The collapse of the Austro-Hungarian Empire and the formation of new states in Europe. Europe after World War I Formation of new states in Europe table

The events of the World War turned out to be a severe test for the peoples. At its final stage, it became obvious that some of the belligerent states could not stand the difficulties that had befallen them. First of all, these were multinational empires: Russian, Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman. The burden of war they carried exacerbated social and national contradictions. A long-term exhausting war with external opponents developed into a struggle of peoples against their own rulers. We know how it happened in Russia.

Formation of new states

How did Austria-Hungary collapse?

Dates and events

October 16, 1918. - The head of the Hungarian government announced the termination of the union with Austria by Hungary.
28 of October- The National Czechoslovak Committee (established in July 1918) decided to form an independent Czechoslovak state.
29th of October- the National Council was created in Vienna and the independence of German Austria was proclaimed; on the same day, the National Council in Zagreb proclaimed the state independence of the southern Slavs of Austria-Hungary.
October 30- in Krakow, a Liquidation Commission was created, which took over the management of the Polish lands that were previously part of Austria-Hungary, and proclaimed that these lands belong to the resurgent Polish state; on the same day, the National Council of Bosnia and Herzegovina (which were captured by Austria-Hungary in 1908) announced the annexation of both lands to Serbia.

At the final stage of the World War, the Ottoman Empire also collapsed, from which the territories inhabited by non-Turkish peoples separated.

As a result of the fall of multinational empires, a number of new states appeared in Europe. First of all, these were the countries that restored the once lost independence - Poland, Lithuania and others. The revival took a lot of effort. At times, this was especially difficult to do. Thus, the “gathering” of Polish lands, previously divided between Austria-Hungary, Germany and Russia, began during the war, in 1917, and only in November 1918 did power pass into the hands of a single provisional government of the Polish Republic. Some of the new states first appeared on the map of Europe in such composition and borders, for example, the Republic of Czechoslovakia, which united two kindred Slavic peoples - Czechs and Slovaks (proclaimed on October 28, 1918). The new multinational state was the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, Slovenes (proclaimed on December 1, 1918), later called Yugoslavia.

The formation of a sovereign state was a turning point in the life of each of the peoples. However, it did not solve all problems. The legacy of the war was economic devastation and exacerbated social contradictions. Revolutionary unrest did not subside even after gaining independence.

Paris Peace Conference

On January 18, 1919, a peace conference opened at the Palace of Versailles near Paris. Politicians and diplomats from 32 states had to determine the results of the war, paid for with the blood and sweat of millions of people who fought at the fronts and worked in the rear. Soviet Russia did not receive an invitation to the conference.

The main role at the conference belonged to the representatives of the United States, Great Britain, France, Italy and Japan, but in fact the main proposals were made by three politicians - US President W. Wilson, British Prime Minister D. Lloyd George and the head of the French government J. Clemenceau. They represented the conditions of the world in different ways. Wilson, back in January 1918, proposed a program for a peaceful settlement and the post-war organization of international life - the so-called "14 points" (on its basis an armistice was concluded with Germany in November 1918).

The "14 points" provided for the following: the establishment of a just peace and the rejection of secret diplomacy; freedom of navigation; equality in economic relations between states; arms limitation; the settlement of colonial questions, taking into account the interests of all peoples; the liberation of the occupied territories and the principles for determining the borders of a number of European states; the formation of an independent Polish state, including "all the lands inhabited by Poles" and having access to the sea; creation of an international organization guaranteeing the sovereignty and integrity of all countries.

The program reflected both the aspirations of American diplomacy and the personal views of W. Wilson. Before being elected president, he was a university professor for many years, and if before he sought to accustom students to the truth and ideals of justice, now they are entire nations. The desire of the author to oppose the "positive democratic program" to the ideas of the Bolsheviks and the foreign policy of Soviet Russia also played an important role in putting forward the "14 Points". In a confidential conversation at that time, he admitted: "The ghost of Bolshevism lurks everywhere ... All over the world there is a serious concern."

A different position was taken by the French Prime Minister J. Clemenceau. His goals had a practical orientation - to achieve compensation for all losses of France in the war, maximum territorial and monetary compensation, as well as the economic and military weakening of Germany. Clemenceau adhered to the motto "Germany will pay for everything!". For his intransigence and fierce defense of his point of view, the participants of the conference called him the nickname "tiger" that had been assigned to him.

The experienced and flexible politician D. Lloyd George strove to balance the positions of the parties, to avoid extreme decisions. He wrote: “... it seems to me that we should try to draw up a peace treaty as objective arbitrators (judges), forgetting about the passion of war. This treaty should have three goals in mind. First of all - to ensure justice in taking into account the responsibility of Germany for the outbreak of war and for the ways in which it was waged. Secondly, it must be a treaty which the responsible German government can sign with confidence that it is able to fulfill the obligations prescribed to it. Thirdly, it must be a treaty that will not contain any provocations of a subsequent war and will create an alternative to Bolshevism by offering all reasonable people a real settlement of the European problem ... "

The discussion of peace terms lasted almost half a year. Behind the scenes of the official work of the commissions and committees, the main decisions were made by the members of the "Big Three" - Wilson, Clemenceau and Lloyd George. They conducted closed consultations and agreements, "forgetting" about "open diplomacy" and other principles proclaimed by W. Wilson. An important event in the course of protracted discussions was the adoption of a decision on the creation of an international organization contributing to the maintenance of peace - the League of Nations.

