the individual himself as an active subject of social relations and purposeful activity, as well as the systemic quality of the individual, determined by his conscious activity in the system of social connections and developing in conditions of interaction and communication. Historians of psychology have repeatedly emphasized that the concept of “personality,” having a basic categorical status within the framework of psychological science, was interpreted in theoretical constructs of different scientific schools and directions in fundamentally different ways. For example, A.V. Petrovsky, noting the ambiguity of understanding of the psychological essence of personality by numerous researchers and tracing the historical trajectory of scientific progress in the study of the psychological content of this concept, noted: “in “hormic psychology” (V. McDougall), in psychoanalysis (S. Freud, A. Adler) personality was interpreted as an ensemble of irrational unconscious drives. Behaviorism actually removed the problem of personality, which had no place in the mechanistic “S-R” (“stimulus-response”) system. The concepts of K. Lewin, A. Maslow, G. Allport, K. Rogers, which are very productive in terms of specific methodological solutions, reveal a certain limitation, which is manifested in physicalism, the transfer of mechanics to the analysis of personality manifestations (K. Lewin), in indeterminism in “humanistic psychology” "and existentialism. There have been noticeable advances in Western empirical psychology in the field of personality psychotherapy, communication training, etc. In Russian psychology, a person as a person is characterized by a system of relationships conditioned by life in society, of which he is the subject. In the process of interaction with the world, an actively acting personality acts as a whole, in which knowledge of the environment is carried out in unity with experience. Personality is considered in the unity (but not identity) of the sensory essence of its bearer - the individual and the conditions of the social environment (B. G. Ananyev, A. N. Leontiev). The natural properties and characteristics of the individual appear in the personality as its socially conditioned elements... Personality is characterized by activity, that is, the subject’s desire to go beyond his own limits, expand the scope of his activity, act beyond the boundaries of the requirements of the situation and role prescriptions (motivation for achievement, risk, etc.). P.). Personality is characterized by direction - a stable dominant system of motives, interests, beliefs, ideals, tastes, etc., in which human needs manifest themselves, deep semantic structures (“dynamic semantic systems” according to L. S. Vygotsky), determining her consciousness and behavior, relatively resistant to verbal influences and transformed in the joint activities of groups and collectives (the principle of active mediation), the degree of awareness of her relationship to reality: relationships (according to V.N. Myasishchev), attitudes (according to D. N. Uznadze, A. S. Prangishvili, Sh. A. Nadirashvili), dispositions (according to V. A. Yadov), etc.” Today, the most scientifically “advanced” idea of ​​personality within the framework of domestic social psychology is designated as the concept of personalization (V. A. Petrovsky), within the framework of which there is a vision of personality as the unity of three hypostases of the existence of personality and personality itself: a) as a relatively stable set of intra-individual qualities: symptom complexes of mental properties that form her individuality, motives, personality orientations, personality structure, characteristics of temperament, abilities, etc.; b) as the inclusion of an individual in the space of interindividual connections, where relationships and interactions that arise in a group can be interpreted as carriers of the personality of their participants; c) as the ideal representation of individuals in the life activities of other people, including outside their actual contacts, as a result of significant changes carried out by the individual in the semantic formations of interaction partners, their affective-need sphere and the characteristics of behavioral activity. At the same time, a person experiences a natural, socially determined need to “be a person,” that is, to be, to the greatest possible extent, “ideally represented” in the minds of other people, first of all, by those of his own characteristics, facets of individuality that he himself values ​​in himself. It is obvious that the need to “be a person” can only be satisfied if there is the appropriate ability. It is also easy to understand that a gap, a “fork” between these needs and abilities can lead to serious disruptions in the process of personal development, qualitatively distort the line of personal growth, and disrupt the overall forward direction of movement towards true personal maturity.

It is quite clear that the volume of empirical research one way or another related to the problem of personality is truly enormous. At the same time, as G. M. Andreeva quite rightly notes, “the problem of personality is not only a problem of the entire set of psychological sciences... . Currently, interest in the problems of the capabilities of the human personality is so great that almost all social sciences turn to this subject of research: the problem of personality is at the center of both philosophical and sociological knowledge; ethics, pedagogy, and genetics deal with it”1. It is no coincidence that the term personology is widely used in foreign psychology, covering not only the entire spectrum of the actual psychological concepts of personality, but also ideas about it from related sciences.

In this regard, a necessary, although rather difficult, task is to isolate precisely the socio-psychological specifics of the study of personality. From the point of view of G. M. Andreeva, “social psychology, using the definition of personality given by general psychology, finds out how, i.e., first of all, in which specific groups, the personality, on the one hand, assimilates social influences ( through which of the systems of its activity), and on the other hand, how, in which specific groups it realizes its social essence (through which specific types of joint activities)”2. To solve this problem, according to G. M. Andreeva, it is necessary to study group problems traditional for socio-psychological research, but at the same time consider them from a “personal” and not a “group” angle, and at the same time separately study a number of specific problems : social attitude, social identity of the individual, etc.

In foreign social psychology, along with the development of the three problems identified by G. M. Andreeva, most of the actual socio-psychological studies of personality are in one way or another connected with the individual’s self-concept. It must be said that the concept of self-concept is interpreted quite widely by various authors, however, if we generalize the most common views, it can be characterized as the totality of an individual’s ideas about himself, or, in other words, the sum of significant personal identifications.

With a certain degree of convention, it can be argued that the self-concept is formed on the basis of information received from two sources - internal (self-perception) and external (social contacts).

The term “self-perception” was proposed by psychologist D. Bem to denote the tendency of people (based on reflection of their own stable preferences and behavioral patterns) to make a general conclusion about one or another of their personal characteristics. For example, if a person periodically reacts violently to disagreement with his own point of view, he can characterize himself as hot-tempered, emotional, etc. At the same time, as D. Bem himself believed, “many important aspects of one’s own “I” have clear internal referents in form of strong beliefs, attitudes and affective preferences, so there is a possibility that self-perception as a source of knowledge about oneself is applicable mainly to minor, rather than to significant aspects of one’s own “I”1.

External sources of information on the basis of which an individual self-concept is formed are quite diverse, but the main ones are two: reflected assessment and feedback.

Reflected assessment suggests that people view their social environment as a kind of “mirror” and evaluate themselves depending on the reactions of others. In this case, the referentiality of the subject perceived by him as a “mirror” is essential for the individual (this is also true when receiving feedback). The fact that this is indeed the case is clearly demonstrated by the results of an experiment conducted by a group of social psychologists at a US university. One of two experimental groups, consisting of Catholic students, was shown a photograph of the Pope frowning, while the other was shown a photograph of a complete stranger also frowning. The control group, which consisted of students who were not adherents of Catholicism, was presented with the same photograph of the Pope as the first experimental group. Then, “students were asked to rate some of their own personality traits. Devout Catholics who were shown a photograph of the frowning Pope rated themselves more harshly than students who saw the same photograph but were not strict Catholics, or those Catholics who were shown a photograph of a stranger.”2

This experiment also clearly demonstrated how the reflected assessment, as a source of information about oneself, is subject to attributive, projective and other distortions in the subjective perception of the individual. It is quite obvious that the “frowning” of the Pope in the photograph did not and could not have anything to do with the subjects. Nevertheless, the reaction of those students for whom the Pope was a reference figure was as if the nonverbally expressed disapproval of the head of the Catholic Church was addressed to them personally.

From this point of view, feedback in most cases is a more reliable source of information, since it presupposes a fairly direct and targeted reaction of the social environment to certain actions of the individual and his personal qualities. At the same time, along with direct feedback, there are its indirect forms. So, for example, invitations (or, conversely, non-invitations) to business cooperation, joint leisure activities, etc. are a kind of feedback.

Under the influence of external and internal information, such an important element of the self-concept from a practical point of view as self-esteem is formed. According to the almost unanimous opinion of social psychologists specializing in a variety of applied areas - from organizational to family counseling, “people with high self-esteem have a clear idea of ​​what personal qualities they possess, think well of themselves, set appropriate goals for themselves, use feedback to improve self-esteem and successfully cope with difficult situations. On the other hand, people with low self-esteem have less clear self-concepts, think poorly of themselves, often choose unrealistic goals or avoid any goals altogether, tend to be pessimistic about the future, and they also tend to have more unfavorable emotional reactions to criticism or other types of negative feedback and they are more concerned about their own social impact on other people."

A well-known confirmation of the validity of the last statement is the fact that the truly problematic students in almost every school who are really prone to destructive and antisocial behavior, as a rule, rate their not only intellectual, but also moral qualities extremely low. It is no coincidence that one of the world's most famous specialists in the field of psychotherapy of children and adolescents, V. Satir, considered increasing self-esteem as one of the main means of modifying problem behavior.

However, the importance of self-esteem is great not only in relation to children and child-parent relationships, but also to a much broader socio-psychological context. In this regard, it seems completely natural that a large number of studies in foreign social psychology have been aimed at studying the mechanism of maintaining self-esteem in the process of interpersonal interaction. One of the most interesting concepts describing such mechanisms was developed by E. Tesser. He tried to understand how the achievements of significant others affect an individual's self-esteem (it is worth adding that relationships of interpersonal significance are considered within this concept primarily, but not exclusively, in terms of attraction preferences). E. Tesser came to the conclusion that the reaction to the success of a significant other depends not only on the degree of his attractiveness and referentiality, but also on the extent to which the sphere of activity in which this success is achieved corresponds to the individual’s self-determination. Depending on the combination of these two factors, there will be either a comparison effect or a reflection effect. The difference between them in the concept of E. Tesser is formulated as follows: “The comparison effect. When another person surpasses us in an activity or a certain type of behavior relevant to our self-definition, then the greater his success and the closer our relationship, the greater the threat to our self-esteem. We feel jealousy, frustration and even anger. Reflection effect. When another person surpasses us in activities or behavior that are irrelevant to our self-determination, then the greater his success and the closer our relationship, the more favorable this reflects on our self-esteem. The process of reflection makes us feel positive and proud of the other person's success."1

E. Tesser's concept has been confirmed in a number of studies. Everyday life experience also testifies to its justice. The purchase of a new car by a neighbor with whom a good relationship is maintained is much more likely to cause envy and frustration in people (provided that they are also car drivers) than a similar purchase by a stranger living on another street.

In general, the main provisions of the Self-concept, although they far from exhaust the subject content of social psychology of personality, allow a practical social psychologist to significantly simplify the procedural side of assessing the personal characteristics of certain members of a particular community and provide him with interpretive “keys” that allow him to draw reliable conclusions based on information obtained in the process of participant and external observation, interviews and other relatively simple and economical methods of personality research.

This is all the more important due to the fact that a practical social psychologist working with groups and organizations, solving practice-oriented and applied management problems, must rely on psychologically verified theoretical developments, including in the field of social psychology of the individual, without which it will simply be impossible for him to solve even the most “passing”, momentary problems of professionally adequate support of group life.

PERSONALITY

a person who has at least the most minimal and primitive set of qualities and skills that allow him to survive, act and be competitive in a particular society; an individual who has at least a minimally expressed and/or articulated identity based on sociocultural, ethnic, confessional, ideological and/or other characteristics (criteria). (Kosolapov N.A., p. 103)

PERSONALITY

Person; Personlichkeit) - aspects or hypostases of the soul living in the real world; For a developing personality, it is essential to separate from collective values, in particular from those inherited or already realized by the person.

