing put very high, Girolamo Vida (see corresponding article), Andrea Navagero (see corresponding article), Girolamo Fracastoro (d. 1553), Bamdassare Castiglione (see corresponding article); the learned Magyar John of Pannonia (prop. Chezmeicze, d. 1472) can also be counted among them.

In Germany, already the first German N. poet, Conrad Celtes, who was crowned in 1487, showed a high poetic talent. He is not inferior to Ulrich Hutten, who was crowned in 1517 (see the corresponding article), as well as the prolific and graceful Eoban Hess (see the corresponding article). Other well-known representatives of N. poetry in Germany: Eurytius Kord (see the corresponding article); Graubündener Simon Lemnius (see the corresponding article), Georg Sabin (Schuler proper, d. 1560), Melanchthon's son-in-law, his student Peter Lotihiy Sekund (see the corresponding article), who equally owned all kinds of Latin poetry Nicodemus Frischlin (d. 1590 ) and the Heidelberg librarian Pavel Shede, nicknamed Meliss (d. 1602). In the 17th century, despite the Thirty Years' War, Latin poetry continued to be diligently cultivated. Kaspar von Barth (see the corresponding article) and the Jesuit Jacob Balde (see the corresponding article) achieved particular fame at this time, whose poems are distinguished by their completeness of form, freshness and sincerity of content.

Even Martin Opitz and Pavel Fleming, who discovered new paths in German poetry, not only used ancient works as models for their creations in German, but also sometimes wrote in Latin. Leibniz also achieved laurels in the field of Latin poetry. In France, a significant number of N. poets of the 16th and 17th centuries. achieved only formal dexterity in imitation of various kinds of poetic style. Here, almost all N. poets are also scientists; among them we meet the names of such pillars of classical philology as both Scaligers, father and son. Jean Dora, called Auralus, Marc-Anthony Muret (see related article), Florent Chretien (d. 1596), René Rapin (d. 1687) and Pierre-Daniel Huet (d. 1721) also created an honorary name for themselves. In England and Scotland, the number of N. poets was very large; their best works are the poems of the Scot George Buchanan (d. 1582), the epigrams of Dason Owen (d. 1622) and the satires of John Barclay (see the corresponding article). Poland in the 16th and 17th centuries Latin verse was written by many scholars, especially from the clergy who fell under the influence of the revival; the "Polish Horace" Matvei Casimir Sarbiewski, who was called Sarbievius (1595-1640), achieved great fame here.

Netherlands until the last quarter of the 16th century. they put up only one famous N. poet - Jan Everard, called Johannes Secundus (d. 1536); but after the founding of the University of Leiden in 1575, especially under the influence of I. Yu. Scaliger, who was invited there in 1593, an intensified study of Latin poetry began, especially since the insufficiently developed local language did not give scope for poetic aspirations awakened by classes in ancient literature. The flourishing period of Netherlandish Netherlandish poetry is marked by Jan Duza, or van der Dus (d. 1597), Dominic Baudius, Peter Skriver, or Schreiver (d. 1660), the famous Hugo Grotius, Jan Ruthers, and both Gainsius, father and son (see corresponding article). Almost to late XVIII in. N. poetry found many adherents in the Netherlands; one of the last outstanding N. poets here was John Schrader, who died in 1783. Even now in the Netherlands, remnants of N. poetry have been preserved, in the form of a prize for the best poem in Latin. language (in 1895, "Myrmedon" 1. Pascali, Amsterdam, 1895). In Russia, the writing of Latin verse flourished in theological academies, especially in Kiev. In the XVIII century. Latin verses for solemn occasions were written by academicians. There were, however, no real N. poets in Russia.

12) Medieval Latin Literature

Medieval Latin literature has importance to understand the history of the literatures of individual nationalities of Western Europe. Under its influence, not only individual branches of these national literatures grew, but also their poetic forms and their prose style. S. Latin literature not only precedes the national literatures, but goes hand in hand with them throughout the Middle Ages. Its language was by no means always a dead language: it existed not only in writing, but also in oral speech, was not only the language of science and religion, but also, in many respects, the state language.

The spirit of ancient classical poetry has completely disappeared from S. Latin literature, with the exception of certain epic and satirical poems. In the way of expression, a strong admixture of French, German, English, etc. words is noticeable, in accordance with the poet's homeland. The ancient metric has also undergone major changes; the dominant verse is the so-called versus Leoninus (i.e., hexameter, where the middle rhymes with the end), which served as the basis for rhymed poetry in new languages.

Of the branches of secular poetry, the epic, which approaches panegyric in character, and satire are especially flourishing. Among the epics are Priscian, the author of a panegyric to the emperor Anastasius; Corippus, who wrote the same poem in honor of Justin II, important for the history of the Byzantine court; Angilberg, who told about the meeting of Charlemagne with Pope Leo; the poem of a certain Irish exile (Hibernicus exul) is dedicated to the same sovereign. Very famous was the poetic description of the siege of Paris by the Normans (887), which belonged to Abbon, a monk of the Saint-Germain monastery. The most significant poetic work of the tenth century. and one of the most important epic poems in Germany is "Gesta Waltharit" (cf. Walter [the hero of medieval novels]), which tells about the love of Prince Walter of Aquitaine for the Burgundian princess Hiltgunde who lived as a hostage at Attila, about her removal and their marriage. This poem belongs to the monk of the Saint-Gallic monastery, Ekkegart († in 973). Around 1046, a panegyric to Emperor Henry III, Vipona, was written. Didactic poetry found few representatives in the Middle Ages, although all branches of it were affected.