On June 28, 1919, a peace treaty between the Allied Powers and Germany was signed in the Hall of Mirrors at the Grand Palace of Versailles. Under the terms of the agreement, Germany transferred Alsace and Lorraine to France, the Eupen district, Malmedy to Belgium, the Poznan region and parts of Pomerania and Upper Silesia to Poland, the northern part of Schleswig to Denmark (following a plebiscite). The left bank of the Rhine was occupied by the troops of the Entente, and a demilitarized zone was established on the right bank. The Saar region was under the control of the League of Nations for 15 years. Danzig (Gdansk) was declared a "free city", Memel (Klaipeda) moved away from Germany (later included in Lithuania). In total, 1/8 of the territory, where 1/10 of the country's population lived, was torn away from Germany. In addition, Germany was deprived of colonial possessions, its rights in the Shandong province in China were transferred to Japan. Restrictions were introduced on the number (no more than 100 thousand people) and weapons of the German army. Germany also had to pay reparations - payment to individual countries for the damage caused as a result of the German attack.

Versailles-Washington system

The Treaty of Versailles was not limited to resolving the German question. It contained provisions on the League of Nations - an organization created to resolve international disputes and conflicts (the Charter of the League of Nations was also cited here).

Later, peace treaties were signed with the former allies of Germany - Austria (September 10, 1919), Bulgaria (November 27, 1919), Hungary (June 4, 1920), Turkey (August 10, 1920). They determined the borders of these countries, established after the collapse of Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire and the rejection of part of the territories from them in favor of the victorious powers. For Austria, Bulgaria, Hungary, restrictions on the number of armed forces were introduced, and reparations were paid to the winners. The terms of the treaty with Turkey were particularly harsh. She lost all her possessions in Europe, on the Arabian Peninsula, in North Africa. The armed forces of Turkey were reduced, it was forbidden to keep the fleet. The zone of the Black Sea straits came under the control of an international commission. This treaty, humiliating for the country, was replaced in 1923, after the victory of the Turkish revolution.

The League of Nations, established in accordance with the Treaty of Versailles, took part in the redistribution of colonial possessions. The so-called mandate system was introduced, according to which the colonies taken from Germany and its allies under the mandate of the League of Nations were transferred under the tutelage of "advanced" countries, primarily Great Britain and France, which managed to occupy a dominant position in the League of Nations. At the same time, the United States of America, whose president put forward the idea and actively contributed to the creation of the League of Nations, did not join this organization and did not ratify the Treaty of Versailles. This testified that the new system, eliminating some contradictions in international relations, gave rise to new ones.

The post-war settlement could not be limited to Europe and the Middle East. Significant problems also existed in the Far East, Southeast Asia and the Pacific. There clashed the interests of the British, the French, who had previously penetrated into this region, and the new contenders for influence - the United States and Japan, whose rivalry turned out to be especially sharp. A conference was convened in Washington (November 1921 - February 1922) to resolve the problems. It was attended by representatives of the United States, Great Britain, Japan, France, Italy, Belgium, Holland, Portugal and China. Soviet Russia, whose borders were in this region, did not receive an invitation to the conference this time either.

Several treaties were signed at the Washington Conference. They secured the rights of the United States, Great Britain, France and Japan to their territories in this region (for Japan, this meant the recognition of its rights to the captured possessions of Germany), and established the ratio of the naval forces of individual countries. Particular attention was paid to the issue of China. On the one hand, the principle of respect for the sovereignty and territorial integrity of China was proclaimed, and on the other, the position of "equal opportunities" for the great powers in this country. Thus, a monopoly seizure of China by one of the powers was prevented (a similar threat existed from Japan), but hands were untied for the joint exploitation of the wealth of this vast country.

The alignment of forces and mechanisms of international relations in Europe and the world that had developed by the early 1920s were called the Versailles-Washington system.

Old and new in international relations

Since 1920, the Soviet state began to improve relations with neighboring countries by signing peace treaties with Estonia, Lithuania, Latvia, and Finland. In 1921, treaties of friendship and cooperation were concluded with Iran, Afghanistan, and Turkey. They were based on the recognition of the independence of these states, the equality of partners, and in this they differed from the semi-enslaving agreements imposed on the countries of the East by the Western powers.

At the same time, following the signing of the Anglo-Soviet trade agreement (March 1921), the question arose of resuming Russia's economic ties with the leading European countries. In 1922, representatives of Soviet Russia were invited to an international economic conference in Genoa (it opened on April 10). The Soviet delegation was headed by People's Commissar for Foreign Affairs GV Chicherin. Western powers expected to gain access to Russian natural resources and the market, as well as to find ways of economic and political influence on Russia. The Soviet state was interested in establishing economic ties with the outside world and diplomatic recognition.

The means of pressure on Russia from the West was the demand for the payment of its external debts of tsarist Russia and the Provisional Government and compensation for the property of foreign citizens nationalized by the Bolsheviks. The Soviet country was ready to recognize the pre-war debts of Russia and the right of the former foreign owners to receive in concession the property that previously belonged to them, subject to the legal recognition of the Soviet state and the provision of financial benefits and loans to it. Russia proposed to annul (declare invalid) military debts. At the same time, the Soviet delegation submitted a proposal for a general reduction in armaments. The Western powers did not agree to these proposals. They insisted that Russia pay off all debts, including military debts (totaling about 19 billion gold rubles), return all nationalized property to its former owners, and abolish the monopoly of foreign trade in the country. The Soviet delegation considered these demands unacceptable and, for its part, proposed that the Western powers compensate for the losses inflicted on Russia by the intervention and blockade (39 billion gold rubles). The negotiations stalled.