“It is enough, for example, to carefully observe someone under different circumstances to discover how dramatically his personality changes when moving from one environment to another, each time revealing a sharply defined and clearly different character from the previous one.”<...>In accordance with social conditions and needs, social character is oriented, on the one hand, on the expectations and requirements of the business environment, on the other hand, on the social intentions and aspirations of the subject himself. Usually, the domestic character is formed, rather, according to the spiritual needs of the subject and his needs for convenience, which is why it happens that people who are extremely energetic, courageous, stubborn, stubborn and shameless in public life, at home and in the family turn out to be good-natured, soft, compliant and weak. Which character is the true one, where is the real personality? Such a person has no real character at all, he is not individual at all, but collective, that is, he corresponds to general circumstances, meets general expectations. If he were individual, he would have the same character despite all the differences in attitude. He would not be identical with each given attitude and could not, and would not want to prevent his individuality from being expressed in one way and not another in one or another state. In reality, he is individual, like every being, but only unconsciously. By his more or less complete identification with each given attitude he deceives at least others, and often himself, as to what his real character is; he puts on a mask, which he knows that it corresponds, on the one hand, to his own intentions, on the other, to the claims and opinions of his environment, and now one or the other moment prevails" (PT, par. 697-698).

PERSONALITY

a phenomenon of social development, a specific living person with consciousness and self-awareness. Personality structure is a holistic systemic formation, a set of socially significant mental properties, relationships and actions of an individual that have developed in the process of ontogenesis and determine his behavior as the behavior of a conscious subject of activity and communication. Personality is a self-regulating dynamic functional system of continuously interacting properties, relationships and actions that develop in the process of human ontogenesis. The core formation of personality is self-esteem, which is built on the assessment of the individual by other people and his assessment of these others. In a broad, traditional sense, personality is an individual as a subject of social relations and conscious activity. The personality structure includes all the psychological characteristics of a person, and all the morphophysiological characteristics of his body - right down to the characteristics of metabolism. The popularity and persistence of this expanded understanding in literature seems to be due to its similarity to the ordinary meaning of the word. In a narrow sense, it is a systemic quality of an individual determined by involvement in social relations, formed in joint activities and communication.

According to A.N. Leontiev, personality is a qualitatively new formation. It is formed through life in society. Therefore, only a person can be a person, and then only after reaching a certain age. In the course of activity, a person enters into relationships with other people - social relationships, and these relationships become personality-forming. From the side of the person himself, his formation and life as an individual appear primarily as development, transformation, subordination and resubordination of his motives. This concept is quite complex and requires explanation. It does not coincide with the traditional interpretation - in the broad sense. The narrowed concept allows us to isolate a very important aspect of human existence associated with the social nature of his life. Man as a social being acquires new qualities that are absent if he is considered as an isolated, non-social being. And each person from a certain time begins to make a certain contribution to the life of society and individuals. That is why, next to the concepts of personality and personal, the concept of socially significant appears. Although this significant thing may be socially unacceptable: a crime is as much a personal act as a feat. To psychologically concretize the concept of personality, it is necessary to answer at least questions about what the new formation called personality consists of, how personality is formed, and how the growth and functioning of his personality appears from the position of the subject himself. The criteria for a mature personality are:

1) the presence of hierarchy in motives in a certain sense - as the ability to overcome one’s own immediate motivations for the sake of something else - the ability to behave indirectly. It is assumed that the motives, thanks to which immediate impulses are overcome, are social in origin and meaning (simply indirect behavior may be based on a spontaneously formed hierarchy of motives, and even “spontaneous morality”: the subject may not be aware of what exactly forces him to act in a certain way" but act quite morally);

2) the ability to consciously manage one’s own behavior; this leadership is carried out on the basis of conscious motives, goals and principles (in contrast to the first criterion, here it is precisely the conscious subordination of motives that is assumed - the conscious mediation of behavior, which presupposes the presence of self-awareness as a special authority of the individual). In didactic terms, all properties, relationships and actions of an individual can be conditionally combined into four closely related functional substructures, each of which is a complex formation that plays a specific role in life:

1) regulation system;

2) stimulation system;

3) stabilization system;

4) display system. In the course of human social development, systems of regulation and stimulation constantly interact, and on their basis, increasingly complex mental properties, relationships and actions arise that direct the individual to solve life problems. The unity of the personality throughout the entire life path is ensured by the memory-continuity of goals, actions, relationships, claims, beliefs, ideals, etc. Western psychology considers the personality as an “entirely mental being.” In hormic psychology and psychoanalysis, personality was interpreted as an ensemble of irrational unconscious drives. The concepts of K. Levin, A. Maslow, G. Allport, and K. Rogers, which are very productive in terms of specific methodological solutions, also show certain limitations. But in the field of personality psychotherapy, communication training and other things, the successes of Western empirical psychology are very noticeable. In Russian psychology, personality is considered in the unity (but not identity) and sensory essence of its bearer - the individual and the conditions of the social environment. The natural properties and characteristics of the individual appear in the personality as its socially conditioned elements. Personality is the mediating link through which external influence is connected with its effect in the individual’s psyche. The emergence of a personality “of systemic quality is due to the fact that the individual, in joint activities with other individuals, changes the world and through this change transforms himself, becoming a personality. A personality is characterized by:

1) activity - the desire of the subject to go beyond his own limits, expand the scope of activity, act beyond the boundaries of the requirements of the situation and role prescriptions;

2) orientation - a stable dominant system of motives - interests, beliefs, ideals, tastes and other things in which human needs manifest themselves;

3) deep semantic structures (dynamic semantic systems, according to L. S. Vygotsky), which determine her consciousness and behavior; they are relatively resistant to verbal influences and are transformed in the activities of joint groups and collectives (the principle of activity mediation);

4) the degree of awareness of one’s relationship to reality: attitudes, attitudes, dispositions, etc. A developed personality has developed self-awareness, which does not exclude the unconscious mental regulation of certain important aspects of its activity. Subjectively, for an individual, personality appears as his Self, as a system of ideas about himself, constructed by the individual in the processes of activity and communication, which ensures the unity and identity of his personality and reveals itself in self-esteem, in a sense of self-esteem, level of aspirations, etc. The image of the Self represents that how the individual sees himself in the present, in the future, what he would like to be if he could, etc. Correlating the self-image with the real circumstances of the individual’s life allows the individual to change behavior and realize the goals of self-education. An appeal to the self-esteem and self-respect of an individual is an important factor in the directed influence on the individual during upbringing. The personality as a subject of interpersonal relations reveals itself in three representations that form a unity:

1) personality as a relatively stable set of its intra-individual qualities: symptom complexes of mental properties that form its individuality, motives, and personality orientations; personality structure, temperamental characteristics, abilities;

2) personality as the inclusion of an individual in the space of interindividual connections, where relationships and interactions that arise in a group can be interpreted as carriers of the personalities of their participants; This is how, for example, the false alternative is overcome in understanding interpersonal relationships either as group phenomena or as personal phenomena: the personal acts as a group, the group as a personal;

3) personality as the “ideal representation” of an individual in the life activities of other people, including outside their actual interaction; as a result of semantic transformations of the intellectual and affective-need spheres of other individuals, actively implemented by a person. An individual in his development experiences a socially determined need to be a person - to place himself in the life of other people, continuing his existence in them, and discovers the ability to be a person, realized in socially significant activities. The presence and characteristics of the ability to be a person can be identified using the method of reflected subjectivity. Personality development occurs in the conditions of socialization of the individual and his upbringing.

PERSONALITY

A stable complex of socially significant traits inherent in the individual and socially conditioned. L. is a person as a whole; consciousness and self-awareness are inherent in him. The social conditioning of personality traits indicates the need to study it in the context of social conditions.

PERSONALITY

English personality; from lat. persona - actor's mask; role, position; face, personality). In the social sciences, L. is considered as a special quality of a person that he acquires in a sociocultural environment in the process of joint activity and communication. In humanistic philosophical and psychological concepts, L. is a person as a value for the sake of which the development of society is carried out (see I. Kant). With all the variety of approaches to understanding L., the following are traditionally highlighted. aspects of this problem: 1) the versatility of the phenomenology of L., reflecting the objectively existing diversity of human manifestations in the evolution of nature, the history of society and his own life; 2) the interdisciplinary status of the problem of literature, located in the field of study of social and natural sciences; 3) the dependence of the understanding of life on the image of a person, openly or hiddenly existing in culture and science at a certain stage of their development; 4) the discrepancy between the manifestations of the individual, L. and individuality, studied within the framework of biogenetic, sociogenetic and personogenetic directions of modern human science that are relatively independent from each other; 5) dividing a research approach that directs a specialist to understand the development of life in nature and society, and a practical attitude aimed at the formation or correction of life in accordance with the goals set by society or set by a specific person who contacts a specialist.

The focus of attention of representatives of the biogenetic orientation is on the problems of human development as an individual with certain anthropogenetic properties (inclinations, temperament, biological age, gender, body type, neurodynamic properties of n.s., organic impulses, drives, needs, etc.), which undergo various stages of maturation as the phylogenetic program of the species is implemented in ontogenesis. The basis of the maturation of an individual is the adaptive processes of the body, which are studied by differential and age-related psychophysiology, psychogenetics, neuropsychology, gerontology, psychoendocrinology and sexology. (See also Human Constitution.)

Representatives of different currents of sociogenetic orientation study the processes of human socialization, the development of social norms and roles, the acquisition of social attitudes (see Attitude) and value orientations, the formation of the social and national character of a person as a typical member of a particular community. Problems of socialization, or, in a broad sense, human social adaptation, are being developed by G.O. in sociology and social psychology, ethnopsychology, history of psychology. (See also Basic personality structure, Marginal personality, Social psychology.)

The focus of personogenetic orientation is on the problems of activity, self-awareness and creativity of L., the formation of the human self, the struggle of motives, the education of individual character and abilities, self-realization and personal choice, the constant search for the meaning of life. The study of all these manifestations of L. is carried out by the general psychology of L.; various aspects of these problems are covered in psychoanalysis, individual psychology, analytical and humanistic psychology.

The separation of biogenetic, sociogenetic, and personogenetic directions reveals a metaphysical scheme for determining the development of life under the influence of two factors: environment and heredity (see Convergence theory). Within the framework of the cultural-historical system-activity approach, a fundamentally different scheme for determining the development of personality is being developed. In this scheme, the properties of a person as an individual are considered as “impersonal” prerequisites for the development of personality, which can receive personal development in the course of life.

The sociocultural environment is a source that feeds the development of personality, and not a “factor” that directly determines behavior. Being a condition for the implementation of human activity, it carries those social norms, values, roles, ceremonies, tools, systems of signs that the individual encounters. The true foundations and driving force for the development of literature are joint activities and communication, through which the movement of literature is carried out in the world of people and its introduction to culture. The relationship between the individual as a product of anthropogenesis, an individual who has mastered socio-historical experience, and an individual who transforms the world, perhaps. conveyed by the formula: “One is born as an individual. One becomes an individual. Individuality is defended.”

Within the framework of the system-activity approach, L. is considered as a relatively stable set of mental properties, as a result of the inclusion of the individual in the space of interindividual connections. In his development, an individual experiences a socially conditioned need to be a L. and discovers the ability to become a L., which is realized in socially significant activities. This determines the development of man as L.

The abilities and functions formed during development reproduce in L. historically formed human qualities. The child’s mastery of reality is carried out in his activities with the help of adults. The child’s activity is always mediated by adults and directed by them (in accordance with their ideas about proper education and pedagogical skills). Based on what the child already possesses, adults organize his activities to master new aspects of reality and new forms of behavior (see Children's activities).

L.'s development is carried out in activity (see Leading activity), controlled by a system of motives. The activity-mediated type of relationship that a person develops with the most reference group (or person) is a determining factor in development (see Activity-mediated theory of interpersonal relationships).