The most famous poem by Walafrid Strabo (808--849) "Hortulus" ("Garden") - a description of the garden he laid out by himself, its plants and their healing power. Next comes the "Mathematicus" of Childebert of Tours, Bishop of Mans, to whom the "Physiologist" or a poem about the remarkable natural properties of animals was previously attributed without any reason. The same author owns a successful satire on greed ("De nummis s. Satyra adversus avaritiam"). Even more famous in this kind of poetry is "Carmen, sive ecloga in laudem calvorum" (ie, a poem in praise of the bald), written by Archbishop Hukbald of Reims (840--930). This poem is addressed to Emperor Charles the Bald and, in addition to its amazing topic, is remarkable in that all his words begin with the letter C. This should also include the famous satires on the monks "Isengrimus" and "Reinardus Vulpes" (Reinardus-Fox - see the corresponding article), which arose in the XII century in the northern and southern Flanders. Dramatic poetry is represented mainly in the Grosvita comedies written in imitation of Terentius (born around 935; see).

Mysteries were also originally written in Latin (see). Comoedia Babio and comoedia Geta, owned: the first - by the English poet Peter Babion (circa 1347), and the second - by Matthew of Vandom (mid-12th century), without action, without faces and division into scenes, were the prototype of a folk ballad. Significantly superior in volume, and partly in content, secular poetry - spiritual poetry. One of its oldest representatives is Peacock, Bishop of Perigueux (about 470), author of a poem about the life of St. Martin, which is a revision of the work of the same name by Sulpicius Severus, out of gratitude to the saint who healed Peacock from an eye disease. The version of the poem is very poor. Slightly better written in hexameters are two poems by the doctor Theodoric of Gotha, Rustik Elpidius: "Carmen de Christi Jesu beneficiis" and "Tristicha", which set out the history of the Old and New Testaments.

Still higher is the Bishop of Vienna (in 490) Alcim Ecdicius Avitus, who wrote in hexameters a huge poem: "De mundi principio et aliis diversis condicionibus" and a panegyric on the virginity of nuns ("De consolatoria laude castitatis ad Fuscinam Sororem"). Not bad are also the "Exhortation to the Faithful" of the Spanish Bishop Orientius and the poetic exposition of the Acts of the Apostles ("De actibus Apostolorum"), written by the subdeacon of the Roman church (544) Arator. All these poets were surpassed in their closeness to classical models by the Bishop of Pavia, Magnus-Felix-Ennodius (473--521), in his epigrams and other poems, and Venantius Fortunatus (about 630--700), from whom up to 300 poems have come down to us. both spiritual and secular content. Considerable erudition in the classical originals was also discovered by the famous Alcuin (see), in his poem: "De pontificibus et sanctis ecclesiae Eboracensis". Theodulf, called from Italy by Charlemagne and elevated by him to the bishopric of Orleans (794), competed with Alcuin. Charlemagne himself tried to write Latin verse, but failed. The ancient classical examples were also well known to the poets of England: Abbot Aldhelm († in 709), author of poems about chastity ("Liber de laude virginum") and about 8 major sins (de octo principalibus vitiis), and Bede the Venerable (637- -735), who left several small poems. Most of all, spiritual persons were engaged in chanting in Latin the lives of saints and miracles emanating from their relics. The deacon of the Lyon church, Flor, wrote verses for the birthday of the martyrs John and Paul condemned by Julian, who also played a role in the S. mysteries; from the same Florus there remained a curious political poem: "Querela de divisione imperii post mortem Ludovici Pii" (mourning about the division of the empire after the death of Louis the Pious). Milon, a monk in the monastery of St. Amanda (in Belgium), described the life of the patron of his monastery in 1800 hexameters. Ratpert († in 890) is credited with a panegyric of St. Gall. A monk of the Benedictine monastery in Auxerre, Eric, wrote the life of St. Herman ("Vita S. Germanni Antissiodorensis").

All the listed spiritual writers and many others, such as Peacock the Merciful and Prudentius, willingly composed church hymns in Latin, many of which have survived in worship to this day, such as, for example, "Veni, Creator Spiritus" by Rabanus Maurus. An important innovation with regard to hymns belongs to the "Liber sequentiarum", the abbot of the monastery of St. Galla, Notker. Of the other hymn-writers, Fulbert of Chartres may be named, a poet more prolific than successful; Metella (around the middle of the 12th century), who applied the lyrical form to the lives of the saints, composing from 64 odes and 10 eclogues the acts of St. Quirin; Bishop of Salerno, Alphan (1058--1085); the famous Archbishop of Canterbury Anselm, whose poem "On Contempt for the World" (De contemtu mundi) belongs to the best works of medieval Christian lyrics.

With the gradual development of national literatures, Latin poetry more and more remains only in the offices of scientists and in schools. Since the 13th century, in England and partly in France, a satirical element has prevailed, directed against the abuses of the church and political oppression, as well as against vices, especially against greed. In Italy, it is mainly the historical epic that flourishes, which, since the middle of the 15th century, that is, since the Renaissance, has been occupied by light poetry. Of the representatives of Latin poetry in England, we will name Bernhard of Morley, an Englishman by birth, but who entered a monk in Cluny (about 1140). He owns two sharp satires against the contemporary clergy, written by dactylic leonins. Next come the famous Johannes of Salisbury (1115-1180; see) with his elegiac verse against classical philosophy against the false philosophers of his age; Nigellus Wireker, a monk of Canterbury (c. 1200), who portrayed in the poem "Brunellus s. Speculum", under the guise of a donkey desiring a longer tail, a monk aspiring to become an abbot; Oxford archdeacon (1197-1210) Walter Map, who poured out his enmity against the Cistercian monks in Latin verse and left the profeasio poetae, a typical example of Goliard literature.

