4.2.1. New phenomena in the economy

The main feature of the economic development of Russia in the XVII century. - the beginning of the formation of prerequisites for the formation of capitalist relations, and they arose primarily in the field of crafts and trades, while feudal-serf relations continued to strengthen in the agricultural sector. First half of the 17th century passed under the sign of economic recovery after the Time of Troubles, in the second half new trends began to appear more and more clearly.

1. New phenomena in the field of trade, crafts, crafts and industry:

Significant rise in domestic and foreign trade;

The beginning of the formation of a single economic space in Russia (an all-Russian market, a vivid manifestation of which was the emergence of fairs - Makarievskaya, Svenskaya, Irbitskaya, etc.) and the economic specialization of regions within the country;

The beginning of the protectionist policy of the state (to encourage domestic producers);

The emergence of manufactories 1 in the 17th century, which in Russia had a number of features:

They did not arise naturally, but were artificially created by the state for military needs (therefore, the first manufactories arose in metallurgy);

The role of foreign specialists was great in their creation;

They used mainly not hired, but serf labor;

In the 17th century handicrafts and crafts are transformed from production to order into production for the market, that is, into small-scale or commodity production (in domestic industry, which spread in the 17th century, small-scale production, and in handicrafts and manufactories, commodity production);

The growth of cities (not only fortresses, but also economic centers).

1. The development of the agricultural sector of the economy was slower and was characterized by:

The settlement of the annexed territories (the Volga region, the Urals, Siberia, the Wild Field in the south) and the introduction of new lands into circulation (the beginning of the economic development of the southern and southeastern black earth regions was important, this became possible after the construction of the "notch line" in the south in the 16th-17th centuries .), which indicates the extensiveness of the development of agriculture;

• maintaining the predominance of subsistence farming;
• the growth of noble landownership due to grants, and in the 17th century. the rapprochement of the estate and the patrimony begins (they will finally merge into one form of land ownership under Peter I);
• a significant increase in feudal rent, which was carried by privately owned peasants in favor of their owners: corvée (the work of a peasant on the owner's field 2-5 days a week) and dues in kind and in cash. With the development of market relations, cash rent plays an increasingly important role.

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1. The main feature of the economic development of Russia in the XVII century. - the beginning of the formation of prerequisites for the formation of capitalist relations, and they arose primarily in the field of crafts and crafts, while feudal-serf relations continued to strengthen in the agricultural sector. First half of the 17th century passed under the sign of economic recovery after the Time of Troubles, in the second half new trends began to appear more and more clearly. New developments in the sphere of trade, crafts, handicrafts and industry: a significant rise in domestic and foreign trade; the beginning of the formation of a single economic space in Russia (the all-Russian market, a vivid manifestation of which was the emergence of fairs - Makarievskaya, Svenskaya, Irbitskaya, etc.) and the economic specialization of regions within the country; the beginning of the protectionist policy of the state (to encourage domestic producers); the emergence of manufactories1 in the 17th century, which in Russia had a number of features: they did not arise naturally, but were artificially created by the state for military needs (therefore, the first manufactories arose in metallurgy); the role of foreign specialists was great in their creation; they used mainly not hired, but serf labor; in the 17th century handicrafts and crafts are transformed from production to order into production for the market, that is, into small-scale or commodity production (in domestic industry, which spread in the 17th century, small-scale production, and in handicrafts and manufactories, commodity production); the growth of cities (not only fortresses, but also economic centers). The development of the agrarian sector of the economy was slower and was characterized by: the settlement of the annexed territories (the Volga region, the Urals, Siberia, the Wild Field in the south) and the introduction of new lands into circulation (the beginning of the economic development of the southern and southeastern black earth regions was important, this became possible after the construction " notch lines" in the south in the 16th-17th centuries), which indicates the extensiveness of the development of agriculture; maintaining the predominance of subsistence farming; the growth of noble landownership due to grants, and in the 17th century. the rapprochement of the estate and the patrimony begins (they will finally merge into one form of land ownership under Peter I); a significant increase in feudal rent, which was carried by privately owned peasants in favor of their owners: corvée (the work of a peasant on the owner's field 2-5 days a week) and dues in kind and in cash. With the development of market relations, cash rent plays an increasingly important role.