It was not possible to reach a general agreement at the conference. But Soviet diplomats managed to negotiate with representatives of the German delegation in Rapallo (a suburb of Genoa). On April 16, a Soviet-German treaty was concluded on the resumption of diplomatic relations. Both countries renounced claims for compensation for losses caused to each other during the war years. Germany recognized the nationalization of German property in Russia, and Russia refused to receive reparations from Germany. The treaty came as a surprise to international diplomatic and political circles, both because of the very fact of its signing and in terms of its content. Contemporaries noted that he gave the impression of an exploding bomb. It was a success for the diplomats of the two countries and an example for others. It became more and more obvious that the problem of relations with Soviet Russia had become one of the main problems of international politics of that time.

References:
Aleksashkina L. N. / General History. XX - the beginning of the XXI century.

The countries of Western Europe have always played a prominent role in world politics and economics. First of all, this applies to England, Germany, France, Russia. In 1900, the balance of power in world industrial production was as follows - England accounted for 18.5%, France - 6.8%, Germany - 13.2%, USA - 23.6%. Europe as a whole accounted for 62.0% of the world's total industrial production.

After the collapse of Austria-Hungary, the Czechs and Slovaks united and created an independent state - Czechoslovakia. When it became known in Prague that Austria-Hungary had sued for peace, on October 28, 1918, the Prague National Committee assumed power in the Czech and Slovak lands and created a Provisional National Assembly from representatives of various parties. The assembly elected the first president of Czechoslovakia, Tomas Masaryk. The borders of the new republic were determined at the Paris Peace Conference. It included the Czech lands of Austria, Slovakia and Transcarpathian Ukraine, which were previously part of Hungary, and later part of Silesia, which is part of Germany. As a result, about a third of the country's population were Germans, Hungarians and Ukrainians. Major reforms were carried out in Czechoslovakia. The nobility was deprived of all privileges. An 8-hour working day was established and social insurance was introduced. The land reform abolished German and Hungarian large landownership. The Constitution of 1920 consolidated the democratic system that had developed in Czechoslovakia. Being one of the most developed industrial countries in Europe, Czechoslovakia was distinguished by a relatively high standard of living and political stability.

On October 31, 1918, the Emperor of Austria-Hungary and at the same time the King of Hungary, Charles IV, instructed the Hungarian Count M.Karoyi to form a government from democratic parties. This government was guided by the Entente and tried to keep Hungary within the pre-war borders. November 16, 1918 Hungary was proclaimed a republic. But it was not possible to consolidate democracy in Hungary. The Hungarian communists called for a revolution and began to create Russian-style Soviets throughout the country. The Entente "helped" them to come to power, in an ultimatum form, demanding the liberation of the territories that were now to be transferred to Hungary's neighbors. The ultimatum was perceived in the country as a national catastrophe. The government and Karolyi himself resigned. It seemed that there was only one way out of this crisis - to try to rely on the help of Soviet Russia. This could not have been done without the communists. On March 21, 1919, they and the Social Democrats united and bloodlessly proclaimed the Hungarian Soviet Republic. Banks, industry, transport, large land holdings were nationalized. Communist leader Béla Kun became People's Commissar for Foreign Affairs and proposed an "armed alliance" with Russia. This call was supported in Moscow. Two Red Armies tried to break through to each other, the Hungarian, while pushing back the Czechoslovak troops and entered the Transcarpathian Ukraine. But their connection never happened. On July 24, the offensive of the Czechoslovak and Romanian armies began. On August 1, the Soviet government resigned, and soon Romanian troops entered Budapest. Power in Hungary passed to anti-communist groups, who, in addition, advocated the restoration of the monarchy in Hungary. Under these conditions, parliamentary elections were held in 1920. The Soviet Republic fell, Miklos Horthy came to power. He banned the communist party. In the summer of 1920, the new government signed the Treaty of Trianon. According to him, Hungary lost 2/3 of the territory, 1/3 of the population and access to the sea. 3 million Hungarians ended up in neighboring states, while Hungary itself received 400,000 refugees. The foreign policy of Horthy Hungary was unambiguously aimed at restoring Hungary to its former borders. Her relationship with her neighbors was constantly strained.

was in a difficult situation and Austria. In Austria, on October 30, 1918, the Provisional National Assembly and the State Council, a coalition government headed by the Social Democrat Karl Renner, assumed power. The Provisional National Assembly abolished the monarchy. Emperor Charles IV, who succeeded the deceased Franz Joseph in 1916, became the last Habsburg on the Austrian throne. The terms of the peace treaty, which Austria was forced to sign, were unusually difficult for her. For centuries, the emerging economic ties of Austria with Hungary and the Slavic lands were artificially severed, the country lost access to the sea. Vienna, hailed as the capital of a vast empire and rivaling London and Paris in grandeur, became the capital of a small state. Having become almost a purely Austrian-German state, Austria naturally began to gravitate towards Germany. But these connections were limited. This became a breeding ground for the growth of nationalist and fascist mentality.

The Yugoslav peoples that were part of Austria-Hungary united around Serbia and created on December 4, 1918 Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes. However, the Serbs sought to occupy a leading position in this state. At the same time, they did not want to reckon with the interests of other peoples, which were very different from each other, despite their common origin (Croats and Slovenes - Catholics, Macedonians, Montenegrins and the Serbs themselves - Orthodox, part of the Slavs converted to Islam, Albanians - non-Slavs, professing in the majority Islam). This almost immediately made the national question the main source of instability in political life. At the same time, the main contradiction turned out to be between Serbs and Croats - the two largest peoples of the country. The authorities tried to suppress any discontent. The country became known as the Kingdom of Yugoslavia, which was supposed to symbolize the "national unity" of the population. In response, Croatian nationalists killed the king in 1934. Only in 1939 did the ruling regime decide to make concessions on the national question: it announced the creation of an autonomous Croatian region.