The only epic is the monk Johannes Exeter (circa 1210), usually called Iscanus, after his place of education (Isca in Cornwallis), who wrote the poem "De bello Troiano", where he was guided mainly by Dares. In France, among the spiritual poets, the more famous canon (about 1170) Petrus Pictor, author of the poem on the sacrament ("Carmen de sacramento altaris"), with a lot of errors in grammar and versification, and Petrus de Riga, who wrote the poem "Aurora" from 18 with more than a thousand verses of various meters, where most of the Old and New Testaments are paraphrased. The Parisian professor Alan (1114--1202), originally from Lille (ab Insulis), wrote a very popular poem "Anticlaudianus", in which vices are combined to banish virtue.

Alexander de Villa Dei († in 1240) enjoyed immense fame for his unusually dry grammar ("Doctrinale"). Of the representatives of the epic, the chaplain at the court of Philip-August, William of Breton, who sang the exploits of Philip in the poem "Philippis" is issued; Nicolaus de Braja, author of a poem about the deeds of Louis VIII ("Gesta Ludovici VIII"); Egidius of Paris, who presented Louis VIII with a poem about the life of Charlemagne ("Carolinus"); canon in Tournai, Walter of Chatillon († in 1201), who told in verse, according to Curtius Rufus, the exploits of Alexander the Great ("Alexandreis"; this poem was read in Belgian schools in the 13th century instead of classical writers).

How great was the number of Latin poets in Italy during the Renaissance, just as insignificant they were both in quantity and quality at the end of the Middle Ages (for example, Guidon from Pisa, who described in 73 stanzas - each of 4 half-verses, 8 and 9 each syllables, with rhymes - the victory of his native city over the Saracens in 1088). Somewhat later Gvidon lived Peter with the nickname Magister de Ebulo, who composed a poem about the Sicilian wars under Henry VI and Tancred in 1189-95. A furious anonymous satire by some Guelph, in hexameters, under the title "Epitaphium Juliani Apostatae", where under Julian the Apostate probably refers to Friedrich Barbarossa, belongs to the same time. Latin poetry in Germany is even less represented at the end of the Middle Ages, where one can name only the satirical-moral dialogue, in verse and prose, "Occultus", compiled by a gymnasium teacher in Erfurt, Nicholas of Biberach (about 1290); dialogue "Palpista", a contemporary of Nicholas Bernhard with the nickname Geystensis, written in Leonine dactyls, which depicts a courtier and family life that time; "XI Fabulae" (after the model of the French Fabliaux), belonging to a certain Adolf, where the perfidy of the female sex is presented in very unbridled pictures.

Bibliography

1. Latin language // Encyclopedic Dictionary of Brockhaus and Efron: In 86 volumes (82 volumes and 4 additional). - St. Petersburg, 1890--1907.

2. Tronsky I.M. Historical grammar of the Latin language. -- M., 1960 (2nd ed.: M., 2001).

3. Yarkho V.N., Loboda V.I., Katsman N.L. Latin language. -- M.: Higher School, 1994.

4. Dvoretsky I.Kh. Latin-Russian dictionary. - M., 1976.

5. Podosinov A.V., Belov A.M. Russian-Latin Dictionary. - M., 2000.

6. Belov A.M. Ars Grammar. A book about the Latin language. -- 2nd ed. -- M.: GLK Yu.A. Shichalina, 2007.

7. Lyublinskaya A.D. Latin paleography. - M.: Higher School, 1969. - 192 p. + 40 s. ill.

8. Belov A.M. Latin accent. -- M.: Academia, 2009.

9. A short dictionary of Latin words, abbreviations and expressions. -- Novosibirsk, 1975.

10. Miroshenkova V.I., Fedorov N.A. Latin textbook. -- 2nd ed. - M., 1985.

11. Podosinov A.V., Shchaveleva N.I. Introduction to the Latin language and ancient culture. - M., 1994--1995.

12. Nisenbaum M.E. Latin language. -- Eksmo, 2008.

13. Kozlova G.G. Latin self-instruction manual. -- Flint Science, 2007.

14. Chernyavsky M.N. Latin language and basics of pharmaceutical terminology. -- Medicine, 2007.

15. Baudouin de Courtenay I.A. From lectures on Latin phonetics. - M.: LIBROKOM, 2012. - 472 p.

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Medieval Latin literature is important for understanding the history of the literatures of the individual nationalities of Western Europe. Under its influence, not only individual branches of these national literatures grew, but also their poetic forms and their prose style. S. Latin literature not only precedes the national literatures, but goes hand in hand with them throughout the Middle Ages. Its language was by no means always a dead language: it existed not only in writing, but also in oral speech, was not only the language of science and religion, but also, in many respects, the state language.

The spirit of ancient classical poetry has completely disappeared from S. Latin literature, with the exception of certain epic and satirical poems. In the way of expression, a strong admixture of French, German, English, etc. words is noticeable, in accordance with the poet's homeland. The ancient metric has also undergone major changes; the dominant verse is the so-called versus Leoninus (i.e., hexameter, where the middle rhymes with the end), which served as the basis for rhymed poetry in new languages.