In general, the development of L. m. b. presented as the process and result of a person’s entry into a new sociocultural environment. If an individual enters a relatively stable social community, under favorable circumstances he goes through 3 phases of his formation in it as an L. The 1st phase - adaptation - involves the assimilation of current values ​​and norms and mastery of the corresponding means and forms of activity and thus, to some extent likening an individual to other members of this community. The 2nd phase - individualization - is generated by the intensifying contradictions between the need to “be like everyone else” and L.’s desire for maximum personalization. The 3rd phase - integration - is determined by the contradiction between the individual’s desire to be ideally represented by his characteristics and differences in the community and the need of the community to accept, approve and cultivate only those of his characteristics that contribute to its development and thereby the development of himself as an L. If the contradiction is not eliminated, disintegration occurs and, as a consequence, either isolation of L., or its displacement from the community, or degradation with a return to earlier stages of its development.

When an individual fails to overcome the difficulties of the adaptation period, he develops qualities of conformity, dependence, timidity, and uncertainty. If in the 2nd phase of development an individual, presenting to his reference group the personal properties that characterize his individuality, does not meet with mutual understanding, then this can contribute to the formation of negativism, aggressiveness, suspicion, and deceit. Upon successful completion of the integration phase in a highly developed group, the individual develops humanity, trust, justice, self-demandingness, self-confidence, etc., etc. Due to the fact that the situation of adaptation, individualization, integration with the sequential or parallel entry of the individual is reproduced many times into different groups, the corresponding personal new formations are consolidated, and a stable structure of L is formed.

A particularly significant period in the age development of a personality is adolescence (adolescence) and early youth, when the developing personality begins to distinguish itself as an object of self-knowledge and self-education. Initially assessing those around him, L. uses the experience of such assessments, developing self-esteem, which becomes the basis of self-education. But the need for self-knowledge (primarily in awareness of one’s moral and psychological qualities) cannot. identified with withdrawal into the world of internal experiences. The growth of self-awareness, associated with the formation of such qualities of a person as will and moral feelings, contributes to the emergence of persistent beliefs and ideals. The need for self-awareness and self-education is generated, first of all, by the fact that a person must realize his capabilities and needs in the face of future changes in his life, in his social status. If there is a significant discrepancy between L.'s level of needs and her capabilities, acute affective experiences arise (see Affects).

In the development of self-awareness in adolescence, a significant role is played by the judgments of other people, and above all, assessment by parents, teachers and peers. This places serious demands on the pedagogical tact of parents and teachers and requires an individual approach to each developing child.

Conducted in the Russian Federation since the mid-1980s. work to update the education system presupposes the development of the child, adolescent, and young adult, democratization and humanization of the educational process in all types of educational institutions. Thus, there is a change in the purpose of education and training, which is not the totality of knowledge, skills and abilities, but the free development of human personality. Knowledge, skills and abilities retain their extremely important importance, but no longer as a goal, but as a means to achieve a goal. In these conditions, the task of forming a basic culture of literature comes to the fore, which would make it possible to eliminate the contradictions in the structure of literature between technical and humanitarian culture, overcome the alienation of a person from politics and ensure his active inclusion in the new socio-economic conditions of society. The implementation of these tasks presupposes the formation of a culture of self-determination of L., an understanding of the intrinsic value of human life, its individuality and uniqueness. (A. G. Asmolov, A. V. Petrovsky.)

Editor's addition: The almost generally accepted translation of the word L. k&kpersonality (and vice versa) is not entirely adequate. Personality is, rather, individuality. In Peter's times, a doll was called a persona. L. is selfhood, self ness or self, which is close to Russian. the word "self". A more accurate equivalent to the word "L." in English language does not exist. The inaccuracy of the translation is far from harmless, because readers get the impression or belief that L. is subject to testing, manipulation, formation, etc. An externally formed L. becomes the presence of the one who formed it. L. is not a product of a collective, adaptation to it, or integration into it, but the basis of a collective, of any human community that is not a crowd, a herd, a flock or a pack. The community is strong due to the diversity of the laws that constitute it. A synonym for L. is her freedom along with a sense of guilt and responsibility. In this sense, L. is higher than the state, the nation, she is not inclined to conformism, although she is not averse to compromise.

In Russia philosophical tradition of L. is a miracle and a myth (A. F. Losev); “L., understood in the sense of pure L., is for each I only an ideal - the limit of aspirations and self-construction... It is impossible to give the concept of L.... it is incomprehensible, goes beyond the limits of every concept, transcendental to every concept. It is only possible create a symbol of the fundamental characteristic of L... As for the content, it may not be rational, but only directly experienced in the experience of self-creativity, in the active self-construction of L., in the identity of spiritual self-knowledge" (Florensky P. A .). M. M. Bakhtin continues Florensky’s thought: when we are dealing with the knowledge of L. we must generally go beyond the limits of subject-object relations, in which subject and object are considered in epistemology. This must be taken into account by psychologists who use strange phrases: “subjectivity of L.”, “psychological subject.” Regarding the latter, G. G. Shpet openly sarcastically said: “A psychological subject without a residence permit and without a physiological organism is simply a native of a world unknown to us... if we take him for a real person, he will certainly involve an even greater miracle - a psychological predicate! Today, philosophically and psychologically suspicious subjects and their shadows are increasingly wandering through the pages of psychological literature. An unscrupulous subject, a soulless subject - this is most likely not entirely normal, but familiar. And a sincere, conscientious, spiritualized subject is funny and sad. Subjects can represent, in including all sorts of abominations, and L. - personify. It is no coincidence that Losev associated the origin of the word L. with a face, and not with a guise, person, mask. L., as a miracle, as a myth, as uniqueness, does not need extensive disclosure. Bakhtin reasonably noted that L. can reveal himself in a gesture, in a word, in an action (or maybe drown).A. A. Ukhtomsky was undoubtedly right when he said that L. is a functional organ of individuality, its state. It should be added - a state of soul and spirit, and not an honorary lifelong title. After all, she can lose face, distort her face, lose her human dignity, which is taken by force. Ukhtomsky was echoed by N.A. Bernstein, saying that L. is the supreme synthesis of behavior. Supreme! In L. integration, fusion, and harmony of external and internal are achieved. And where there is harmony, science, including psychology, falls silent.

So, L. is a mysterious excess of individuality, its freedom, which cannot be calculated or predicted. L. is visible immediately and entirely and thus differs from the individual, whose properties are subject to disclosure, testing, study and evaluation. L. is an object of surprise, admiration, envy, hatred; a subject of unbiased, disinterested, understanding insight and artistic depiction. But not a subject of practical interest, formation, manipulation. The above does not mean that psychologists are contraindicated to think about L. But to think, and not to define or reduce it to the hierarchy of motives, the totality of its needs, creativity, the intersection of activities, affects, meanings, the subject, the individual, etc., etc.

Here are examples of useful thoughts about L. A. S. Arsenyev: L. is a reliable person, whose words and deeds do not diverge from each other, who freely decides what to do and is responsible for the results of his actions. L. is, of course, an infinite being, breathing physically and spiritually. L. is characterized by an awareness of the conflict between morality and morality and the primacy of the latter. The author insists on the value, and not the monetary-market dimension of L. T. M. Buyakas highlights other features: L. is a person who has taken the path of self-determination, overcoming the need to seek support in external support. L. gains the ability to fully rely on herself, make independent choices, take her own position, be open and ready for any new turns in her life path. L. ceases to depend on external assessments, trusts herself, and finds internal support in herself. She is free. No description of L. can be used. exhaustive. (V.P. Zinchenko.)

Personality

a set of relatively stable behavioral and cognitive characteristics, traits and predispositions that an individual tends to exhibit in a variety of situations, various environmental conditions, when interacting with other people, and which underlie individual differences.

Personality

Personality is a phenomenon of social development, a living person with consciousness and self-awareness. The term denotes stable characteristics or traits of a person that determine his thinking and behavior in different situations. The implication is also that different people behave differently in similar situations, and the difference in behavior is a product of differences in their personalities. Personality is distinguished from other, more short-term states (such as mood) due to its stability over time. Given these premises, it can be concluded that a person should behave in a consistent manner in different situations. For example, an extrovert will exhibit signs of extroverted behavior wherever he goes. Opponents of this point of view argue that behavior does not remain constant over time, but depends on the characteristics of a given situation.

PERSONALITY

One of the classic "chapter headings" in psychology. That is, a term so difficult to define and having such a wide range of use that a wise author uses it as a chapter title and then freely writes about it, without taking any responsibility for the definitions, if they are presented in the text. In order not to repeat here the folly of several dozen unwise authors (G.W. Allport, since 1927, managed to collect about 50 different definitions from the literature, and only heaven knows how many of them can be found today), we will characterize this term not definitionally, but rather in accordance with its role in personality theory. This approach appears to be the best since the meaning of the term for each author tends to be colored by his theoretical predisposition and the empirical tools used to evaluate and test the theory. The simplest procedure would be to present a few of the most influential general trends and describe how each characterizes the term.

Theories of types. The oldest of them is the theory of Hippocrates, which you

put forward a hypothesis about four main temperaments: choleric, sangvi

nic, melancholic and phlegmatic. Polo was used here

assumption, as in all subsequent theories of types, that each individual is

represents a certain balance of these basic elements. Most

the complete typological theory was the theory of V.G. Sheldon, who claimed

gave (but inconclusively) that body types are closely related to personality development.

See constitutional theory for discussion. Carl Jung's approach though

and actually belongs to psychoanalytic theories (see below), is sometimes classified as a type theory due to its emphasis on classifying individuals into types, such as introvert-extrovert.

Trait theories. All theories of this type are based on the assumption that a person's personality is a compendium of traits or characteristic ways of behaving, thinking, feeling, reacting, etc. Early trait theories were little more than lists of adjectives, and personality was defined through enumeration. More recent approaches have used factor analysis in an attempt to isolate the underlying dimensions of personality. Perhaps the most influential theory here is that of R.B. Cattell, based on a set of deep traits that each individual was believed to have quite a lot of and which have “real structural influences that determine personality.” According to Cattell, the purpose of personality theory is to construct an individual matrix of traits from which predictions about behavior can be made.

Note that the type and trait approaches are complementary and, indeed, one could argue that they are two sides of the same coin. Type theories primarily deal with what individuals have in common; trait theories focus on what differentiates them. However, they, of course, lead to very different understandings of the basic term personality.

3. Psychodynamic and psychoanalytic theories. It brings together many approaches, including the classical theories of Freud and Jung, social

psychological theories of Adler, Fromm, Sullivan and Horney, more modern approaches of Laing and Perls and others. Between them there are many

differences, but they all contain an important common core idea: the personality in them all is characterized through the concept of integration. A strong emphasis is usually placed on developmental factors, with the implicit assumption that adult personality develops gradually over time, depending on how various factors are integrated. In addition, great emphasis is placed on concepts of motivation, so that no consideration of personality problems is considered theoretically useful without an assessment of the basic motivational syndromes. Synonym – character (2).

Behaviorism. The basis of this direction was the extension of learning theory to the study of personality. Although there is no influential

purely behaviorist theory of personality, this direction stimulated

other theorists to a careful consideration of the integral problem:

which of the consistent behaviors exhibited by most people is a consequence of basic personality types or traits or dynamics and which

a consequence of the constancy of the environment and the sequence of chance

emerging reinforcements? It is not surprising that the scientists mentioned below, who have been influenced to varying degrees by behaviorism, do not see personality itself in their search for answers to these questions, and to some extent they question the necessity of the term personality.

Humanism. This direction arose as a reaction to what was resurrected

accepted as the dominance of psychoanalysis and behaviorism in psychology. Ta

Thinkers such as Maslow, Rogers, May, and Frankl focused on phenomenology, which emphasized subjective mental experience, holism as opposed to the reductionism of behaviorism, and the importance of the desire for self-actualization (2). The main problems of humanism concern the difficulty of scientific testing of many of its theoretical concepts. Nevertheless, it remains an important approach to the study of personality and the ideal beginning of the movement of human potential.