Decembrist uprising of 1825. Their goals and objectives. "Russian Truth" by Pestel and "Constitution" by N. Muravyov
The Decembrist uprising is the last unsuccessful attempt in the history of Russia of a guards palace coup in the style of the 18th century. It took place in St. Petersburg, the capital of the Russian Empire, on December 14 (26), 1825. It differed from previous attempts to seize power by a large number of participants - about 3 thousand soldiers came to the square in front of the Senate. As a result of the rebellion, 1,271 people died, which is an absolute record among domestic coups in terms of the number of victims.
Secret Societies: Secret revolutionary societies grew out of Masonic lodges (secret world organizations, associations of an elitist and reactionary type). The first secret revolutionary society called the "Union of Salvation" was created in 1816 in St. Petersburg. The composition of secret societies was constantly changing. Thus, there was a permanent rotation.
Purpose: to raise an armed uprising among the troops, overthrow the autocracy, abolish serfdom and popularly adopt a new state law - a revolutionary constitution. If we proceed from the actual behavior and demands of the rebels, then their goal was to replace the monarchy with an oligarchy - limiting the power of the emperor in favor of the upper stratum of the elite.

Plan: The Decembrists decided to prevent the troops and the Senate from taking the oath to the new Tsar (the right to the throne after the death of Alexander 1). Then they wanted to enter the Senate and demand the publication of a nationwide manifesto, which would announce the abolition of serfdom and the 25-year term of military service, the granting of freedom of speech and assembly. Tsarist cannons fired at the crowd. Part of the rebels retreated to the Neva ice. The ranks were showered with buckshot, cannonballs broke the ice, the soldiers drowned in the water.
End of the uprising: By nightfall, the uprising was over. Hundreds of corpses remained on the square and streets. Most of the victims were crushed by the crowd. The arrested were taken to the Winter Palace.
Results: 579 people were involved in the investigation and trial in the case of the Decembrists, divided into categories according to the severity of guilt. Five - P.I. Pestel, S.I. Muraviev-Apostol, M.P. Bestuzhev, K.F. Ryleev and P.G. Kakhovsky were hanged on June 13, 1826 by a court verdict; 121 participants in the uprising were exiled to hard labor and settling in Siberia. The main fault of the rebels was the murder of high-ranking civil servants, such as the Governor-General Miloradovich, as well as the organization of riots, which led to numerous victims. Exiled to hard labor and exile, the Decembrists did not change their convictions. And upon returning from exile after the amnesty, many Decembrists appeared in the press with their memoirs, published scholarly works, and participated in the preparation and implementation of peasant and other reforms.

N. Muraviev's "Constitution" expressed the liberal nature of the transformation. It abolished serfdom, proclaimed civil liberties, introduced the separation of powers, but retained a constitutional monarchy. The peasants were freed from serfdom, but the land remained the property of the landowners. A property qualification was established for occupying higher positions. Russia was to become a federal state, which included 14 powers and 2 regions.
The main reasons for the defeat of the uprising were the inconsistency of actions and unpreparedness, the lack of active support in different sectors of society, the unpreparedness of society for radical transformations. However, this performance was the first open protest in Russia, which set as its task a radical reorganization of society.