Of the branches of secular poetry, the epic, which approaches panegyric in character, and satire are especially flourishing. Among the epics are Priscian, the author of a panegyric to the emperor Anastasius; Corippus, who wrote the same poem in honor of Justin II, important for the history of the Byzantine court; Angilberg, who told about the meeting of Charlemagne with Pope Leo; the poem of a certain Irish exile (Hibernicus exul) is dedicated to the same sovereign. Very famous was the poetic description of the siege of Paris by the Normans (887), which belonged to Abbon, a monk of the Saint-Germain monastery. The most significant poetic work of the tenth century. and one of the most important epic poems in Germany is "Gesta Waltharit" (cf. Walter [the hero of medieval novels]), which tells about the love of Prince Walter of Aquitaine for the Burgundian princess Hiltgunde who lived as a hostage at Attila, about her removal and their marriage. This poem belongs to the monk of the Saint-Gallic monastery, Ekkegart († in 973). Around 1046, a panegyric to Emperor Henry III, Vipona, was written. Didactic poetry found few representatives in the Middle Ages, although all branches of it were affected.

The most famous poem by Walafrid Strabo (808--849) "Hortulus" ("Garden") - a description of the garden he laid out by himself, its plants and their healing power. Next comes the "Mathematicus" of Childebert of Tours, Bishop of Mans, to whom the "Physiologist" or a poem about the remarkable natural properties of animals was previously attributed without any reason. The same author owns a successful satire on greed ("De nummis s. Satyra adversus avaritiam"). Even more famous in this kind of poetry is "Carmen, sive ecloga in laudem calvorum" (ie, a poem in praise of the bald), written by Archbishop Hukbald of Reims (840--930). This poem is addressed to Emperor Charles the Bald and, in addition to its amazing theme, is remarkable in that all his words begin with the letter C. The famous satires on the monks "Isengrimus" and "Reinardus Vulpes" (Reinardus Vulpes - see below) should also be included here. corresponding article), which arose in the XII century in northern and southern Flanders. Dramatic poetry is represented mainly in the Grosvita comedies written in imitation of Terentius (born around 935; see).

Mysteries were also originally written in Latin (see). Comoedia Babio and comoedia Geta, owned: the first - by the English poet Peter Babion (circa 1347), and the second - by Matthew of Vandom (mid-12th century), without action, without faces and division into scenes, were the prototype of a folk ballad. Significantly superior in volume, and partly in content, secular poetry - spiritual poetry. One of its oldest representatives is Peacock, Bishop of Perigueux (about 470), author of a poem about the life of St. Martin, which is a revision of the work of the same name by Sulpicius Severus, out of gratitude to the saint who healed Peacock from an eye disease. The version of the poem is very poor. Slightly better written in hexameters are two poems by the doctor Theodoric of Gotha, Rustik Elpidius: "Carmen de Christi Jesu beneficiis" and "Tristicha", which set out the history of the Old and New Testaments.

Still higher is the Bishop of Vienna (in 490) Alcim Ecdicius Avitus, who wrote in hexameters a huge poem: "De mundi principio et aliis diversis condicionibus" and a panegyric on the virginity of nuns ("De consolatoria laude castitatis ad Fuscinam Sororem"). Not bad are also the "Exhortation to the Faithful" of the Spanish Bishop Orientius and the poetic exposition of the Acts of the Apostles ("De actibus Apostolorum"), written by the subdeacon of the Roman church (544) Arator. All these poets were surpassed in their closeness to classical models by the Bishop of Pavia, Magnus-Felix-Ennodius (473--521), in his epigrams and other poems, and Venantius Fortunatus (about 630--700), from whom up to 300 poems have come down to us. both spiritual and secular content. Considerable erudition in the classical originals was also discovered by the famous Alcuin (see), in his poem: "De pontificibus et sanctis ecclesiae Eboracensis". Theodulf, called from Italy by Charlemagne and elevated by him to the bishopric of Orleans (794), competed with Alcuin. Charlemagne himself tried to write Latin verse, but failed. The ancient classical examples were also well known to the poets of England: Abbot Aldhelm († in 709), author of poems about chastity ("Liber de laude virginum") and about 8 major sins (de octo principalibus vitiis), and Bede the Venerable (637- -735), who left several small poems. Most of all, spiritual persons were engaged in chanting in Latin the lives of saints and miracles emanating from their relics. The deacon of the Lyon church, Flor, wrote verses for the birthday of the martyrs John and Paul condemned by Julian, who also played a role in the S. mysteries; from the same Florus there remained a curious political poem: "Querela de divisione imperii post mortem Ludovici Pii" (mourning about the division of the empire after the death of Louis the Pious). Milon, a monk in the monastery of St. Amanda (in Belgium), described the life of the patron of his monastery in 1800 hexameters. Ratpert († in 890) is credited with a panegyric of St. Gall. A monk of the Benedictine monastery in Auxerre, Eric, wrote the life of St. Herman ("Vita S. Germanni Antissiodorensis").

All the listed spiritual writers and many others, such as Peacock the Merciful and Prudentius, willingly composed church hymns in Latin, many of which have survived in worship to this day, such as, for example, "Veni, Creator Spiritus" by Rabanus Maurus. An important innovation with regard to hymns belongs to the "Liber sequentiarum", the abbot of the monastery of St. Galla, Notker. Of the other hymn-writers, Fulbert of Chartres may be named, a poet more prolific than successful; Metella (around the middle of the 12th century), who applied the lyrical form to the lives of the saints, composing from 64 odes and 10 eclogues the acts of St. Quirin; Bishop of Salerno, Alphan (1058--1085); the famous Archbishop of Canterbury Anselm, whose poem "On Contempt for the World" (De contemtu mundi) belongs to the best works of medieval Christian lyrics.