Lost independence and divided in the 18th century Poland fought for the restoration of its state for more than a century. The First World War created the conditions for achieving this goal. The restoration of an independent Polish state is associated with the name of Jozef Pilsudski. Observing the growing contradictions between Russia and Austria-Hungary, he came up with the idea of using these contradictions to achieve his goal. He offered the services of the revolutionary underground to the Austrians to fight against Russia. With the outbreak of the First World War, Piłsudski got the opportunity to form Polish national units, which already in 1914 entered into battle with the Russian army. The retreat of the Russian army from Poland in 1915 contributed to the growth of Pilsudski's influence, which caused alarm among the Germans and Austrians, who least of all thought about Polish independence. They assigned Piłsudski only the role of a weapon in the anti-Russian struggle. The February revolution in Russia and the recognition by the new government of the Poles' right to independence changed the situation. Piłsudski even thought about going over to the Russian side, and for a start he stopped cooperation with the Austrians and Germans. They did not stand on ceremony with him: he ended up in a German prison. But this episode further contributed to the growth of his authority in Poland and, no less important, made him an acceptable figure for the Entente as the leader of Poland, the restoration of independence of which became inevitable. The German revolution made it possible to proclaim the independence of Poland, it also freed Pilsudski.

Arriving in Warsaw, becoming the head of the resurgent Polish state, he concentrated all his energy on creating a combat-ready Polish army from scattered units and detachments, which, in his opinion, was to play a decisive role in determining the borders of the Polish state. Poland's western borders were determined at the Paris Peace Conference. Pilsudski tried to recreate the eastern ones in the form in which they were in 1772, when, in addition to the Polish lands proper, it included all of Belarus, Lithuania, part of Latvia and Right-Bank Ukraine. Such plans could not but meet opposition from the peoples inhabiting these territories. They also contradicted the principle of self-determination of peoples, which was the basis of post-war reconstruction.

In December 1919, the Supreme Council of the Entente established the “Curzon Line” as the temporary border of Poland in the east, which ran along the approximate border of Poles on the one hand, Ukrainians and Lithuanians on the other. However, relying on the support of France, which saw in a strong Poland a reliable counterbalance to Germany in the east, Piłsudski could ignore this decision. This was facilitated by the weakness of the states that had just declared their independence (Lithuania, Ukraine, Belarus) after the collapse of the Russian Empire.

Polish troops successively established control over Galicia (this part of Ukraine was part of Austria-Hungary before the First World War), the Vilna region of Lithuania, and in May 1920 they occupied Kyiv. After the signing of the peace treaty, in March 1921, the Soviet-Polish border passed east of the Curzon Line, and the western part of Ukraine and Belarus became part of Poland. Soon the Poles again captured the Vilna region from Lithuania. This is how the borders of Poland developed, in which a third of the population was non-Poles.

In 1921, a constitution was adopted declaring Poland a parliamentary republic. In foreign policy, Poland, being in alliance with France since 1921, pursued an anti-German and anti-Soviet policy.

On December 31, 1917, independence was granted Finland. As early as January 1918, the leftist Social Democrats and the Finnish Red Guard attempted to establish Soviet power. They captured the capital of Finland, Helsinki, industrial centers in the south of the country, created a revolutionary government, which concluded a treaty of friendship with Soviet Russia. In addition, after the proclamation of independence, parts of the Russian army remained on the territory of Finland, which supported the revolution. The Finnish government moved to the city of Vasya on the shores of the Gulf of Bothnia and began to form a national army, entrusting this to the former Russian general K.G.E. Mannerheim. The presence of Russian troops gave Finland a reason to ask for help from Germany. In early April 1918, about 10,000 German soldiers landed in Finland. The revolutionaries were defeated. But the country turned out to be dependent on Germany, plans were discussed for declaring Finland a kingdom and inviting a German prince to the throne. After the defeat of Germany in the First World War, a republic was proclaimed in Finland, German troops left the country. Before the formation of elected authorities, the new state was headed by Mannerheim. Soviet-Finnish relations remained tense.

The territory of the future independent Lithuania already in 1915 it was occupied by German troops. Under the auspices of Germany, the Lithuanian Tariba (Assembly) was created there, headed by A. Smetona. On December 11, 1917, she proclaimed the restoration of the State of Lithuania. Lithuania's independence was recognized by Germany, forcing Soviet Russia to recognize it under the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk. However, after the Compiegne armistice, the Red Army invaded Lithuania, Soviet power was proclaimed there, Lithuania and Belarus were united into one Soviet republic. Negotiations began on its federal union with Soviet Russia. These plans did not materialize. The Vilna region was captured by Polish troops, and the Red Army was forced out of the rest of Lithuania with the help of volunteer detachments, consisting of the remnants of the German army. In April 1919, Lithuanian Tariba adopted a provisional constitution and elected A. Smetona as president. All decrees of the Soviets were repealed. However, the power of Smetona at first was purely nominal. Part of the country's territory was occupied by the Polish army, the north of Lithuania was controlled by German troops, relations with Soviet Russia remained unsettled. The Entente countries were suspicious of the new government, seeing in it German henchmen. It was decided to send the newly formed Lithuanian army to clear the territory of German detachments, then, on the basis of anti-Polish interests, it was possible to regulate relations with Soviet Russia. An agreement was signed with her, according to which the Vilna region was recognized as Lithuanian.