TICKET 15. Church schism of the 17th century, its social and cultural consequences
The church schism became one of the main events for Russia in the 17th century. This process seriously influenced the subsequent formation of the worldview of the Russian people. As the main reason for the church schism, scientists name the political situation that took shape in the 17th century. And church disagreements are attributed to a number of secondary causes.
Tsar Michael, the founder of the Romanov dynasty, and his son Alexei were engaged in the restoration of the country's economy, which was devastated during the Time of Troubles. State power was strengthened, the first manufactories appeared, and foreign trade was restored. In the same period, the legislative registration of serfdom took place.
Despite the fact that at the beginning the Romanovs pursued a rather cautious policy, already the plans of Alexei, nicknamed the Quietest, included the unification of the Orthodox peoples living in the Balkans and the territory of Eastern Europe. This is what led the patriarch and the tsar to a rather difficult ideological problem. According to tradition in Russia, they were baptized with two fingers. And the vast majority of Orthodox peoples, according to Greek innovations, three. There were only two possible options: to obey the canon, or to impose their own traditions on others. Alexei and Patriarch Nikon began to act according to the second option. A single ideology was necessary due to the ongoing centralization of power and the concept of the "Third Rome" at that time. All this became a prerequisite for the reform, which split Russian society for a very long time. A large number of discrepancies in church books, different interpretations of rituals - all this needed to be brought to uniformity. It is worth noting that the need to correct church books was discussed along with church and secular authorities.
The name of Patriarch Nikon and the church schism are closely connected. Nikon possessed not only intelligence, but also a love of luxury and power. He became the head of the church only after the personal request of the Russian Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich. The church reform of 1652 marked the beginning of a split in the church. All proposed changes were approved at the church council of 1654 (for example, tripartite). However, a too abrupt transition to new customs led to the emergence of a considerable number of opponents of innovations. Opposition also formed at court. The patriarch, who overestimated his influence on the tsar, fell into disgrace in 1658. Nikon's departure was demonstrative.
Having retained his wealth and honors, Nikon nevertheless was deprived of any power. In 1666, at the Council, with the participation of the patriarchs of Antioch and Alexandria, the hood was removed from Nikon. After that, the former patriarch was exiled to White Lake, to the Ferapontov Monastery. I must say that there Nikon led a far from poor life. The deposition of Nikon was an important stage in the church schism of the 17th century.
The same council of 1666 once again approved all the changes introduced, declaring them to be the work of the church. All those who did not obey were declared heretics. During the church schism in Russia, another significant event took place - the Solovetsky uprising of 1667-76. All the rebels were eventually either exiled or executed. In conclusion, it should be noted that after Nikon, not a single patriarch laid claim to supreme power in the country.
TICKET 15Cathedral Code of Alexei Mikhailovich 1649
The Cathedral Code of 1649 is a set of laws of Muscovite Rus' that regulates the most diverse spheres of life.
Reasons for the creation of the Cathedral Code
The last code of law, adopted before the creation of the Cathedral Code, belonged to 1550 (Sudebnik of Ivan the Terrible). Since then, almost a century has passed, the feudal system of the state has changed somewhat, numerous new decrees and regulations have been created, which often not only made previous decrees obsolete, but also contradicted them. The situation was also complicated by the fact that numerous regulatory documents were widely scattered across departments, why in the legislative system of the state there was complete chaos. Situations were common when only those who adopted it knew about the new act, and the rest of the country lived according to outdated norms. In order to finally streamline lawmaking and the judicial system, it was necessary to create a completely new document that would meet the requirements of the time. In 1648, the Salt Riot broke out, the rebels, among other things, demanded the creation of a new regulatory document. The situation became critical and it was no longer possible to postpone. In 1648, the Zemsky Sobor was convened, which until 1649 was engaged in the creation of the Cathedral Code.
Creation of the Cathedral Code
The creation of a new document was carried out by a special commission headed by N.I. Odoevsky. The creation of a new lawsuit took place in several stages:

• Work with numerous sources of laws and acts;
• Meeting on the content of legislative acts;
• Editing by the tsar and the Duma of the submitted drafts of new bills;
• Joint discussion of certain provisions of the code;
• Signing by all members of the commission of a new version of the bills.

Such a careful approach to the creation of the document was due to the fact that the members of the commission wanted to create a carefully systematized and as complete and accessible code book as possible, correcting all the shortcomings in the previous documents.
Sources of the Cathedral Code
The main sources were:

• Sudebnik of 1497;
• Sudebnik of 1550;
• Decree books, where all issued bills and acts were recorded;
• Petitions to the king;
• Byzantine law;
• The Lithuanian statute of 1588 was used as a sample of the code of law.