Social learning theories. Many theoretical considerations with this

points of view stem from the problem of relating the influence of the environment with the influence of properties given by nature. However, the concept of personality is considered here as those aspects of behavior that are acquired in a social context. Leading theorist Albert Bandura bases his position on the notion that, although learning is a critical influence, factors other than simple response-stimulus relationships are needed to explain the development of complex social behaviors (such as roles) that essentially constitute a person's personality. random reinforcements. In particular, cognitive factors such as memory, memory retention, and self-regulatory processes are important, and many studies have focused on modeling and observing

teaching as a mechanism that can give theoretically satisfactory

nable description of consistent behavior in social contexts.

Situationism. This direction, the founder of which was Walter Michel, is derived from behaviorism and the theory of social

learning. Its adherents believe that any observable stable pattern of behavior is largely determined by the characteristics of the situation rather than by any internal personality types or traits. Indeed, the very concept of a personality trait, from this point of view, is nothing more than a mental construct of an observer trying to give some meaning to the behavior of others, and exists only in the mind of the observer. Constancy of behavior is attributed more to the similarity of situations in which a person tends to find himself than to internal consistency.

Interactionism. This position is eclectic. It accepts that there is some truth in all of the above, more narrowly focused theories, and it argues that personality arises from the interactions of certain qualities and predispositions and the way in which the environment influences the way in which these qualities and behavioral tendencies are expressed. It is not at all obvious that, according to this point of view, personality exists as a separate “thing”. Rather, it becomes its own

a kind of general term for complex patterns of interaction.

It is interesting to note that the above theoretical approaches are seen as representing two different generalizations regarding the term personality itself, since positions 1-3 represent a grounded theoretical construct, a hypothetical, internal "entity" with a causal role in behavior and, from a theoretical perspective, a genuine explanatory role. by force. Positions 4-8 are viewed as a secondary factor inferred from the consistency of behavior - while other operations and processes play an important causal role in determining behavior - and therefore, as a concept, it is not supported by strong arguments.

In addition to the above, of course, there are other theoretical approaches, which, each in turn, have been the focus of science (for example, see existentialism, field theory). But the theories mentioned should be sufficient to give an idea of ​​the variety of meanings that the term personality can express. The term also occurs in a variety of compound forms, the most commonly used of which are given below.

Knowledge of the basic principles of psychology can play an important role in the life of any person. In order for us to most productively fulfill the goals we have set for ourselves and effectively interact with the people around us, we need to have at least an idea of ​​what personality psychology is, how personality development occurs and what are the features of this process. It is important to know what the constituent elements and personality types are. By understanding these issues, we get the opportunity to make our lives more productive, comfortable and harmonious.

The following lesson on personality psychology is designed specifically to help you grasp these important fundamentals and learn as effectively as possible. Here you will get acquainted with how a person and the problem of personality are viewed in psychology: you will learn its foundations and structure. And also gain insight into personality research and many other interesting topics.

What is personality?

In the modern world there is no unambiguous definition of the concept of “personality” and this is due to the complexity of the personality phenomenon itself. Any currently available definition is worthy of being taken into account when compiling the most objective and complete one.

If we talk about the most common definition, we can say that:

Personality- this is a person who has a certain set of psychological properties on which his actions that are significant for society are based; the internal difference between one person and the rest.

There are several other definitions:

• Personality it is a social subject and the totality of his personal and social roles, his preferences and habits, his knowledge and experience.
• Personality- this is a person who independently builds and controls his life and bears full responsibility for it.

Together with the concept of “personality” in psychology, such concepts as “individual” and “individuality” are used.

Individual- this is an individual person, considered as a unique set of his innate and acquired qualities.

Individuality- a set of unique traits and characteristics that distinguish one individual from all others; the uniqueness of the human personality and psyche.

In order for anyone who shows interest in the human personality as a psychological phenomenon to have the most objective idea about it, it is necessary to highlight the key elements that make up the personality, in other words, to talk about its structure.

Personality structure

The structure of a personality is the connection and interaction of its various components: abilities, volitional qualities, character, emotions, etc. These components are its properties and differences and are called “traits.” There are quite a lot of these features, and to structure them there is a division into levels:

• Lowest level of personality These are sexual properties of the psyche, age-related, innate.
• Second level of personality These are individual manifestations of thinking, memory, abilities, sensations, perceptions, which depend on both congenital factors and their development.
• Third level of personality This is an individual experience that contains acquired knowledge, habits, abilities, and skills. This level is formed in the process of life and is social in nature.
• Highest level of personality- this is its orientation, which includes interests, desires, inclinations, inclinations, beliefs, views, ideals, worldviews, self-esteem, character traits. This level is the most socially determined and formed under the influence of upbringing, and also more fully reflects the ideology of the society in which a person is located.

Why is it important and necessary to distinguish these levels from each other? At least in order to be able to objectively characterize any person (including yourself) as a person, to understand what level you are considering.

The differences between people are very multifaceted, because at each level there are differences in interests and beliefs, knowledge and experience, abilities and skills, character and temperament. It is for these reasons that it can be quite difficult to understand another person, to avoid contradictions and even conflicts. In order to understand yourself and others, you need to have a certain amount of psychological knowledge, and combine it with awareness and observation. And in this very specific issue, knowledge of key personality traits and their differences plays an important role.

Key personality traits

In psychology, personality traits are usually understood as stable mental phenomena that have a significant impact on a person’s activity and characterize him from the socio-psychological side. In other words, this is how a person manifests himself in his activities and in his relationships with others. The structure of these phenomena includes abilities, temperament, character, will, emotions, motivation. Below we will look at each of them separately.

Capabilities

When understanding why different people under the same living conditions produce different results, we are often guided by the concept of “ability,” assuming that it is they that influence what a person achieves. We use the same term to find out why some people learn something faster than others, etc.

The concept " capabilities" can be interpreted in different ways. Firstly, it is a set of mental processes and states, often called the properties of the soul. Secondly, this is a high level of development of general and special skills, abilities and knowledge that ensure the effective performance of various functions by a person. And thirdly, abilities are everything that cannot be reduced to knowledge, skills and abilities, but with the help of which their acquisition, use and consolidation can be explained.

A person has a huge number of different abilities that can be divided into several categories.

Elementary and complex abilities

• Elementary (simple) abilities- these are abilities associated with the functions of the senses and simple movements (the ability to distinguish smells, sounds, colors). They are present in a person from birth and can be improved throughout life.
• Complex abilities- these are abilities in various activities related to human culture. For example, musical (composing music), artistic (the ability to draw), mathematical (the ability to easily solve complex mathematical problems). Such abilities are called socially conditioned, because they are not innate.

General and special abilities

• General Abilities- these are abilities that all people have, but are developed in everyone to varying degrees (general motor, mental). They determine success and achievements in many activities (sports, learning, teaching).
• Special Abilities- these are abilities that are not found in everyone and for which, in most cases, the presence of certain inclinations is required (artistic, visual, literary, acting, musical). Thanks to them, people achieve success in specific activities.

It should be noted that the presence of special abilities in a person can be harmoniously combined with the development of general ones, and vice versa.

Theoretical and practical

• Theoretical abilities- these are abilities that determine an individual’s propensity for abstract logical thinking, as well as the ability to clearly set and successfully carry out theoretical tasks.
• Practical abilities- these are abilities that are manifested in the ability to set and perform practical tasks associated with specific actions in certain life situations.

Educational and creative

• Study Abilities- these are the abilities that determine the success of learning, assimilation of knowledge, skills and abilities.
• Creative skills- these are abilities that determine a person’s ability to create objects of spiritual and material culture, as well as influencing the production of new ideas, making discoveries, etc.

Communicative and subject-activity

• Communication skills- these are abilities that include knowledge, skills and abilities related to communication and interaction with others, interpersonal assessment and perception, establishing contacts, networking, finding a common language, liking oneself and influencing people.
• Subject-related abilities- these are abilities that determine the interaction of people with inanimate objects.

All types of abilities are complementary, and it is their combination that gives a person the opportunity to develop most fully and harmoniously. Abilities influence both each other and a person’s success in life, activity and communication.

In addition to the fact that psychology uses the concept of “ability” to characterize a person, terms such as “genius”, “talent”, “giftedness” are also used, indicating more subtle nuances of a person’s individuality.

• Giftedness- this is the presence in a person from birth of the inclinations for better development of abilities.
• Talent- these are abilities that are revealed to the fullest extent through the acquisition of skills and experience.
• Genius- this is an unusually high level of development of any abilities.

As we mentioned above, a person’s life outcome is very often related to his abilities and their application. And the results of the vast majority of people, unfortunately, leave much to be desired. Many people begin to search for solutions to their problems somewhere outside, when the right solution is always found within a person. You should just look inside yourself. If a person in his daily activities does not do what he has inclinations and predispositions for, then the effect from this will be, to put it mildly, unsatisfactory. One of the options to change things is to accurately determine your abilities.

If, for example, you have an innate ability to lead and manage people, and you work as a goods receiver in a warehouse, then, of course, this occupation will not bring any moral, emotional, or financial satisfaction, because you are doing something completely different from yours. business. In this situation, some kind of management position would be more suitable for you. You can start by at least working as a middle manager. Innate leadership abilities, when systematically used and developed, will take you to a completely different level. Set aside time in your schedule to determine your inclinations and abilities, study yourself, try to understand what you really want to do and what will bring you pleasure. Based on the results obtained, it will be possible to draw a conclusion on the direction in which to move further.

To determine abilities and inclinations, there are now a huge number of tests and techniques. You can read more about abilities.

An aptitude test will appear here soon.

Along with abilities, as one of the main personality traits, temperament can be distinguished.

Temperament

Temperament call a set of properties that characterize the dynamic features of mental processes and human states (their occurrence, change, strength, speed, cessation), as well as his behavior.

The idea of ​​temperament goes back to the works of Hippocrates, an ancient Greek philosopher who lived in the 5th century. BC. It was he who defined the different types of temperaments that people use to this day: melancholic, choleric, phlegmatic, sanguine.

Melancholic temperament- this type is characteristic of people of a gloomy mood, with a tense and complex inner life. Such people are distinguished by vulnerability, anxiety, restraint, and also by the fact that they attach great importance to everything that concerns them personally. With minor difficulties, melancholic people give up. They have little energy potential and get tired quickly.

Choleric temperament- most typical for hot-tempered people. People with this type of temperament are unrestrained, impatient, hot-tempered and impulsive. But they quickly cool down and calm down if someone meets them halfway. Cholerics are characterized by persistence and stability of interests and aspirations.

Phlegmatic temperament- These are cold-blooded people who are more prone to being in a state of inactivity than in a state of active work. They are slow to excite, but take a long time to cool down. Phlegmatic people are not resourceful; it is difficult for them to adapt to a new environment, adapt to a new way, and get rid of old habits. But at the same time, they are efficient and energetic, patient, have self-control and endurance.

Sanguine temperament Such people are cheerful, optimistic, humorists and jokers. Full of hope, sociable, easy to meet new people. Sanguine people are distinguished by their quick reaction to external stimuli: they can be easily cheered up or angered. They actively take on new endeavors and can work for a long time. They are disciplined, can control their reactions if necessary and quickly adapt to new conditions.

These are far from complete descriptions of temperament types, but contain the most characteristic features of them. Each of them is neither good nor bad in itself unless linked to requirements and expectations. Any type of temperament can have both its disadvantages and its advantages. You can find out more about human temperament.

Having a good understanding of the influence of the type of temperament on the speed of occurrence of mental processes (perception, thinking, attention) and their intensity, on the pace and rhythm of activity, as well as on its direction, you can easily and effectively use this knowledge in everyday life.