In the Soviet-Polish war, Lithuania adhered to neutrality, but Soviet Russia handed over to it the Vilna region, from which Polish troops were driven out. However, after the retreat of the Red Army, the Poles recaptured the Vilna region, there were continuous clashes between the Polish and Lithuanian armies. Only in November 1920, with the mediation of the Entente countries, a truce was concluded. In 1923, the League of Nations recognized the annexation of the Vilna region to Poland. Kaunas became the capital of Lithuania. In compensation, the League of Nations agreed to Lithuania's capture of Memel (Klaipeda) on the coast of the Baltic Sea - German territory that came under French control after the World War. In 1922, the Constituent Seimas adopted the constitution of Lithuania. It became a parliamentary republic. An agrarian reform was carried out, during which large land ownership, predominantly Polish, was eliminated. About 70 thousand peasants received land as a result of this reform.

Territory of future independent republics Latvia and Estonia by the time of the October Revolution, it was only partially occupied by German troops. Soviet power was proclaimed in the rest of Latvia and Estonia, but in February 1918 the German army captured this territory as well. According to the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, Soviet Russia recognized the secession of Latvia and Estonia. Germany planned to create a Baltic duchy here, headed by one of the representatives of the Prussian Hohengdollern dynasty. But after the Armistice of Compiegne, Germany transferred power in Latvia to the government of K. Ulmanis, and in Estonia - to the government of K. Päts, who proclaimed the independence of their states. Both governments consisted of representatives of democratic parties. Almost simultaneously, an attempt was made to restore Soviet power here. Parts of the Red Army entered Estonia. The Estland Labor Commune was proclaimed, the RSFSR recognized its independence. At the initiative of the government of the RSFSR, Estonia was transferred to part of the territory of the Petrograd province with a predominantly Russian population.

In Latvia, a Provisional Soviet government was created from the Latvian Bolsheviks, which turned to the RSFSR for help. The Red Army took control of most of Latvia. Then the creation of the Socialist Soviet Republic of Latvia was proclaimed. In the struggle against the Soviet troops, the governments of Ulmanis and Päts were forced to rely on the help of the German army, and after its evacuation, on volunteer detachments consisting of Baltic Germans and soldiers of the German army. From December 1918 aid to these governments began to come from the British; their squadron came to Tallinn. In 1919, the Soviet troops were forced out. Reorienting themselves towards the Entente and creating national armies, the governments of Ulmanis and Päts expelled the German detachments.

In 1920, the RSFSR recognized the new republics. They held elections to Constituent Assemblies and adopted constitutions. An important role in stabilizing the internal life of these states was played, as in Lithuania, by agrarian reforms. Large land holdings, which belonged mainly to the German barons, were liquidated. Tens of thousands of peasants received land on preferential terms. In foreign policy, these states were guided by England and France.

Teacher: Zaitseva V.A.

Synopsis of a lesson on the history of the General for holding in 11 classes

Topic: Formation of nation-states in Europe

Lesson type: combined lesson

Purpose: Educational: together with the students to find out the events that took place after the collapse of the three empires: Russian, Austro-Hungarian and German; developing: to develop the ability to work with the text of the textbook, think logically, compare the events that took place in the newly formed states; educational: to cultivate a sense of patriotism against the background of the fact that it was after the revolution in Russia that the model for building Soviet society became relevant in many young states of post-war Europe.

Methods: frontal survey, analysis of ongoing events, synchronization and chronology of facts, logical thinking, visualization, work with a map, with the text of a textbook and excerpts from historical sources, the method of innovative technologies.

Equipment: history textbook. General history. Grade 11: textbook for educational organizations: basic level / A.A. Ulunyan, E.Yu. Sergeev; ed. A. O. Chubaryan. - M .: Education, 2014. - 287 p.; workbooks, handouts; multimedia board.

During the classes:

Organizing time

Homework survey (according to paragraphs 1-2). The number of questions is taken from the calculation of 15 students:

The prerequisite for the First World War was: .. (the formation of 2 blocks of the Triple Alliance and the Entente).
Austria-Hungary, Germany, Italy ... - (states that were part of the Triple Alliance)
Russia, Great Britain and ... - states ... (France, which were part of the Entente)
June 28, 1914 .... (Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand)
Franz Ferdinand - heir to the throne ... (Austria-Hungary)
Gavrilo Princip is a representative of which state?... (Serbia)
World War I has begun… (July 28, 1918)
Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia... (July 28, 1918)
Which state and when declared war on Russia during the First World War? (Germany, 1 August 1918)
Which states declared their sovereignty before 1917? (USA, Belgium, Spain, Netherlands, Norway, Luxembourg, etc.)
What did the "Schlieffen plan" imply? (capture of Paris in 42 days)
In September 1914 - the battle ... (on the Marne River)
Which bloc did Japan side with? (Entente)
During what battle were the latest fire equipment used for the first time: flamethrowers, airplanes, tanks (R. Somme)
During which battle was poison gas first used? (R. Ypres)
The number of victims on both sides following the results of the battle of Verdun ... (approx. 1 million)
One of the largest naval battles of the war, which took place withMay 31 By June 1st g. ... (Jutland)
The number of states that took part in the First World War ... (38)
The main result of the First World War: ... (the collapse of 4 empires)
How did the population react to the outbreak of the First World War at the initial stage of the war? (supported the national idea, the rise of the patriotic spirit)
Why were democratic freedoms in states limited already in the first weeks of the war? (impossible in war conditions)
What did the states that declared neutrality suffer from and what did they gain from? (from the flow of refugees from the demand for food, uniforms, and other needs of the war)
How did the trade unions promote the ideology of war? (they held back the strikes of workers, using their authority)
What 2 organizations provided the bulk of assistance to refugees? (MKK and ARA)
In what conditions were the captured soldiers kept? (struggle for survival: unsanitary conditions, lack of adequate food, epidemics)
Why were the captured officers kept in better conditions than the captured lower ranks of the soldiers? (were informed; redemption is possible)
On the territory of which country did the Social Democrats hold conferences? (Switzerland)
Name the main members of the Social Democratic Conference in Switzerland. (V. Lenin, Karl Liebknecht and Rosa Luxemburg)
From what period does the mass anti-war public upsurge begin? (Spring 1916)
Name the years of World War I (1914-1918)