It was in the Council Code of 1649 that there was a tendency to separate the norms of law by industry, corresponding to modern legislation.
Branches of law in the Cathedral Code
The new code determined the status of the state and the king himself, contained a set of norms regulating the activities of all government bodies, established the procedure for entering and leaving the country.
In criminal law, a new system of classification of crimes has appeared. There are types such as:

• crime against the church;
• crime against the state;
• a crime against the order of government (unauthorized departure from the country);
• crimes against decency (maintenance of brothels);
• malfeasance:
• crimes against the person;
• property crimes;

crimes against morality.
There are also new types of punishments. Now the offender could count on the death penalty, exile, imprisonment, confiscation of property, a fine or dishonorable punishment.
Civil law also expanded significantly due to the growth of commodity-money relations. The concept of an individual and a team appeared, the legal capacity of women in matters of transactions increased, the oral form of the contract was now replaced by a written one, laying the foundation for modern purchase and sale transactions.
Family law has not changed much - the principles of "Domostroy" were still in effect - the primacy of the husband over his wife and children.
Also, the order of legal proceedings, criminal and civil, was outlined in the Council Code - new types of evidence appeared (documents, kissing the cross, etc.), new procedural and search measures were identified, aimed at proving guilt or innocence. An important difference from previous lawsuits was that that, if necessary, the Cathedral Code of 1649 was supplemented and rewritten when new acts appeared.

Lecture: New phenomena in the economy: the beginning of the formation of the all-Russian market, the formation of manufactories. Legal registration of serfdom

New trends in the economy

Most of the negative consequences that the Russian State faced after the Time of Troubles was overcome only by the middle of the 17th century. The basis for overcoming the crisis was the development of new lands, namely: Siberia, the Urals and the Wild Field. The borders expanded, the population increased to 10.5 million people.

A merchant's family in the 17th century, A.P. Ryabushkin, 1896

The tsarist government, trying to overcome the crisis, granted privileges to the merchants: low taxation, the introduction of duties for foreign merchants. Nobles, boyars and the church became more actively involved in market relations, developing a common market.

A new trend in the economy of that time was a smooth transition from handicrafts to small-scale production, focused on needs. Mining began to develop actively. Product-oriented centers appeared: metallurgy - the Tula-Serpukhov-Moscow and Ustyuzhno-Zheleznopolsky regions, woodworking - Moscow, Tver, Kaluga, jewelry production - Veliky Ustyug, Tikhvin, Nizhny Novgorod and Moscow.

The specialization of various territories in the production of a particular product led to the activation of the common market. Fairs appeared, where specialized goods from one area were supplied to another. Arkhangelsk and Astrakhan are also of particular importance as centers for conducting foreign economic relations. Although the agricultural segment remained the leading one in the Russian State, handicrafts are gradually turning into manufactories.

Manufactory- an enterprise using the manual labor of workers and the division of labor.

In the 17th century, there were about thirty different manufactories in Russia, and private manufactories appeared. The market is growing even faster.

In 1650-1660, a monetary reform was carried out. To increase national wealth, Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich introduces "protectionism", the protection of domestic producers against foreign ones, with the application of duties for foreign merchants. Legislative support for domestic producers also begins - the New Trade Charter of 1667 (author A.L. Ordin-Nashchokin) is created, which increases the duty on foreign goods.

Legal registration of serfdom

In social terms, many changes also took place: the boyars lost their power and influence on the state, merchants came to the fore in terms of status among the urban population, the clergy did not change their positions and played a big role in the life of the state. Peasants were the largest group among the population.

Yuriev day. Painting by S. Ivanov

The policy of enslavement of the peasants continues actively. This process was lengthy. Let us recall how, after the ban on the transfer of peasants from one landowner to another on St. George's Day in 1581, scribe books are compiled to control the number of peasants in the land. A law is issued on the investigation and return of fugitive peasants - a decree on lesson years. In 1597, a law came into force that deprived the right to release bonded serfs, even after paying all debts. Also, free (voluntary) serfs who worked for more than six months with the owner also became complete serfs. They could get freedom only in the event of the death of the feudal lord. The boyar tsar V. Shuisky in 1607 established a search for fugitive peasants for a period of 15 years, it was also forbidden to prevent the capture or hide the fugitives.