To determine the type of temperament, it is best to use specialized tests compiled by experts in the field of personality studies.

A test for determining temperament will appear here soon.

Another fundamental property of a person’s personality is his character.

Character

Character are the methods of human interaction with the outside world and other people acquired in certain social conditions that constitute the type of his life activity.

In the process of communication between people, character is manifested in behavior, ways of reacting to the actions and actions of others. Manners can be delicate and tactful or rude and unceremonious. This is due to the difference in people's characters. People with the strongest or, conversely, weak character always stand out from the rest. People with strong character, as a rule, are distinguished by perseverance, perseverance, and purposefulness. And weak-willed people are characterized by weakness of will, unpredictability, and randomness of actions. Character includes many traits that modern experts divide into three groups: communicative, business, and strong-willed.

Communicative traits are manifested in a person’s communication with others (withdrawal, sociability, responsiveness, anger, goodwill).

Business traits are manifested in everyday work activities (neatness, conscientiousness, hard work, responsibility, laziness).

Volitional traits are directly related to a person’s will (commitment, perseverance, perseverance, lack of will, compliance).

There are also motivational and instrumental character traits.

Motivational traits are those that encourage a person to act, guide and support his activity.

Instrumental traits - give behavior a certain style.

If you can get a clear idea of ​​the traits and characteristics of your character, this will allow you to understand the motivating force that guides your development and self-realization in life. This knowledge will allow you to determine which of your features are most developed and which need to be improved, as well as understand through which features of yours you interact more with the world and others. A deep understanding of yourself provides a unique opportunity to see how and why you react to life situations and events in this way, and what you need to cultivate in yourself so that your lifestyle becomes as productive and useful as possible and you can be fully realized. If you know the characteristics of your character, its pros and cons, and begin to improve yourself, you will be able to react best in a given situation, you will know how to respond to harmful or beneficial influences, what to say to another person in response to his actions and words .

A test to determine character traits will appear here soon.

One of the most important personality traits that has the most serious impact on the process of human life and its results is will.

Will

Will- this is the property of a person to consciously control his psyche and actions.

Thanks to will, a person is able to consciously control his own behavior and his mental states and processes. With the help of will, a person exerts a conscious influence on the world around him, introducing into it the necessary (in his opinion) changes.

The main sign of will is associated with the fact that, in most cases, it is associated with a person making reasonable decisions, overcoming obstacles and making efforts to realize his plans. A volitional decision is made by an individual in conditions of contrasting, multidirectional needs, drives and motives that have approximately the same driving force, due to which a person always needs to choose one of two/several.

Will always implies self-restraint: acting in one way or another to achieve certain goals and results, realizing certain needs, a person acting according to his own will must always deprive himself of something else, which perhaps seems more attractive and desirable to him. Another sign of the participation of will in human behavior is the presence of a specific plan of action.

An important feature of volitional effort is the absence of emotional satisfaction, but the presence of moral satisfaction that arises as a result of the implementation of the plan (but not in the process of implementation). Very often, volitional efforts are directed not at overcoming circumstances, but at “defeating” oneself, despite one’s natural desires.

Mainly, will is what helps a person overcome life's difficulties and obstacles along the way; something that helps you achieve new results and develop. As one of the greatest writers of the 20th century, Carlos Castaneda, said: “Will is what makes you win when your mind tells you that you are defeated.” We can say that the stronger a person’s willpower, the stronger the person himself (this means, of course, not physical, but internal strength). The main practice for developing willpower is its training and hardening. You can start developing your willpower with very simple things.

For example, make it a rule to notice those tasks, the postponement of which devastates you, “sucks energy” and the implementation of which, on the contrary, invigorates, energizes and has a positive impact. These are the things that you are too lazy to do. For example, tidying up when you don’t feel like it at all, doing exercises in the morning by getting up half an hour earlier. An inner voice will tell you that this can be postponed or that it is not necessary to do this at all. Don't listen to him. This is the voice of your laziness. Do it as you intended - after that you will notice that you feel more energetic and alert, stronger. Or another example: identify your weaknesses (this could be aimless spending time on the Internet, watching TV, lying on the couch, sweets, etc.). Take the weakest one and give it up for a week, two, a month. Promise yourself that after a designated period you will return to your habit again (if you want, of course). And then - the most important thing: take the symbol of this weakness and keep it with you at all times. But do not give in to the provocations of the “old you” and remember the promise. This is training your willpower. Over time, you will see that you have become stronger and can move on to giving up stronger weaknesses.

But nothing can compare in the power of influence on the human psyche as another property of his personality - emotions.

Emotions

Emotions can be characterized as special individual experiences that have a pleasant or unpleasant mental coloring and are associated with the satisfaction of vital needs.

Among the main types of emotions are:

Mood - it reflects the general state of a person at a certain moment

The simplest emotions are experiences that are associated with the satisfaction of organic needs

Affects are violent, short-lived emotions that are especially manifested externally (gestures, facial expressions)

Feelings are a spectrum of experiences associated with certain objects

Passion is pronounced feelings that cannot (in most cases) be controlled

Stress is a combination of emotions and the physical state of the body

Emotions, especially feelings, affects and passions, are an invariable part of a person’s personality. All people (personalities) are very different emotionally. For example, by emotional excitability, duration of emotional experiences, predominance of negative or positive emotions. But the main sign of difference is the intensity of the emotions experienced and their direction.

Emotions have the characteristic feature of having a serious impact on a person’s life. Under the influence of certain emotions at certain moments, a person can make decisions, say something, and perform actions. As a rule, emotions are a short-lived phenomenon. But what a person sometimes does under the influence of emotions does not always give good results. And because our lesson is devoted to how to improve your life, then we should talk specifically about ways to influence it favorably.

It is important to learn to control your emotions and not give in to them. First of all, you need to remember that an emotion, whatever it is (positive or negative) is just an emotion, and it will soon pass. Therefore, if in any negative situation you feel that negative emotions are beginning to prevail in you, remember this and restrain them - this will allow you not to do or say something that you may later regret. If, thanks to some outstanding positive events in life, you experience a surge of joyful emotions, then also remember this; this practice will allow you to avoid unnecessary energy costs.

Surely, you are familiar with the situation when, some time after a moment of intense joy or delight, you feel some kind of inner devastation. Emotions are always a waste of personal energy. It’s not for nothing that the ancient Jewish king Solomon had a ring on his finger with the inscription: “This too shall pass.” Always in moments of joy or sadness, he turned his ring and read this inscription to himself in order to remember the short duration of emotional experiences.

Knowledge of what emotions are and the ability to manage them are very important aspects in the development of personality and life in general. Learn to manage your emotions and you will know yourself to the fullest. Such things as introspection and self-control, as well as various spiritual practices (meditation, yoga, etc.) allow you to master this skill. You can find information about them on the Internet. You can learn more about what emotions are in our acting training.

But, despite the importance of all the personality properties discussed above, perhaps the dominant role is occupied by another of its properties - motivation, since it influences the desire to learn more about oneself and immerse oneself in the psychology of personality, interest in something new, hitherto unknown, even if you are reading this lesson.

Motivation

In general, in human behavior there are two sides that complement each other - incentive and regulation. The incentive side ensures the activation of behavior and its direction, and the regulatory side is responsible for how behavior develops under specific conditions.

Motivation is closely related to such phenomena as motivations, intentions, motives, needs, etc. In the narrowest sense, motivation can be defined as a set of reasons that explain human behavior. This concept is based on the term “motive”.

Motive- this is any internal physiological or psychological urge responsible for the activity and purposefulness of behavior. Motives can be conscious and unconscious, imaginary and really active, meaning-forming and motivating.

The following phenomena influence human motivation:

Need is a state of human need for anything necessary for normal existence, as well as mental and physical development.

A stimulus is any internal or external factor, coupled with a motive, that controls behavior and directs it to achieve a specific goal.

Intention is a thought-out and consciously made decision that is consistent with the desire to do something.

Motivation is a person’s not fully conscious and vague (possibly) desire for something.

It is motivation that is the “fuel” of a person. Just as a car needs gasoline so that it can go further, a person needs motivation in order to strive for something, develop, and reach new heights. For example, you wanted to learn more about human psychology and personality traits, and this was the motivation for turning to this lesson. But what is a great motivation for one may be an absolute zero for another.

Knowledge about motivation, first of all, can be successfully used for yourself: think about what you want to achieve in life, make a list of your life goals. Not just what you would like to have, but exactly what makes your heart beat faster and makes you emotional. Imagine what you want as if you already have it. If you feel that it turns you on, then this is your motivation to act. We all experience periods of ups and downs in activity. And it is precisely in moments of decline that you need to remember what you should move forward for. Set a global goal, divide its achievement into intermediate stages and start taking action. Only the person who knows where he is going and takes steps towards it will reach his goal.

Also, knowledge about motivation can be used in communicating with people.

An excellent example would be a situation where you ask a person to fulfill some request (for friendship, for work, etc.). Naturally, in exchange for a service, a person wants to receive something for himself (as sad as it may be, most people are characterized by selfish interest, even if it manifests itself in some to a greater extent and in others to a lesser extent). Determine what a person needs; this will be a kind of hook that can hook him, his motivation. Show the person the benefit. If he sees that by meeting you halfway, he will be able to satisfy some essential need for him, then this will be an almost 100% guarantee that your interaction will be successful and effective.

In addition to the above material, it is worth mentioning the process of personality development. After all, everything that we considered before is closely interconnected with this process, depends on it and at the same time influences it. The topic of personality development is very unique and voluminous for describing it as a small part of one lesson, but it cannot be ignored. And therefore we will touch on it only in general terms.

Personal development

Personal development is part of overall human development. It is one of the main themes of practical psychology, but it is understood far from ambiguously. When scientists use the phrase “personal development,” they refer to at least four different topics.

1. What are the mechanisms and dynamics of personality development (the process itself is studied)
2. What does a person achieve in the process of his development (results are studied)
3. In what ways and means can parents and society form a child’s personality (the actions of “educators” are examined)
4. How can a person develop himself as a person (the actions of the person himself are studied)

The topic of personality development has always attracted many researchers and was considered from different angles. For some researchers, the greatest interest in personality development is the influence of socio-cultural characteristics, the methods of this influence and models of education. For others, the subject of close study is a person’s independent development of himself as an individual.

Personal development can be either a natural process that does not require outside participation, or a conscious, purposeful one. And the results will differ significantly from each other.

In addition to the fact that a person is able to develop himself, he can also develop others. Practical psychology is most characterized by assistance in personal development, the development of new methods and innovations in this matter, various trainings, seminars and educational programs.

Basic theories of personality research

The main directions in personality research can be identified starting around the middle of the 20th century. Next we will look at some of them, and for the most popular (Freud, Jung) we will give examples.

This is a psychodynamic approach to the study of personality. Personality development was considered by Freud from a psychosexual perspective, and he proposed a three-component personality structure:

• Id - “it”, it contains everything inherited and embedded in the human constitution. Each individual has basic instincts: life, death and sexual, the most important of which is the third.
• Ego - “I” is a part of the mental apparatus that is in contact with the surrounding reality. The main task at this level is self-preservation and protection.
• Super ego - “super ego” is the so-called judge of the activities and thoughts of the ego. Three functions are performed here: conscience, introspection and the formation of ideals.

Freud's theory is perhaps the most popular of all theories in psychology. It is widely known because it reveals the deep characteristics and incentives of human behavior, in particular the strong influence of sexual desire on a person. The basic tenet of psychoanalysis is that human behavior, experience and cognition are largely determined by internal and irrational drives, and these drives are predominantly unconscious.