New material:

Fall of empires
Education of Czechoslovakia
Formation of Yugoslavia
Reconstruction of the Polish state
Formation of the Republic of Austria
Establishment of the Hungarian Independent State
Formation of new states on the territory of the former Russian Empire
Education in Latvia, Lithuania, Estonia
Establishment of the Weimar Republic in Germany.

Topic update. On the screen is an image of some of the postage stamps of the states that will be studied in the lesson. Students should carefully consider each image, peering and interrogating it. Based on this, they come to the conclusion that today we will study in the lesson the new post-war states that were formed during the collapse of the Russian, German and Austro-Hungarian empires.

Fall of empires

Teacher's word.

In the wake of the revolution in Russia, revolutions swept through other countries of Europe.

The collapse of the empire on the territory of Austria was different from Russia and Germany. Back in the summer of 1918, the Entente countries created national organizations of Czechs, Slovaks, Poles, Ukrainians and South Slavic peoples. They advocated the independence of their administrative-territorial formations.

In Poland, Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia and Finland - a civil war - a response to events in revolutionary Russia.

Independent work of students with the text of the paragraph: P.37-46.

Filling in the table:

Educated State	Date of formation	Incoming lands	head of state	reforms
Czechoslovakia		Czech Republic, Slovakia	Tomas Masaryk	Cancellation of noble titles and privileges; freedom of speech, freedom of the press; law on social insurance and assistance to the unemployed; agrarian reform
Yugoslavia		Croatia, Serbia, Slovenia, Montenegro, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Macedonia	Prince Alexander Karageorgievich	Social and economic reforms
Polish state		part of the GermanProvince of Posen , Part Pomerania , Danzig (Gdansk) received the status of a "free city".	Jozef Pilsudski	J. Pilsudski had to perform his duties until the adoption of a permanent constitution. Since 1926 - reorganization regime
Republic of Austria		Austria	Karl Seitz	Cancellation of noble titles and privileges; large enterprises were partially nationalized; introduced an 8-hour working day; adopted labor legislation with broad social guarantees
Hungarian independent state		Hungary. After the Treaty of Trianon lost a lot of land	Mihai Karolyi (Hungarian People's Republic) Bela Kun (Hungarian Soviet Republic) Miklos Horthy (Kingdom of Hungary)	agrarian reform Political, economic and social reforms modeled on Soviet Russia Merged the two leading parties into the new United Party, started a dialogue with the Social Democrats, carried out limited land reform
New states on the territory of the former Russian Empire		Ukrainian People's Republic Moldovan People's Republic Belarusian People's Republic Transcaucasian Democratic Republic	Democrats	Maximum centralization and militarization of the country's administration
Latvia, Lithuania, Estonia		Latvia Lithuania Republic of Estonia	Karlis ulmanis Antanas Smetona August Rey	agrarian reform Land nationalization
Finland	December 1918	Finland	Carl Mannerheim	The instability of the political system
Weimar Republic in Germany		Germany (10 free states)	Friedrich Ebert	The introduction of universal suffrage, the proclamation of democratic freedoms, the establishment of an 8-hour working day; nationalization of large industrial enterprises; empowerment of trade unions

After the class has filled in the table, it is proposed to check it using a map from the textbook called "Territorial Changes in Europe in 1918-1923". The teacher names the state, and the students on the map look for the territories that were part of it; name the figures who stood at the origins of the state and briefly characterize the reforms that took place in it.

Reflection . A student is called who evaluates the work of classmates in the lesson and concludes that the states formed as a result of the fall of European empires after the First World War were weak; many of them came under pro-Soviet influence and the reforms carried out in them were similar to the reforms carried out in Soviet Russia.

Homework:P.3, pp.47-48 analyze an excerpt from the source "Congress of Representatives of the Peoples and Regions of Russia."

One of the first countries affected by the disintegration process was Austria-Hungary. After the war, the growth of separatist sentiments sharply increased among the peoples of Austria-Hungary. In October 1918, a general political strike began in the Czech Republic, which grew into a revolution. The new authorities of the Czech Republic announced their withdrawal from Austria-Hungary. By the end of October, the empire had completely collapsed. Slovakia also left. On October 28, the creation of a binational Czechoslovak Republic led by philosopher and journalist Tomas Masaryk. On October 31, 1918, democratic revolutions in Austria and Hungary completed the collapse of the empire, proclaiming the formation Austrian And Hungarian republics. The new republican leaders signed peace on the terms of the Entente.

In the Republic of Austria, a coalition government was formed consisting of liberals, conservatives and social democrats. The new authorities abolished the privileges of the nobility, introduced an 8-hour working day, and allowed the activities of workers' committees at enterprises. The constitution, adopted in 1920, guaranteed the population a number of rights and freedoms and turned Austria into one of the most progressive states in Europe in the field of social legislation.