With the gradual development of national literatures, Latin poetry more and more remains only in the offices of scientists and in schools. Since the 13th century, in England and partly in France, a satirical element has prevailed, directed against the abuses of the church and political oppression, as well as against vices, especially against greed. In Italy, it is mainly the historical epic that flourishes, which, since the middle of the 15th century, that is, since the Renaissance, has been occupied by light poetry. Of the representatives of Latin poetry in England, we will name Bernhard of Morley, an Englishman by birth, but who entered a monk in Cluny (about 1140). He owns two sharp satires against the contemporary clergy, written by dactylic leonins. Next come the famous Johannes of Salisbury (1115-1180; see) with his elegiac verse against classical philosophy against the false philosophers of his age; Nigellus Wireker, a monk of Canterbury (c. 1200), who portrayed in the poem "Brunellus s. Speculum", under the guise of a donkey desiring a longer tail, a monk aspiring to become an abbot; Oxford archdeacon (1197-1210) Walter Map, who poured out his enmity against the Cistercian monks in Latin verse and left the profeasio poetae, a typical example of Goliard literature.

The only epic is the monk Johannes Exeter (circa 1210), usually called Iscanus, after his place of education (Isca in Cornwallis), who wrote the poem "De bello Troiano", where he was guided mainly by Dares. In France, among the spiritual poets, the more famous canon (about 1170) Petrus Pictor, author of the poem on the sacrament ("Carmen de sacramento altaris"), with a lot of errors in grammar and versification, and Petrus de Riga, who wrote the poem "Aurora" from 18 with more than a thousand verses of various meters, where most of the Old and New Testaments are paraphrased. The Parisian professor Alan (1114--1202), originally from Lille (ab Insulis), wrote a very popular poem "Anticlaudianus", in which vices are combined to banish virtue.

Alexander de Villa Dei († in 1240) enjoyed immense fame for his unusually dry grammar ("Doctrinale"). Of the representatives of the epic, the chaplain at the court of Philip-August, William of Breton, who sang the exploits of Philip in the poem "Philippis" is issued; Nicolaus de Braja, author of a poem about the deeds of Louis VIII ("Gesta Ludovici VIII"); Egidius of Paris, who presented Louis VIII with a poem about the life of Charlemagne ("Carolinus"); canon in Tournai, Walter of Chatillon († in 1201), who told in verse, according to Curtius Rufus, the exploits of Alexander the Great ("Alexandreis"; this poem was read in Belgian schools in the 13th century instead of classical writers).

How great was the number of Latin poets in Italy during the Renaissance, just as insignificant they were both in quantity and quality at the end of the Middle Ages (for example, Guidon from Pisa, who described in 73 stanzas - each of 4 half-verses, 8 and 9 each syllables, with rhymes - the victory of his native city over the Saracens in 1088). Somewhat later Gvidon lived Peter with the nickname Magister de Ebulo, who composed a poem about the Sicilian wars under Henry VI and Tancred in 1189-95. A furious anonymous satire by some Guelph, in hexameters, under the title "Epitaphium Juliani Apostatae", where under Julian the Apostate probably refers to Friedrich Barbarossa, belongs to the same time. Latin poetry in Germany is even less represented at the end of the Middle Ages, where one can name only the satirical-moral dialogue, in verse and prose, "Occultus", compiled by a gymnasium teacher in Erfurt, Nicholas of Biberach (about 1290); dialogue "Palpista", a contemporary of Nicholas Bernhard with the nickname Geystensis, written in Leonine dactyls, which depicts the court and family life of that time; "XI Fabulae" (after the model of the French Fabliaux), belonging to a certain Adolf, where the perfidy of the female sex is presented in very unbridled pictures.

I read "Rus and Rome" by V.G. Nosovsky, A.T. Fomenko is a classic example of what the ancients called "argumentum ad ignorantium". I am an educated woman, I have a degree in physics, I can understand what is written, say, about technical methods of dating. But we live in a semi-educated country, and Mr. Fomenko’s books are also read by saleswomen who do not understand physics, do not know foreign languages, etc., and these writings are essentially aimed at denying culture and thereby discourage desire, for example , study history - they say, who needs fiction? - and, unfortunately, I have more than once had to argue on the street with passers-by (who made this conclusion) to the point of hoarseness, proving to them that the historical writings of Mr. Fomenko are often just nonsense, I am ready to enter into a public debate with Mr. Fomenko and refute his writings with any point of view.

To begin with, I'll tell you an anecdote that was told at the university by a professor at the beginning of the 20th century.

Once, scientists decided to find out where the cockroaches have hearing organs. They taught the cockroaches to run to the bell, giving them food. Then they cut off the cockroaches' wings - and they came running. Then they cut off the mustaches of the cockroaches - they came running again. Finally, they cut off the legs of the cockroaches - and they did not come running. Then scientists concluded that the organs of hearing in cockroaches are on their feet.

1) do not really know foreign languages ​​and Latin;

2) do not know Latin poetry and prose.

3) in general, they do not know history well, because they read mainly works translated into Russian, and far from all works were translated into Russian - a number historical facts ignored; moreover, a lot of materials and books are translated incorrectly;

4) do not ask themselves the question of the possibility of alternative explanations;

5) do not understand how the creative process works for writers and poets.

I will briefly outline only general considerations. Mr. Fomenko's favorite example of evidence is the "coincidence method." Like, if two events are similar to each other, then one of them was not.

Well, let me give you an example from personal life. A certain Hera Belenky studied with me in the class - a Jew, of average height, fat, red-haired, who later graduated from the Physicotechnical Institute. Hera at the age of 17 wrote an odious essay about "Eugene Onegin", in which he made 51 mistakes and excelled in vulgarity, quoting Pushkin's words - he saw humor in this. The teacher was outraged by his essay, she let him read around the class. This essay stuck in my memory.