One of the methods of Freud's psychological theory, when studied in detail, says that you need to learn to use your excess energy and sublimate it, i.e. redirect to achieve certain goals. For example, if you notice that your child is overly active, then this activity can be directed in the right direction - by sending the child to the sports section. As another example of sublimation, the following situation can be cited: you were standing in line at the tax office and encountered an arrogant, rude and negative person. In the process, he yelled at you, insulted you, thereby causing a storm of negative emotions - an excess of energy that needs to be thrown out somewhere. To do this, you can go to the gym or pool. You yourself will not notice how all the anger will go away, and you will again be in a cheerful mood. This, of course, is a completely trivial example of sublimation, but the essence of the method can be grasped in it.

To learn more about the sublimation method, visit this page.

Knowledge of Freud's theory can also be used in another aspect - the interpretation of dreams. According to Freud, a dream is a reflection of something that is in a person’s soul, which he himself may not even be aware of. Think about what reasons could lead to you having this or that dream. Whatever comes to your mind first as an answer will make the most sense. And based on this, you should interpret your dream as a reaction of your unconscious to external circumstances. You can read Sigmund Freud's work “The Interpretation of Dreams”.

Apply Freud's knowledge in your personal life: in exploring your relationship with your loved one, you can put into practice the concepts of “transfer” and “counter-transference”. Transfer is the transfer of feelings and affections of two people to each other. Countertransfer is the reverse process. If you look into this topic in more detail, you can find out why certain problems arise in relationships, which makes it possible to resolve them as quickly as possible. It has been written about this in great detail.

Read more about Sigmund Freud's theory on Wikipedia.

Jung introduced the concept of “I” as the individual’s desire for unity and integrity. And in the classification of personality types, he put a person’s focus on himself and the object - he divided people into extroverts and introverts. In Jung's analytical psychology, personality is described as the result of the interaction of aspiration for the future and individual innate predisposition. Also, special importance is attached to the movement of the individual along the path of self-realization through balancing and integrating various elements of personality.

Jung believed that every person is born with a set of certain personal characteristics and that the external environment does not give a person the opportunity to become a person, but reveals the characteristics already inherent in it. He also identified several levels of the unconscious: individual, family, group, national, racial and collective.

According to Jung, there is a certain mental system that a person inherits at birth. It has developed over hundreds of millennia and forces people to experience and realize all life experiences in a very specific way. And this specificity is expressed in what Jung called archetypes that influence the thoughts, feelings and actions of people.

Jung's typology can be applied in practice to determine your own type of attitude or the types of attitudes of others. If, for example, you notice in yourself/others indecision, isolation, sharpness of reactions, a prevailing state of defense from the external, distrust, this indicates that your attitude/the attitude of others is of the introverted type. If you/others are open, easy to make contact, trusting, involved in unfamiliar situations, disregard caution, etc., then the attitude belongs to the extroverted type. Knowing your type of attitude (according to Jung) makes it possible to better understand yourself and others, the motives for actions and reactions, and this, in turn, will allow you to increase your effectiveness in life and build relationships with people in the most productive way.

Jung's analytical method can also be used to analyze your behavior and the behavior of others. Based on the classification of the conscious and unconscious, you can learn to identify the motives that guide your behavior and those of the people around you.

Another example: if you notice that your child, upon reaching a certain age, begins to behave hostilely towards you and tries to abstract himself from people and the world around him, then you can say with a high degree of confidence that the process of individuation has begun - the formation of individuality. This usually occurs in adolescence. According to Jung, there is a second part of the formation of individuality - when a person “returns” to the world and becomes an integral part of it, without trying to separate himself from the world. The observation method is ideal for identifying such processes.

Wikipedia.

William James' theory of personality

It divides personality analysis into 3 parts:

• Components of personality (which are grouped into three levels)
• Feelings and emotions evoked by constituent elements (self-esteem)
• Actions caused by constituent elements (self-preservation and self-care).

Read more about this theory on Wikipedia.

Individual Psychology of Alfred Adler

Adler introduced the concept of “lifestyle”; it manifests itself in the attitudes and behavior of a particular individual and is formed under the influence of society. According to Adler, the personality structure is uniform, and the main thing in its development is the desire for superiority. Adler distinguished 4 types of attitudes that accompany lifestyle:

• Control type
• Receiving type
• Avoidant type
• Socially useful type

He also proposed a theory whose purpose is to help people understand themselves and those around them. Adler's ideas were the forerunners of phenomenological and humanistic psychology.

Read more about this theory on Wikipedia.

Psychosynthesis by Roberto Assagioli

Assagioli identified 8 zones (substructures) in the basic structure of the psyche:

1. Lower unconscious
2. Middle unconscious
3. Higher unconscious
4. Field of consciousness
5. Personal "I"
6. Higher Self
7. Collective unconscious
8. Subpersonality (subpersonality)

The meaning of mental development, according to Assagioli, was to increase the unity of the psyche, i.e. in the synthesis of everything in a person: body, psyche, conscious and unconscious.

Read more about this theory on Wikipedia.

Physiological (biological) approach (type theory)

This approach focused on the structure and structure of the body. There are two main works in this direction:

Typology of Ernst Kretschmer

According to it, people with a certain body type have certain mental characteristics. Kretschmer identified 4 constitutional types: leptosomatic, picnic, athletic, dysplastic. Read more about this theory on Wikipedia.

Work by William Herbert Sheldon

Sheldon suggested that body shape influences personality and reflects its characteristics. He distinguished 3 body types: endomorph, ectomorph, mesomorph. Read more about this theory on Wikipedia.

Eduard Spranger's concept of personality

Spranger described 6 psychological types of man, depending on the forms of knowledge of the world: Theoretical man, Economic man, Aesthetic man, Social man, Political man, Religious man. In accordance with the spiritual values ​​of a person, the individuality of his personality is determined. Read more about this theory on Wikipedia.

Gordon Allport's Dispositional Direction

Allport put forward 2 general ideas: trait theory and the uniqueness of each person. According to Allport, every personality is unique and its uniqueness can be understood by identifying specific personality traits. This scientist introduced the concept of “proprium” - something that is recognized as one’s own in the inner world and is a distinctive feature. Proprium guides a person's life in a positive, creative, growth-seeking and evolving direction in accordance with human nature. Identity here plays the role of internal constancy. Allport also emphasized the indivisibility and integrity of the entire personality structure. Read more.

Intrapsychological approach. Kurt Lewin's theory

Lewin suggested that the driving forces of personality development are within oneself. The subject of his research was the needs and motives of human behavior. He tried to approach the study of personality as a whole and was a supporter of Gestalt psychology. Lewin proposed his own approach to understanding personality: in it, the source of the driving forces of human behavior is in the interaction of a person and a situation and is determined by his attitude towards it. This theory is called dynamic or typological. Read more about this theory on Wikipedia.

Phenomenological and humanistic theories

The main causal means of personality here is faith in the positive principle in every person, his subjective experiences and the desire to realize his potential. The main proponents of these theories were:

Abraham Harold Maslow: His key idea was the human need for self-actualization.

The existentialist movement of Viktor Frankl

Frankl was convinced that the key points in personal development are freedom, responsibility and the meaning of life. Read more about this theory on Wikipedia.

Each of the existing theories has its own uniqueness, significance and value. And each of the researchers identified and clarified the most important aspects of a person’s personality and each of them is right in their own area.

For a more complete introduction to the issues and theories of personality psychology, you can use the following books and textbooks.

• Abulkhanova-Slavskaya K.A. Personality development in the process of life // Psychology of personality formation and development. M.: Nauka, 1981.
• Abulkhanova K.A., Berezina T.N. Personal time and life time. St. Petersburg: Aletheya, 2001.
• Ananyev B.G. Man as an object of knowledge // Selected psychological works. In 2 volumes. M., 1980.
• Wittels F. Z. Freud. His personality, teaching and school. L., 1991.
• Gippenreiter Yu.B. Introduction to general psychology. M., 1996.
• Enikeev M.I. Fundamentals of general and legal psychology. - M., 1997.
• Crane W. Secrets of personality formation. St. Petersburg: Prime-Eurosign, 2002.
• Leontyev A.N. Activity. Consciousness. Personality. M., 1975.
• Leontyev A.N. Problems of mental development. M., 1980.
• Maslow A. Self-actualization // Personality Psychology. Texts. M.: MSU, 1982.
• Nemov R.S. General psychology. ed. Peter, 2007.
• Pervin L., John O. Psychology of personality. Theory and research. M., 2000.
• Petrovsky A.V., Yaroshevsky M.G. Psychology. - M., 2000.
• Rusalov V.M. Biological bases of individual psychological differences. M., 1979.
• Rusalov V.M. Natural prerequisites and individual psychophysiological characteristics of personality // Personality psychology in the works of domestic psychologists. St. Petersburg, Peter, 2000.
• Rubinshtein S.L. Fundamentals of general psychology. 2nd ed. M., 1946.
• Rubinshtein S.L. Being and consciousness. M., 1957.
• Rubinshtein S.L. Man and the world. M.: Nauka, 1997.
• Rubinshtein S.L. Principles and ways of development of psychology. M., Publishing House of the USSR Academy of Sciences, 1959.
• Rubinshtein S.L. Fundamentals of general psychology. M., 1946.
• Sokolova E.E. Thirteen dialogues about psychology. M.: Smysl, 1995.
• Stolyarenko L.D. Psychology. - Rostov-on-Don, 2004.
• Tome H. Kahele H. Modern psychoanalysis. In 2 volumes. M.: Progress, 1996.
• Tyson F., Tyson R. Psychoanalytic theories of development. Ekaterinburg: Business book, 1998.
• Freud Z. Introduction to psychoanalysis: Lectures. M.: Nauka, 1989.
• Kjell L., Ziegler D. Theories of personality. St. Petersburg, Peter, 1997.
• Hall K., Lindsay G. Theories of personality. M., 1997.
• Kjell L., Ziegler D. Theories of personality. St. Petersburg: Peter, 1997.
• Experimental psychology. / Ed. P. Fresse, J. Piaget. Vol. 5. M.: Progress, 1975.
• Jung K. Soul and Myth. Six archetypes. M.; Kyiv: JSC Perfection "Port-Royal", 1997.
• Jung K. Psychology of the unconscious. M.: Kanon, 1994.
• Jung K. Tavistock lectures. M., 1998.
• Yaroshevsky M.G. Psychology in the twentieth century. M., 1974.

Test your knowledge

If you want to test your knowledge on the topic of this lesson, you can take a short test consisting of several questions. For each question, only 1 option can be correct. After you select one of the options, the system automatically moves on to the next question. The points you receive are affected by the correctness of your answers and the time spent on completion. Please note that the questions are different each time and the options are mixed.

In modern society, people still cannot decide exactly what is human personality; what kind of person is a person; who is a person and who is not...

It got to the point that the school textbook revealed an incorrect definition of the concept of “personality,” showing that not every person can be a person, thereby, as it were, belittling, belittling and discrediting some people, especially children and people with disabilities.

What is a person's personality really?

WHAT IS HUMAN PERSONALITY- find out from a quote taken from the Great Psychological Dictionary by B.G. Meshcheryakov and V.P. Zinchenko: these authors give a more understandable and adequate definition of such a broad concept as person's personality.

Personality(English personality; from Latin persona - actor’s mask; role, position; face, personality). In the social sciences, personality is considered as a special quality of a person acquired by him in a sociocultural environment in the process of joint activity and communication.