T. Masaryk

Anti-Austrian demonstrations in Istria and Dalmatia in the autumn of 1918 ended with the creation of the People's Council (council) of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs. The new government, meeting in Zagreb, abolished the laws that linked the Yugoslav lands with Austria and Hungary, and proclaimed the creation of the State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs (GSHS). Soon the Kingdom of Serbia joined the GSHS. December 1, 1918 appeared on the map of Europe Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes led by the Serbian dynasty Karageorgievich. After some time, Montenegro joined him. Later, the new state became known as Yugoslavia.

In November 1918, the inhabitants of Poland managed to restore their independence, lost at the end of the 18th century. On November 11, the socialist Jozef Pilsudski formed a broad coalition government, in which, in addition to his party, there were ministers from the peasant party and a number of other parties and groups. In December 1918, the government managed to take control of part of the Polish lands that had previously belonged to Germany. In 1921, after the end of the Soviet-Polish war (provoked by the Entente to overthrow the Soviet power in Ukraine, and then used by the Bolshevik leadership to push the “red bayonet” deep into Europe), Western Ukrainian and Western Belarusian lands came under Polish rule. The country's constitution was adopted in March 1919. Pilsudski became the head of state, pursuing a tough domestic and foreign policy.

In December 1917, Soviet Russia recognized the democratic government established in Finland. But almost immediately a civil war broke out in the country. Supporters of the socialist revolution, who received tacit support from Soviet Russia, created the Red Guard, and German troops helped their opponents, united in the White Army under the command of the former tsarist general Carl Gustav Mannerheim. The Germans captured the cities of Tampere and Helsinki, in April 1918 the Finnish Red Guard surrendered Vyborg. The Finnish-Soviet border passed close to Petrograd.

By July 1919, the authorities managed to suppress the revolutionary movement, and the government was formed as a coalition of social democrats and liberal conservative parties. In 1921, Finland also received the Åland Islands from Sweden, but was obliged to demilitarize the archipelago. Material from the site http://doklad-referat.ru

In 1918-1919. in Latvia, Lithuania and Estonia, Soviet republics arose, which were soon defeated. Power passed to the bourgeois-democratic parties, which proclaimed the independence of the former Baltic provinces of the Russian Empire.

Even during the First World War, British troops occupied a number of Arab provinces of the Ottoman Empire, but failed to maintain control over this territory for a long time. In 1920-1922. mass uprising led to the formation Iraqi kingdom, ten years later it finally became independent. Transjordan stayed under British control longer, which since 1921 was a semi-autonomous territory within the mandated Palestine. In 1920 it was formed Syrian kingdom, whose territory was soon captured by the French and ruled by them according to the mandate of the League of Nations (just like Lebanon). Mongolian People's Republic in 1921 gained independence from the powerful Chinese neighbor. In 1922, the British recognized independence Egypt. On the ruins of the Ottoman Empire arose Turkish Republic.

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Source: doklad-referat.ru

Formation of new states

How did Austria-Hungary collapse?

Dates and events

October 16, 1918. - The head of the Hungarian government announced the termination of the union with Austria by Hungary.
28 of October- The National Czechoslovak Committee (established in July 1918) decided to form an independent Czechoslovak state.
29th of October- the National Council was created in Vienna and the independence of German Austria was proclaimed; on the same day, the National Council in Zagreb proclaimed the state independence of the southern Slavs of Austria-Hungary.
October 30- in Krakow, a Liquidation Commission was created, which took over the management of the Polish lands that were previously part of Austria-Hungary, and proclaimed that these lands belong to the resurgent Polish state; on the same day, the National Council of Bosnia and Herzegovina (which were captured by Austria-Hungary in 1908) announced the annexation of both lands to Serbia.

At the final stage of the World War, the Ottoman Empire also collapsed, from which the territories inhabited by non-Turkish peoples separated.

Paris Peace Conference

The "14 points" provided for the following: the establishment of a just peace and the rejection of secret diplomacy; freedom of navigation; equality in economic relations between states; arms limitation; the settlement of colonial questions, taking into account the interests of all peoples; the liberation of the occupied territories and the principles for determining the borders of a number of European states; the formation of an independent Polish state, including "all the lands inhabited by Poles" and having access to the sea; creation of an international organization guaranteeing the sovereignty and integrity of all countries.

The left bank of the Rhine was occupied by the troops of the Entente, and a demilitarized zone was established on the right bank. The Saar region was under the control of the League of Nations for 15 years. Danzig (Gdansk) was declared a "free city", Memel (Klaipeda) moved away from Germany (later included in Lithuania). In total, 1/8 of the territory, where 1/10 of the country's population lived, was torn away from Germany. In addition, Germany was deprived of colonial possessions, its rights in the Shandong province in China were transferred to Japan. Restrictions were introduced on the number (no more than 100 thousand people) and weapons of the German army. Germany also had to pay reparations - payment to individual countries for the damage caused as a result of the German attack.

Versailles-Washington system

Later, peace treaties were signed with the former allies of Germany - Austria (September 10, 1919), Bulgaria (November 27, 1919), Hungary (June 4, 1920), Turkey (August 10, 1920).

they determined the borders of these countries, established after the collapse of Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire and the rejection of part of the territories from them in favor of the victorious powers. For Austria, Bulgaria, Hungary, restrictions on the number of armed forces were introduced, and reparations were paid to the winners. The terms of the treaty with Turkey were particularly harsh. She lost all her possessions in Europe, on the Arabian Peninsula, in North Africa. The armed forces of Turkey were reduced, it was forbidden to keep the fleet. The zone of the Black Sea straits came under the control of an international commission. This treaty, humiliating for the country, was replaced in 1923, after the victory of the Turkish revolution.

The alignment of forces and mechanisms of international relations in Europe and the world that had developed by the early 1920s were called the Versailles-Washington system.