20 years later, MEPhI published the literary almanac "Steps", in which MEPhI poets published their poems. I opened it - and gasped, because in fact I recognized the work of Hera Belenky. It was called "Eugene O" Negin "(answer to fu-tourists) and further:

"My uncle has the most honest rules!

When Nevshutku1 fell ill,

He respect2 himself 3 set

And Lu4 - Chshevydu-mother. I couldn't!

His "Primerdru - hymn" - science"

It is essentially indistinguishable in style. But it was written by another person - Dmitry Guterman, a Jew, of medium height, red-haired, plump, about 20 years old, a physicist.

Belenky and Guterman do not know each other, and they are separated by 20 years of age difference.

1) theme and style of writing

2) the same understanding of the sense of humor - a tendency to buffoonery (Belenky was just a cool jester, Guterman writes buffoon poetry)

3) nationality

4) hair color

7) specialty

8) approximate age.

Those. 8 parameters coincided - is it possible, according to the theory of probability, to conclude that Belenky and Guterman are the same person? If you follow the logic of Mr. Fomenko, then it is clear that yes.

From the fact that events repeat themselves, it does not follow at all that one of them did not exist. Apparently, we must conclude that situations are determined by human characters, and those by genes, and we all descended from the same monkey.

there are 2 hypotheses

1) Belenky and Guterman are one person

2) Belenky and Guterman descended from the same monkey

Why does Mr. Fomenko choose the first hypothesis and not the second?

Mr. Fomenko is engaged in dating individual events, and does not ask himself general questions - where did Latin poetry come from? The only possible answer is a medieval forgery. Horace was obviously forged by some medieval poet. Question: who? Who, say, in Russia, could forge Horace's poems? Pushkin? No, Pushkin would not have had enough talent, because there was no philosophical streak. Lermontov ... if he had stayed to live, he might have been able to - but it is not known. Tyutchev, Fet, Mayakovsky, Balmont - clearly could not.

Poets like Horace can be counted on the fingers of a hand. It was a genius, which, for example, was not in Russia. Not in France and England either. According to Fomenko, this genius lived in the Middle Ages and wished to remain anonymous. I'm being asked to believe the following. The poet dedicated many poems to imaginary women - Lydia, Chloe, Levkonoi, etc., very dissimilar, and did not devote a single one to a living woman. He dedicated poems to fictitious patrons and friends, and not a single one - not a single living patron or friend, he described only fictional events, and did not describe a single event of his time.

Those. this is a very special psychological type, which apparently died out, because history did not know a single poet similar to this type. Can we imagine that Pushkin did not write a single poem to any of his lovers? The poet can still dedicate poems to one fictional heroine, like Blok's "Beautiful Lady". But Horace was from the category of "womanizer poets" - he dedicated poems to very different women. This, sorry, does not happen in nature.

Further, Horace was not alone. There were also Catullus and Ovid, who also cannot be faked. Catullus is somewhat similar to Pushkin. Well, let's say Catullus could forge Pushkin - and no one else. Would Pushkin have agreed to dedicate poems only to a fictitious Lesbia and only to fictitious, never-existing friends, and not to dedicate a single poem to any living friend? Ovid is like no other. In Russia, there was no one to fake it. Further, Catullus, Horace and Ovid are very different from each other, and their ideals are very different, as is their style. But the described events often coincide, although the attitude towards them does not coincide.

So, three geniuses who wished to remain incognito, and who did not devote a single poem to any living person, professing different morals, nevertheless agreed among themselves to tell one fantastic, fictional story in a consistent way and to mention the same fictional people in their poems. What is the probability of this event? Does history know at least one case where three brilliant poets agreed among themselves and acted together?

But there are not three, but many more! Virgil also belongs to the stars of the first magnitude. In addition to them, there were Titus Lucretius Car, Phaedrus (fabulist), Tibull and others, there are twenty names, i.e. there were about as many bright Latin poets as there were Russians. Further, it is suggested that this was an extraordinary, now extinct psychological type, namely, that all these poets refused the temptation to dedicate poems to their ladies and friends, dedicating them only to fictional images. Is it conceivable that all Russian poets (Pushkin, Lermontov, etc.) behave in the same way? But, let's say, in the Middle Ages there was such a fashion - not to write about living ladies of the heart. Another thing is striking: why did these medieval poets write not in their native language, but in someone else's - fictional Latin? Why they chose Latin - the language is incredibly complex, with the most complex grammar - the grammar of any other Indo-European language is simpler. Because of the love of grammatical complexities?

Is it even possible to write poetry in a foreign language? Pushkin and Lermontov wrote poems in other languages ​​- these verses are rhymed, there are no rhythm failures - but they did not create masterpieces of world poetry: they created masterpieces only in their native language. Other poets - emigrants switched to non-native languages ​​- there are separate harmonious lines, but there are no masterpieces at the "upper level of genius". And as for Latin itself, that is, there is also New Latin literature created by speakers of other languages. And what? New Latin literature is represented by brilliant scientific works, philosophical and theological treatises ... but there are no real poems! Well, there are verses. Lomonosov wrote in Latin. Others are annoyed by the way he lavished praises on the Empress in Russian. And yet there is charm in this flattery, because it has color, it is stylistically colored, it conveys the style of the era, and therefore Lomonosov's Russian poems are of value. In Latin, he lavishes praises in the same way as in Russian, the verses are correctly built rhythmically, according to the laws of Latin grammar ... but there is no charm. There is no color of speech, no pronounced style. Personally, I associate Lomonosov's Latin verses with drumming. This is not poetry! Korsch has funny epigrams in Latin, there were some other verses - and the poetry of the "upper level of genius" is represented only by ancient authors.