In humanistic philosophical and psychological concepts personality- this is a person as a value for the sake of which the development of society is carried out (see I. Kant). With all the diversity of approaches to understanding personality, the following aspects of this problem are traditionally highlighted:

1. the versatility of the phenomenology of personality, reflecting the objectively existing diversity of human manifestations in the evolution of nature, the history of society and his own life;
2. interdisciplinary status of the problem of personality, located in the field of study of social and natural sciences;
3. the dependence of the understanding of personality on the image of a person, openly or hiddenly existing in culture and science at a certain stage of their development;
4. the discrepancy between the manifestations of the individual, personality and individuality, studied within the framework of biogenetic, sociogenetic and personogenetic directions of modern human science that are relatively independent from each other;
5. dividing a research approach that orients the specialist towards understanding the development of personality in nature and society, and a practical focus aimed at the formation or correction of personality in accordance with the goals set by society or set by a specific person who contacts a specialist.

Representatives' focus biogenetic orientation are the problems of human development as an individual with certain anthropogenetic properties (inclinations, temperament, biological age, gender, body type, neurodynamic properties of the nervous system, organic impulses, drives, needs, etc.), which go through various stages of maturation as the phylogenetic species programs in ontogenesis.

The basis of the maturation of an individual is the adaptive processes of the body, which are studied by differential and age-related psychophysiology, psychogenetics, neuropsychology, gerontology, psychoendocrinology and sexology.

Representatives of different movements sociogenetic orientations study the processes of human socialization, his mastery of social norms and roles, the acquisition of social attitudes and value orientations, the formation of the social and national character of a person as a typical member of a particular community.

Problems of socialization, or, in a broad sense, social adaptation of a person, are developed mainly in sociology and social psychology, ethnopsychology, and the history of psychology.

In the spotlight personogenetic orientation are problems of activity, self-awareness and creativity of the individual, the formation of the human self, the struggle of motives, the education of individual character and abilities, self-realization and personal choice, the constant search for the meaning of life.

General personality psychology studies all these manifestations of personality; various aspects of these problems are covered in psychoanalysis, individual psychology, analytical and humanistic psychology.

The separation of biogenetic, sociogenetic and personogenetic directions reveals a metaphysical scheme for determining the development of personality under the influence of two factors: environment and heredity.

Within the framework of the cultural-historical system-activity approach, a fundamentally different scheme for determining personal development is being developed. In this scheme, the properties of a person as an individual are considered as “impersonal” prerequisites for personality development, which can receive personal development in the process of life.

The sociocultural environment is a source that feeds the development of personality, and not a “factor” that directly determines behavior. Being a condition for the implementation of human activity, it carries those social norms, values, roles, ceremonies, tools, systems of signs that the individual encounters. The true foundations and driving force for the development of the individual are joint activities and communication, through which the movement of the individual in the world of people is carried out, introducing it to culture.

The relationship between the individual as a product of anthropogenesis, a person who has mastered socio-historical experience, and an individual who transforms the world can be expressed by the formula: “One is born an individual. They become a person. Individuality is defended".

Within the framework of the system-activity approach, personality is considered as a relatively stable set of mental properties, as a result of the inclusion of the individual in the space of interindividual connections. An individual in his development experiences a socially conditioned need to be an individual and discovers the ability to become an individual, which is realized in socially significant activities. This determines development of a person as an individual.

The abilities and functions formed during development reproduce historically formed human qualities into the personality. The child’s mastery of reality is carried out in his activities with the help of adults.

The child’s activity is always mediated by adults and directed by them (in accordance with their ideas about proper education and pedagogical skills). Based on what the child already possesses, adults organize his activities to master new aspects of reality and new forms of behavior.

Personal development is carried out in activities, controlled by a system of motives. The activity-mediated type of relationship that a person develops with the most reference group (or person) is a determining factor in development.

In general, personality development can be presented as the process and result of a person’s entry into a new sociocultural environment. If an individual enters a relatively stable social community, under favorable circumstances he passes 3 phases of your development as a person:

• 1st phase - adaptation- involves the assimilation of current values ​​and norms and mastery of the corresponding means and forms of activity and thereby, to some extent, making the individual similar to other members of this community.
• 2nd phase - individualization- is generated by the escalating contradictions between the need to “be like everyone else” and the individual’s desire for maximum personalization.
• 3rd phase - integration- is determined by the contradiction between the individual’s desire to be ideally represented by his characteristics and differences in the community and the need of the community to accept, approve and cultivate only those of his characteristics that contribute to its development and thereby the development of himself as an individual.
  If the contradiction is not eliminated, disintegration occurs and, as a consequence, either isolation of the individual, or its displacement from the community, or degradation with a return to earlier stages of its development.

When an individual fails to overcome the difficulties of the adaptation period, he develops qualities of conformity, dependence, timidity, and uncertainty.

If in the 2nd phase of development an individual, presenting to his reference group the personal properties that characterize his individuality, does not meet with mutual understanding, then this can contribute to the formation of negativism, aggressiveness, suspicion, and deceit.

Upon successful completion of the integration phase in a highly developed group, the individual develops humanity, trust, justice, self-demandingness, self-confidence, etc., etc. Due to the fact that the situation of adaptation, individualization, integration with the sequential or parallel entry of the individual is reproduced many times into different groups, the corresponding personal new formations are consolidated, and a stable personality structure is formed.

A particularly significant period in the age development of personality is adolescence.(adolescence) and early youth, when the developing personality begins to distinguish himself as an object of self-knowledge and self-education.

Initially assessing others, the individual uses the experience of such assessments, developing self-esteem, which becomes the basis of self-education. But the need for self-knowledge (primarily awareness of one’s moral and psychological qualities) cannot be identified with withdrawal into the world of inner experiences.

The growth of self-awareness, associated with the formation of such personality qualities as will and moral feelings, contributes to the emergence of strong beliefs and ideals. The need for self-awareness and self-education is generated, first of all, by the fact that a person must realize his capabilities and needs in the face of future changes in his life, in his social status.

If there is a significant discrepancy between the level of a person’s needs and his capabilities, acute affective experiences arise.

In the development of self-awareness in adolescence, the judgments of other people, and above all, assessment by parents, teachers and peers, play a significant role. This places serious demands on the pedagogical tact of parents and teachers and requires an individual approach to each developing personality.

Conducted in the Russian Federation since the mid-1980s. work to update the education system involves the development of the personality of a child, teenager, young man, democratization and humanization of the educational process in all types of educational institutions.

Thus, there is a change in the purpose of education and training, which is not a set of knowledge, abilities and skills, but free development of human personality. Knowledge, skills and abilities retain their extremely important importance, but no longer as a goal, but as a means to achieve a goal.

In these conditions, the task of forming a basic personal culture comes to the fore, which would make it possible to eliminate the contradictions in the personality structure between technical and humanitarian culture, overcome a person’s alienation from politics and ensure his active inclusion in the new socio-economic conditions of society.

The implementation of these tasks involves the formation of a culture personal self-determination, understanding the intrinsic value of human life, its individuality and uniqueness. (A. G. Asmolov, A. V. Petrovsky.)

Editor's addition: The almost generally accepted translation of the word personality as personality (and vice versa) is not entirely adequate. Personality is, rather, individuality. In Peter's times, a doll was called a persona.

Personality is selfhood, selfness or self, which is close to the Russian word "self". A more precise equivalent to the word “Personality” in English. language does not exist.

The inaccuracy of the translation is far from harmless, because readers get the impression or belief that the personality is subject to testing, manipulation, shaping, etc.

An externally formed personality becomes the presence of the one who formed it.

Personality is not a product of the collective, adaptation to it or integration into it, but the basis of a collective, any human community that is not a crowd, a herd, a flock or a pack. A community is strong because of the diversity of individuals that constitute it.

A synonym for personality is its freedom along with a sense of guilt and responsibility. In this sense, the individual is higher than the state, the nation; he is not inclined to conformism, although he is not averse to compromise.

In the Russian philosophical tradition, personality is a miracle and a myth (A.F. Losev); “Personality, understood in the sense of pure personality, is for each I only an ideal - the limit of aspirations and self-construction...

It is impossible to give the concept of personality... it is incomprehensible, goes beyond every concept, transcendental to every concept. You can only create a symbol of the fundamental characteristic of personality...

As for the content, it cannot be rational, but only directly experienced in the experience of self-creativity, in the active self-construction of personality, in the identity of spiritual self-knowledge” (Florensky P. A.).

M. M. Bakhtin continues Florensky’s thought: when we are dealing with the knowledge of personality, we must generally go beyond the limits of subject-object relations, as the subject and object are considered in epistemology. This needs to be taken into account by psychologists who use strange phrases: “personal subjectivity”, “psychological subject”.

Regarding the latter, G. G. Shpet openly sarcastically said: “A psychological subject without a residence permit and without a physiological organism is simply a native of a world unknown to us... if we take him for a real person, he will certainly involve an even greater miracle - a psychological predicate! Today, philosophically and psychologically suspicious subjects and their shadows increasingly wander through the pages of psychological literature. An unscrupulous subject, a soulless subject - this is most likely not entirely normal, but it is common. But a sincere, conscientious, spiritualized subject is funny and sad. Subjects can represent, including all sorts of abominations, and personality - personify.

It is no coincidence that Losev connected the origin of the word personality with the face, and not with the guise, person, mask. Personality, as a miracle, as a myth, as uniqueness, does not need extensive disclosure. Bakhtin reasonably noted that a person can reveal himself in a gesture, in a word, in an action (or he can drown).

A. A. Ukhtomsky was undoubtedly right when he said that personality is a functional organ of individuality, its state. It should be added personality - state of mind and spirit, not an honorary lifelong title.

After all, she can lose face, distort her face, lose her human dignity, which is taken by force. Ukhtomsky was echoed by N.A. Bernstein, saying that personality is the supreme synthesis of behavior. Supreme!

Integration, fusion, harmony of external and internal is achieved in the individual. And where there is harmony, science, including psychology, falls silent.

So personality is a mysterious excess of individuality, its freedom, which cannot be calculated or predicted. A personality is visible immediately and entirely and is thus different from an individual, whose properties are subject to discovery, testing, study and evaluation.

There is a personality an object of surprise, admiration, envy, hatred; a subject of unbiased, disinterested, understanding insight and artistic depiction. But not a subject of practical interest, formation, manipulation.

This does not mean that psychologists are contraindicated from thinking about personality. But to reflect, and not to define or reduce it to the hierarchy of motives, the totality of its needs, creativity, the crossroads of activities, affects, meanings, the subject, the individual, etc., etc.

Here are examples of useful thoughts about the personality of A. S. Arsenyev: Personality is a reliable person, whose words and deeds do not disagree with each other, who freely decides what to do and is responsible for the results of his actions.

Personality is, of course, an infinite being, breathing physically and spiritually. The personality is characterized by awareness of the conflict between morality and morality and the primacy of the latter. The author insists on a value-based rather than a monetary-market dimension of personality.

T. M. Buyakas highlights other features: Personality is a person who has embarked on the path of self-determination, overcoming the need to seek support in external support. The individual gains the ability to fully rely on himself, make independent choices, take his own position, be open and ready for any new turns in his life path.

The personality ceases to depend on external assessments, trusts itself, and finds internal support in itself. She is free. No description of a person can be exhaustive.

Topic 5. Personality psychology
5.1. Definition of personality in psychology.
5.2. Personality structure
5.3. Focus and self-awareness


5.1. Definition of personality in psychology

Three periods in the history of personality research
philosophical-literary (from the works of ancient thinkers to the beginning of the 19th century);
clinical - at the beginning of the 19th century. Along with philosophers and writers, psychiatrists became interested in the problems of personality psychology. Until the beginning of the twentieth century. these two directions are the only attempts to penetrate into the essence of man;
experimental period - at the beginning of the twentieth century. Experimental studies of personality in Russia were started by A.F. Lazursky, and abroad by G. Eysenck and R. Cattell

Back in 1937 G. Allport counted 49 definitions of personality, drawn from philosophy, theology, jurisprudence, sociology and psychology. Today, naturally, there are many more such definitions.