And in 1649, the Cathedral Code was the last act of enslavement of the peasants. Peasants were forbidden for life to move from one owner to another. The terms of the investigation were canceled, that is, the investigation of fugitive peasants became indefinite. Chernososhnye (paying taxes to the state) and palace (working for the palace) peasants also no longer had the right to leave their communities. The Cathedral Code of 1649 became a legal document that legalized serfdom. In the future, this will lead to a series of uprisings due to the split of society.

• the transition of the peasants, which prevented the collection of taxes;
• the desire of the peasants to flee to the outskirts, while the state needed taxpayers;
• the need for a free labor force necessary to restore the devastation of the Time of Troubles and the economic development of the country based on the activities of manufactories;
• strengthening the autocratic power of the monarch;
• the desire of the nobility for personal enrichment;
• preventing uprisings like the Salt Riot of 1648 in Moscow.

In the socio-economic area of ​​Russia in the 17th century:

• - the economic specialization of the regions is deepening (the Black Earth and Volga regions - grain production, Novgorod, Pskov, Smolensk lands - flax, Yaroslavl, Nizhny Novgorod, Kazan regions - animal husbandry, etc.);
• - Stable economic ties are gradually formed in individual regions, which, in turn, form a stable system of commodity-money relations covering the entire country. It was this system that received the name of the all-Russian market;
• - Fair trade is developing, fairs of all-Russian significance are emerging - Makaryevskaya (near Nizhny Novgorod), Irbitskaya (in the Urals), Svenskaya (near Bryansk), Arkhangelskaya, centers specialized in the trade of certain goods become famous (grain - Vologda , Veliky Ustyug, leather - Kazan, Vologda, Yaroslavl, flax - Novgorod, Pskov, etc.);
• - the first manufactories appear (no more than 30 by the end of the 17th century) - relatively large enterprises where there is a division of labor, although labor remains manual. The largest manufactories are focused on military needs and the needs of the court - the Khamovny yard and the Cannon yard in Moscow, the rope factory in Arkhangelsk, the ironworks in Tula, etc.;
• -- the state is taking measures to protect Russian production from foreign competitors (the New Trade Charter of 1667 forbade overseas merchants to conduct retail trade in Russia). The significance of new phenomena in the socio-economic field is assessed in different ways. Some historians associate with them the beginning of the formation of the capitalist economy in Russia. Most researchers, however, are convinced that the economic shifts did not disturb the main trend. It consisted in the final approval of the serf system in the country: the Council Code of 1649 forbade the transfer of peasants, introduced an indefinite search for fugitives. Serfdom, "a cry of despair emitted by the state", received legal registration on an all-Russian scale. In the manufactories, not freelance labor was used, but the labor of serfs assigned to enterprises. The new was bizarrely combined with the old, and the predominance of the old was almost unconditional. This circumstance is an important feature of the beginning in the XVII century. Russia's transition to the new time.

In the 17th century, the territories of Russia expanded due to the new lands of Siberia, the Southern Urals, and the further development of the Wild Field. By the end of the 17th century. in Russia there were 10.5 million people. By the end of the 30s of the 17th century. the recovery period is over. Agriculture remained the main branch of the economy. However, nobles and monasteries were actively involved in trade. They produced handicrafts, wine, tar, bread, and fish for sale. Moscow was a large shopping center, where there were 120 specialized shopping arcades. Fairs played an important role in the economic life of the country: Makarievskaya, Irbitskaya, Svenskaya. The government encouraged and supported the merchants. The trade regulation of 1667 forbade foreign merchants to conduct wholesale trade and established high duties on foreign goods.

In the 17th century increased specialization of the regions. The centers of metallurgy were - Tula, Serpukhov; jewelry - Moscow, Novgorod; textile production - Yaroslavl, Pskov. This contributed to the creation of an all-Russian market. Manufactories appear in industry. In 1631, the first part of the manufactory was formed in the Urals - the Nitsinsk copper smooth factory. In the 20-30s. as a result of the research activities of Pskov, Denenyov, Khabarov, the lands along the Amur River became part of Russia, fortress cities were built: Irkutsk, Yakutsk, Krasnoyarsk, Bryansk, Yeniseisk. January 8, 1654 in Pereslavl, the Ukrainian Rada decided to voluntarily join Russia.