Let's take Horace's poem as an example.

O saepe mecum tempus in ultimum

Deducte Bruto militiae duce,

Quis te redonavit Quiritem

Dis patriis Italoque caelo…etc.

On the one hand, the verses describe historical events (the Battle of Philippi), on the other hand, a complex range of feelings (a state of anguish). The hero invites the shadow of his comrade-in-arms, whose fate is unknown to him, to a ritual feast. Different feelings are woven into a single web: fatigue from the war, the animal joy of the hero from the fact that he miraculously escaped, anxiety for the fate of his comrade, the bitterness of defeat, and the whole gamut of feelings called "a feast during the plague." Approximately the same feelings were described by Pushkin in "A Feast in the Time of the Plague", and before him by Wilson (The city of the plague), although historically, apparently, both of these authors borrow the theme from this particular poem by Horace - with the only difference that the hero of Horace arranges a feast not during an epidemic, but after a defeat in a battle, during a general flight. Pushkin “spreads” these feelings over several pages of a small tragedy, while Horace concentrates them in a few lines. In addition, Horace's poems are psychologically more complicated: in Pushkin's tragedy, living people feast, while the hero Horace feasts with a ghost. Pushkin does not have poems of such psychological complexity - it would be too tough for him to forge this poem. Which of the Russian poets could weave fabricated events into such a complex psychological context?

Apparently, unlike other genres, real poetry can only be written in the native language. Since many Latin verses are written at the "highest level of genius" of world poetry, it can be concluded that they were written by native speakers.

I personally affirm the following. If we throw out all the technical methods of dating (by carbon, etc.), and leave only fiction in electronic form - on a computer, then it is proof that Ancient Rome existed and was by no means a fantasy in the style of a science fiction novel.

Sorry, I just learned Latin and read Latin fiction in the original.

About Latin. Where did it come from? Clear is an invention of the Middle Ages that no one has ever spoken. How did you come up with the rules of grammar? In our time, the Esperatno language was invented - based on mathematical models. Does it have any literature on it? - no, because the language is dead. He's not comfortable to talk to. It violates the percentages between long and short words. In the presence of computers, scientists could not calculate the language. And beautiful literature remained in Latin.

I read fiction in the following languages:

1) Russian

2) English

3) french

4) German

5) spanish

6) italian

I know many languages ​​well - I can compare them. And as a knowledgeable person, I will say that the richest of the 7 languages ​​listed above is Latin. In second place I would put German. It turned out that modern people- Millions of people have failed to create a language comparable to Latin. Everything modern languages poorer. Mr. Fomenko believes that Latin is an invention of a dozen medieval geniuses - What kind of "supermen" they were! “Why hasn’t a single one like them been born since then?”

I affirm that the Latin grammar written on electronic media is proof of the fact of the existence of Ancient Rome. Such a complex language, conveying such complex nuances of feelings, also speaks of the level of complexity of social relations.

So, let's forget about the excavations in Pompeii, manuscripts and chronicles. Let us analyze only the Latin verses presented on the Internet. Since poetry, unlike other genres, cannot be faked, for writing them can only be brilliant poets, and each of them has its own handwriting (Mayakovsky is not like Yesenin, and Catullus is not like Horace), then the very fact that the poems belong to the category of genius allows us to conclude that they are authentic. And these verses contain historical information.

Take, for example, Catullus' poem about Ignatius' scoff. This is a canonical poem (16 lines), not politicized in any way, from the category of “pictures - psychological types”. A certain Ignatius, in order to boast of snow-white teeth, laughs at everything, with or without reason, not realizing what he is laughing at. (this is the eternal human type - I had to deal with this), in conclusion, Catullus draws a conclusion that has become a catchphrase:

Risu inepto res ineptior nulla est. There is nothing more ridiculous than stupid laughter.

Without analyzing the sources of this poem, the following conclusions can be drawn:

1) This poem is written in an elegant style, a vivid image is created - an eternal human type, and a conclusion is made that has become a catch phrase. Therefore, it belongs to the category of genius.

2) Therefore, it was written by a native speaker, and Latin was the language of a certain country.

3) The poem mentions a funeral pyre. So, in this country it was customary to burn the dead at the stake, therefore, the poem was written in the pre-Christian era, because with the advent of Christianity, the dead began to be buried.

4) The poem mentions a court session, and no special attention is paid to this event. Consequently, in this country, legal proceedings were commonplace.

5) In the poem, the author claims that he himself comes from Traspadania. The word Transpadanus has three vowels "a". "A" is the most open vowel, pronounced with the greatest opening of the mouth. In the line before this, it also occurs frequently. The lines are built on the sharp, barking sound of the resonating vowel "a" - this is the echo of Ignatius's laughter, because in Russian we laugh "ha-ha-ha". If you replace the word Transpadanus with another geographical name without three vowels "a", the effect of sound imitation will disappear. Consequently, this word is sewn with invisible threads into the canvas of the narrative, and this gives us confidence that it is written without distortion.

6) In addition to Transpadania, other provinces are mentioned. So we know that the country where Latin was spoken in the pre-Christian era was large and included several or many provinces.

7) The poem mentions the inhabitants of the city, in which it is customary to observe the rules of good manners, although the city itself is not named. In any case, we know that in one city in this country they attached importance to good manners.

8) The poem is written in an elegant style, and the author gives great importance rules of good manners, showing the delicacy of feelings. Consequently, the cultural level of the author is great. Consequently, in this country there were opportunities for getting a good liberal arts education.