Old and new in international relations

References:
Aleksashkina L. N. / General History. XX - the beginning of the XXI century.

State name	Form of government. Political regime	Way of establishing power
Czechoslovakia	Presidential republic. Democracy
Yugoslavia	Monarchy

	Presidential republic. Democracy
	Republic. Democracy
Germany	Republic. Democracy	Revolutionary
	Republic. Democracy	Revolutionary
	Parliamentary republic. Democracy	Revolutionary
	Republic. Democracy	Revolutionary
Finland	Republic. Democracy	Revolutionary

3. Versailles conference of its decision. We especially single out the question of the humiliation of the German nation, of the possible appearance in the country of the ideology of revanchism. We give a definition of revanchism (1, p. 326).

4. Here are the main decisions of the Washington Conference.

5. It should be noted that the League of Nations was created at the Versailles Conference, the goals of its creation are indicated.

6. The question of inconsistency and instability of the Versailles-Washington system created as a result of the war is considered. This was the first attempt to build international relations on the basis of the principles of collective security and self-determination of peoples and lay the foundations for a world that would be based not on the balance of power, but on the strength of morality, on the equality of all subjects of international relations, on the openness of diplomacy (28, p. 57) .

But in the beginning, we note that it carried certain constructive principles:

a) The League of Nations was called upon to promote the peaceful settlement of disputes, the suppression of aggressive actions, and disarmament;

b) the first constructive steps were taken in the field of limiting the naval arms race, both quantitative and qualitative restrictions were established on the main classes of ships;

c) the victorious countries proceeded from the principle of responsibility of the Central Powers, especially Germany, for aggression, this was of great importance for the development of international law.

After that, we highlight the main circumstances that characterize the inconsistency and instability of this system:

a) the aggravation of the national and religious question as a result of territorial changes in Europe (millions of Germans found themselves outside Germany, and hundreds of thousands of Hungarians outside Hungary);

b) the desire of the defeated states to return the lost territories, the formation of revanchist sentiments and the emergence of political forces that preach totalitarian ideas;

c) dissatisfaction of the victorious powers with the terms of the treaties, the strengthening of their former allies;

d) the actual neglect of the interests of colonial and dependent countries (they were not granted the right to self-determination of the peoples of these countries);

e) underestimation of the economic problems of the post-war world order, the desire to rob the vanquished, and not help restore their economy (exorbitant reparation payments);

f) the insufficient capacity of the League of Nations to perform the functions assigned to it (the United States, Germany, and the USSR ended up outside the League of Nations).

For a better understanding of this problem, we can offer the following version of the study of this issue in a strong class (43, p. 31).

The work is carried out in groups "Historical hats". At the beginning of the lesson, students are divided into groups of 4-5 people, and each group receives a hat of a certain color from the teacher: yellow, black, white, red and blue (the teacher can distribute a color image of hats to groups, explaining the meaning of each color and the group's work with it ).

The yellow hat is an optimist's hat.

The group that received the yellow hat must find all the positive points in the topic covered. It is necessary to list all the issues of world politics that were resolved at conferences after the end of the First World War, to find successes in solving their problems for each country (where they exist).

The black hat is the hat of the pessimist.

The black hat group must find all the issues that were not resolved at the post-war conferences, highlight all the failures in international relations for each country, show the injustice of the decisions of the conferences.

The white hat is the hat of the objective observer

The group that received the white hat must find and list only specific facts on the topic without ratings (what conferences took place, their results).

Red Hat - Emotional Member's Hat

The group that received the red hat should explain what emotions and feelings the countries participating in the conferences experienced and why, who was satisfied with the new system of international relations, and who was not.

The blue hat is the philosopher's hat.

The group that received the blue hat should prepare discussions on the following questions: how strong was the created Versailles-Washington system of international relations and whether it is legitimate to talk about stable international relations in general, whether the participating countries of the First World War learned any lessons from it, judging by decisions of post-war international conferences?

After a group discussion (20 min) each group makes a presentation. Students of other groups have the right to supplement, ask questions, argue with the statements made after the message. The teacher regulates the discussion of the performance of each group and summarizes it.

At the end of the lesson, we can pose a problem to students: “We see, on the one hand, revanchist forces are maturing in Germany, for the strengthening of which there are quite serious conditions, and on the other hand, an international organization is being created whose goal is to prevent a revision of the results of the First World War with with the help of strength. Which line won? You can answer this question even now.”

The teacher in this lesson pays much attention to working with the map (1, p. 58) and atlases.

As homework - questions from the textbook (1, p. 65, questions No. 1, 4, 5, and No. 8 requires a broader analysis).

To answer question 4, students should either send to sources where these documents are available, or distribute copies of these documents to students. In the textbook L.N. Aleksashkina provides an exposition of "W. Wilson's 14 Points" (1, p. 60).

In connection with these issues, it should be noted that the war radically changed the position of the United States in the world, and its economic and military power increased. All this prompted American politicians, and, above all, President Wilson, to struggle to change the status of the United States in the international arena. It was reflected in Wilson's 14 Points, in which the United States unequivocally expressed its claims to the role of an arbitrator in international relations and a guarantor of the post-war order of the world.

All tasks that are given in the lesson are checked in the next lesson using a variety of methods.

conclusions:

1) World War I is the most important milestone in the history of the 20th century;

2) The Versailles-Washington treaty system laid the foundation for the post-war world order and in many ways this system was the cause of World War II;

3) US claims to the role of an arbitrator in international relations were rejected by European countries and the US is returning to traditional isolationism;

4) there was a colossal humiliation of the German nation;

5) the created League of Nations is the first attempt to create an international organization to prevent the outbreak of war.