Pearl Mosque in Agra. 1648 - 1655

The most characteristic phenomenon in the Indian economy of that time was some development of the social division of labor.

It was expressed in strengthening the role of the city as a trade and craft center, in the emergence of new cities that had trade relations both within the country and with foreign countries.

Such, for example, is the history of the rise of the city of Masulipatam.

In the middle of the XVI century. it was a poor fishing village, and after 100 years it turned into a major seaport and an important center for the production of cotton fabrics.

The development of the city of Kolar was due to the diamond mines located near it. An English traveler noted: “This place is so infertile that before the discovery of the mines it was sparsely inhabited. Now 100,000 people live in the city. These are mine workers, merchants and all those who live near such a crowd of people.

Urban handicrafts continued to go mainly to meet the demand of the feudal elites and for export. But these products also began to find sales in the countryside.

In the more economically developed parts of India, such as Bengal, a significant part of the peasantry began to buy ready-made fabrics, and thus the craftsman, who previously worked for a customer or for a narrow local market, gradually began to turn into a small commodity producer, selling his products to a wider and more distant market through a merchant or a buyer.

As a result, masses of artisans, primarily weavers, became dependent on merchants, who usually enslaved them with cash advances and paid artisans at prices significantly below market prices. This system, which actually cut off the artisan from the market, arose in India even before the penetration of Europeans, but was subsequently widely used by them.

In the period under review, simple and complex cooperation also began to spread in India. The division of labor becomes more complicated, especially in mining, sugar refining, shipbuilding, fabric dyeing, etc.

New phenomena in the economy of Indian society could not but be reflected in such an arch-conservative institution as caste.

The emergence of new professions, on the one hand, led to the emergence of new castes, but, on the other hand, and to a much greater extent, contributed to the fact that the caste began to lose its hereditary professional exclusivity.

There were frequent cases when members of one or another craft caste abandoned their traditional occupations and switched to new types of production activities. The development of trade led to the fact that a number of commercial and usurious castes (Marwari in Rajputana, Khatriyas in Punjab) increasingly spread their activities, gaining all-Indian significance.

So, the activities of the Marvari in the 17th century. covered, in addition to Raj-putana, also Gujarat and Maharashtra, also areas along the middle and lower reaches of the Ganges up to Bengal. As for the Khatriyas, their operations extended throughout Northwest India and even beyond.

The growth of productive forces led to the development of commodity production. The process of formation of regional markets intensified in the country, both on the basis of the growing separation of handicrafts from agriculture, and as a result of the specialization of agriculture itself.

In the 17th century transportation of some bulky goods (salt, grain, cotton) was carried out by special castes. Their huge convoys, often numbering 15-20 thousand laden wagons harnessed by oxen, slowly crossed the country from end to end. But the main arteries of internal trade were the largest navigable rivers - the Ganges to the Indus.

Many areas in the XVII century. could no longer fully provide themselves with local food and were forced to partially bring it from other provinces.

Bengal exported its rice and cane sugar up the Ganges to Hindustan and south by sea to the Coromandel coast.

Gujarat and Agra produced indigo. Bihar wheat was supplied along the Ganges to the metropolitan area of ​​Agra-Delhi and Bengal; grain entered the markets of Gujarat from the Deccan and Malwa; Peshawar rice was sold in the markets of Delhi and Agra. It is also known that Orissa rice was transported by sea to Madras.

The development of commodity production in Indian agriculture was reflected in the translation from the end of the 16th century. food rent-tax in cash, while the rate of tax on industrial crops was one and a half to two times higher than on grain. So, if we take the taxation of wheat as 100, then they took 150 from cotton, and 254 from indigo.

There was no common market in India yet. Some coastal areas were more connected with the external market than with the interior.