9) The events described in Latin verses, which are not amenable to falsification due to the absence of falsifiers, are more or less consistent with each other and fit into the official chronology. They have nothing to do with the chronology of Academician Fomenko.

Let's summarize. As a result of the analysis of only one “neutral” poem, which simply depicts a psychological type, and does not pretend to anything, we have the following information:

In the pre-Christian era, there was a large country, which included several or many provinces, in which it was customary to burn the dead at the stake, legal proceedings were developed, there were opportunities for obtaining a good humanitarian education, there was a city in which they attached great importance to good manners and, certainly there was a province called Transpadania.

There are many Latin verses, and there are verses specially dedicated to historical events and figures. When analyzing a large number of verses, we get an idea of historical events, their sequence, customs and way of life of the country, and, among other things, about its spirit, for countries also differ in their spirit. For example, the Bible has nothing to do with the spirit of Latin verses, it is a different ideology and a different logic of thinking. Consequently, they are talking about different, very dissimilar nations - it is clear that territorially they arose in different places. Etc.

In general, when you read a lot of poetry, it immediately becomes obvious that HX is funny, just as it is funny to discuss it. It is necessary, apparently, to simply move on to classical education and introduce Latin in schools as the main subject. For the very history of the emergence of NX shows how helpless people who do not know Latin, and how easy it is to lead them by the nose.

And further. Mr. Fomenko will never succeed in inscribing Latin poetry into his theory, because this poetry, in fact, has not been translated into either Russian or English - it can only be read in the original. And the fact that the supporters of NC do not know Latin is evident from their writings.

Poetry is difficult to translate. I did this, and my other translations were published. It plays a role from which language to translate. The easiest way to translate into Russian is from German - German poetic structure is closer to Russian than English or French. And yet there are successful translations from both English and French, but not from Latin. Latin poetry is untranslatable.

The main reasons why this is so.

1) Latin is more concise than Russian, and the translation takes up more space than the original. Latin verses are full of such a verb form as a gerund - which has no analogue in Russian, and therefore it is recommended to translate it subordinate clause. Therefore, a Latin word of 3 syllables requires an extra line to be entered. Another reason is the phenomenon of elision, i.e. "swallowing" syllables in Latin, leading to a reduction in verse, which is not found in Russian verse. There are many other "grammatical" reasons why the Latin phrase is shorter.

This applies not only to Russian, but also to other languages. Considered "independent" Heine's poem "Du liebst mich nicht, Du liebst mich nicht" is an almost literal translation of Catullus's poem, but Catullus has one quatrain, Heine has two: lengthening twice. Since most Soviet translators do not have the talent of Heine, they might have had to translate this poem in 3 quatrains as well.

Russian translators have 2 ways to translate Latin verses:

a) lengthen them 2-3 times and instead of 2 stanzas write 4-6.

At the same time, the charm of Latin verse disappears, for laconism plays a big role in verse.

b) throw away half of the epithets and other words, while emasculating thoughts and distorting the meaning.

Translators more often follow the second path, i.e. they throw out half of the content - often based on "commercial" reasons: readers who do not know Latin are struck by a mismatch in the number of lines (by 2-3 times), and it seems that the translator is bad. And if you save the number of lines, who knows what is written in the original? - the translator is good.

2) The Russian language is poorer than Latin - it does not have language means for conveying the nuances of Latin speech.

Verb tenses are not developed in Russian and, in particular, there is no gamut of shades of the imperative mood - and these shades play a big role in Latin poetry.

With the loss of the complexity of feelings, meaning can be lost. It's like if such a complex novel as "Anna Karenina" is retold in a simplified form like this: "Anna Karenina first slept with Karenin, and then with Vronsky, and when the latter reduced her sexual activity, she threw herself under a train"? Many translations of Latin poems sound about the same as my "simplified" retelling of Tolstoy's novel.

In particular, Catullus sounds terrible in Russian, although this great poet. Catullus also has rude verses - they are translated in vulgar language. But in the original, they do not sound like vulgar abuse, because they have a certain “black humor”, which is their essence, but is completely emasculated from the translation due to the lack of linguistic means. A very distant analogy - what will happen if Vysotsky's songs are translated into French? His songs will be perceived as revelations of swindlers and thieves and cause bewilderment, how can intelligent people in Russia listen to him? We perceive his songs not as revelations of thieves ...

In fact, in Russian there are only free translations of Latin verses in which the main image is captured, and all the details are changed. The best of them, apparently, is a free translation of Horace's poem, which has the status of an "independent" poem by Pushkin: "I erected a monument to myself not made by hands ...". Pushkin's poem is beautiful, although the Latin original sounds better. Pushkin grabbed the main idea, but threw out all the details from Horace's life and inserted details about himself. At the same time, Horace erected a monument to himself, which ascended above the "royal pyramids", while Pushkin's monument ascended above the "Alexandrian pillar". "Pillar of Alexandria" can be thought of as a "measurement of the accuracy" of the translation of Latin verses, which are rarely translated more accurately.

Latin poetry has not been translated into English for other reasons - unfortunately, for all its merits, the English language is still not created for poetry.

I repeat - the verses contain a lot of information. The Latin verses are actually:

a) are proof that they were written by native speakers and thus that language was the language of the country;

When reading poems, a general picture of the life of the country is formed, which is in no way compatible with NH.

Apparently, a solid knowledge of Latin is the minimum condition under which one can build new chronologies.

The phenomenon of NX is explained by the ignorance of Latin by our population. In the 19th century, no one would have taken such a theory seriously, since Latin was studied at the gymnasium.