Man is both a biological and a social being; he is both a subject of nature and a subject of social relations. Based on this, to understand the specifics of personality, it is necessary to distinguish between the concepts of “individual”, “personality”, “individuality”. Leontiev carried out this division most clearly in his works.

Individual - this is a concept that characterizes a person as a biological being; an individual is a representative of a species that differs from its other representatives. We are born as individuals, we become individuals, and individuality is defended.

Individual biological being is a normally developed adult, a sick person, Homo Sapiens, a representative of the human species.

Subject of activity - an active person in society.

Personality - this is a relatively late product of the socio-historical and ontogenetic development of man, personality is a social concept, it is produced by the totality of social relations into which a person enters as he develops. Personality - a set of changing, individual properties, qualities and characteristics acquired by a person during development in connection with his involvement in activity and communication. Personality is individuality.

Individuality - a set of properties and characteristics characteristic of a given person that distinguish him from other individuals and personalities. This concept is biosocial, since we differ from each other in various manifestations, some of which are the characteristics of the individual (eye color, physique, etc.), while others characterize the personality (value system, structure of self-consciousness, idea of ​​the meaning of life). This is the degree to which a person is distinguished from society, uniqueness, everything that distinguishes one from another.

Today, the concept of individuality has a slightly different meaning. If the term personality characterizes, first of all, the active image of a person in the eyes of others, then the concept of individuality reflects the internal independent essence of a person. Individuality is self-determination and isolation of a person, his separation from others. This design of one’s own uniqueness and originality allows for a person’s awareness, reflection of his own life, and internal dialogue with himself.

So, we become individuals. Thus, a personality is a person who has reached a certain level of mental development, has passed a certain path, acquiring different characteristics and qualities along this path. What facts of our own life, what characteristics of our own could we cite as arguments if we suddenly had to prove to someone that we are an individual? Surely, we would talk about the fact that we have our own views and beliefs, our own attitude to the world, our own system of assessments and moral requirements, that we know how to control ourselves, make a choice between different options for our own behavior.

All this is certainly correct. Therefore, we can agree with the definition that belongs to the modern Russian psychologist B.S. Brother :
"Become - This,
firstly, take a certain life, primarily interpersonal moral position,
secondly, to be sufficiently aware of it and bear responsibility for it,
thirdly, to affirm it through your actions, through the deeds of your entire life.”

"Under is understood as the totality of those relatively stable properties and inclinations of an individual that distinguish him from others" (I. Sarnoff)

"Personality can be defined as a combination of all relatively stable individual differences that can be measured" (D. Byrne)

"Personality - a systemic quality acquired by an individual in objective activity and communication, characterizing him in terms of involvement in social relations" (Brief Psychological Dictionary, 1985)

"Personality - subject and object of social relations" (A.G. Kovalev)

"Personality - a capable member of society, aware of his role in it" (K.K. Platonov)

In foreign psychology, the concept of “personality” comes down to the concept of “individuality”,
in domestic psychology personality is understood primarily as a certain characteristic of a person, which is not innate, but acquired during development, in connection with involvement in activity and communication.

Foreign definitions of personality are characterized by listing various personality traits (properties, needs, self-awareness, etc.) as adjacent, but in domestic psychology they are considered as a certain hierarchy, defined by a person’s place in the system of social relations.

A person becomes a personality when he begins to declare himself, when the “I” appears, when self-motivation, self-awareness, self-organizational moments, self-education appear, when a person begins to realize himself in society.

5.2. Personality structure

Personality structure is the individual characteristics of a person that distinguish him from others.

A description of the structure of personality, i.e. its main components and the nature of the interaction between them, is the core of all theories of personality. Even where the author does not specifically set himself such a task, his idea of ​​this “core” is implicitly present.

The classic solution to the question of personality structure is the structure described by S. Freud. In his opinion, personality consists of three main parts: id, ego and superego.

Eid - this is the primary, central, basic structure of the personality. It contains everything inherited, everything that is present at birth, all instincts, as well as all mental material not accepted by consciousness (repressed from consciousness).

Since instincts and repressed material have significant energy, the id represents the reservoir of such energy for the entire personality. The laws of logic cannot be applied to the Id; it obeys not the principle of reality, but the principle of pleasure, the main cycle of behavior: tension - stress relief (pleasure).

Ego - this is part of the mental apparatus and personality structure that is in contact with external reality. It develops with the id as the child becomes aware of his or her own personality. The ego ensures physical and mental health and security of the individual; its main task is self-preservation. If the Id reacts to needs, then the Ego reacts to the possibility of satisfying them, since it obeys the principle of reality.

Super Ego - a structure that develops with the Ego. The Super-Ego serves as a judge or censor of the Ego's activities. This is a repository of moral principles, norms, orders. The child's super-ego develops according to the model of the super-ego of his parents, is filled with the same content and becomes the bearer of traditions and values ​​that survive time, which are transmitted in this way from generation to generation.

There is a close and constant interaction between the three subsystems of the personality, the ultimate goal of which is to maintain or restore, in case of disruption, the accepted level of dynamic equilibrium, which increases pleasure and minimizes displeasure. The energy that is used for the operation of this system arises in the Id. The ego, which emerges from the id, mediates between the signals of the id, the superego and the demands of external reality. The Super-Ego, which emerges from the Ego, acts as a moral brake or counterbalance to the practical concerns of the Ego. The Super-Ego sets the boundaries of the Ego's mobility. The id is completely unconscious, the ego and superego are partially unconscious.

The concept of “personality structure” can be most fully captured using the approach proposed by S.L. Rubinstein: “ The study of the mental appearance of a person includes three main questions. The first question we seek to answer when we want to know what a person is like is: what does he want , what is attractive to him, what does he strive for? It is a question of direction, attitudes and tendencies, needs, interests and ideals. But naturally a second one follows: what can he do? This is a question about a person’s abilities and gifts. However, abilities are at first only possibilities; in order to know how a person implements and uses them, we need to know that he is, which of his tendencies and attitudes became part of his flesh and blood and became entrenched as the core characteristics of his personality. This is a question about a person's character. Character in its content aspect is closely related to the question of what is for a person significant in the world and what, therefore, is the meaning of life and activity for him."

To the three main questions named by Rubinstein, two more can be added. First, this is a question: what a person thinks about himself , how to treat yourself? A person’s behavior is largely determined by his idea of ​​himself; it is on the general self-concept (image of himself) and the person’s attitude towards himself that both what the person strives for and what has become fixed as the core features of behavior will depend. Secondly, for a psychological description of a personality it is necessary to answer the question: what funds does she own? to realize intentions and opportunities? This is a question about the stage of development of various mental processes (sensation, perception, memory, thinking, speech, imagination). As is known, the general logic of development goes from involuntary to voluntary, and from immediate to mediocre processes. Many characteristics of mental processes have long been included in the list of personality traits (cleverness, observation, talkativeness, richness - poverty of imagination, etc.).

Personality structure:

So, the personality structure is a collection of individual components (substructures), each of which determines a specific level of human behavior, has its own characteristics and functions, and can be understood and adequately described only within the framework of the general integrity of a person. The content of substructures and their number depend on the general theoretical position of the author of the concept, on his view of human nature.

The most important substructures of personality are direction and self-awareness.

Personality orientation - a set of stable motives that orient the activity of an individual, relatively independent of the existing situation. It is characterized by interests, inclinations, beliefs, which reflect a person’s worldview.

Motives - the motivating reason for a person’s actions and actions, they may be conscious or not. Conscious motives include a person’s ideals, beliefs, interests, and aspirations; unconscious motives are attitudes and drives.

Direction is characterized by two interdependent points:
a) subject content, since it is always aimed at something
b) the tension that arises in this case

In terms of content, the focus could be:
-collectivist (altruistic)
-individualistic (egoistic)

Karen Horney identified 3 types of people:
1) People-oriented (trying to withdraw from communication)
2) Orientation towards people (to establish contact)
3) Orientation against people (antisocial, destructive behavior)

The problem of direction is, first of all, a question of dynamic trends in the behavior of an individual, because the motives that determine human activity are themselves, in turn, determined by its goals and tasks.

Self-awareness - an ordered set of ideas and knowledge, assessments and attitudes of a person related to his own personality.

Self-awareness is often identified with self-concept.
Self-concept - the totality of all an individual’s ideas about himself and their assessment. The descriptive component of the self-concept is the image of the self, the attitude towards oneself - self-esteem or self-acceptance. This allows us to consider the self-concept as a set of attitudes aimed at oneself, since specific behavioral reactions develop based on the self-image and self-esteem.

home function of self-awareness - make the motives and results of his actions accessible to a person, and give him the opportunity to understand what he really is and evaluate himself. The basis of self-awareness is the human ability distinguish yourself from your own life activity.

By enriching the assessment of others with age, a person gradually enriches his own self-awareness. Plays a huge role in this process self-knowledge - a person’s study of his own characteristics: physical, mental, moral and self-esteem , which is formed on this basis.

Self-esteem - a person’s judgment about the extent to which he has certain qualities, characteristics in relation to them with a certain standard, sample. Self-esteem is a manifestation of a person’s evaluative attitude towards himself, the main structural component of a person’s self-awareness.

Self-esteem is formed on the basis of self-knowledge, which occurs through:
1) analysis of the results of one’s own activities, one’s behavior, comparison of these results with the results of one’s peers, with generally accepted norms.
2) self-observation of one’s states, thoughts and feelings
3) awareness of the attitude of other people towards oneself, their assessment of the individual qualities of a given person, her behavior, and activities.

Based on the interaction of self-esteem and self-concept, an attitude arises (readiness for a certain behavior). The attitude determines the actual behavior.

With significant deviations of self-esteem from adequate, a person’s mental balance is disturbed and the entire style of behavior changes.

Low self-esteem is revealed in increased demands on oneself, constant fear of negative thoughts about oneself, and increased vulnerability. This encourages you to reduce contact with other people. Low self-esteem destroys a person’s hopes for a good attitude towards him and success, and he perceives his real successes and positive assessment as temporary and accidental. Most problems seem insoluble and their solution is transferred to the plane of imagination. Underestimating one's usefulness reduces social activity and initiative. Low level of aspirations, underestimation of oneself, afraid of the opinions of others.

A high self-evaluation is revealed in the fact that a person is guided by his principles, regardless of the opinions of others. If self-esteem is not too high, it can have a positive effect on well-being because it creates resistance to criticism. In this case, a person knows his own worth; the thoughts of others do not have absolute, decisive significance for him. Therefore, criticism does not cause a violent defensive reaction and is perceived more calmly. But If the level of aspirations is higher than the possibilities, peace of mind is impossible. Level of aspiration - the desire to achieve a goal of such a level of complexity that a person considers himself capable of. With inflated self-esteem, a person self-confidently takes on work that exceeds his capabilities. A self-confident person with an inflated level of aspirations.

Often people become unhappy due to an exaggerated idea of ​​their own importance formed in childhood.

Both high and low self-esteem lead to mental imbalances. Extreme cases qualify as mental disorders - psychasthenia and paranoia.

Adequate self-esteem matches the situation. In case of success, claims increase, in case of failure, they decrease.

Self-esteem and level of aspirations

Self-images.
A. Nalchadzhan, “Personality in His Dreams,” suggests identifying 9 possible self-images

1) I-bodily (idea of ​​my body)
2) Real Self (what I really am, how I really seem at the moment)
3) Dynamic Self (the type of personality one has set a goal to become)
4) Fantastic Self (what you would be like if anything were possible)
5) Ideal Self (idea of ​​how I should be)
6) Future or possible self (determines the state that has arisen as a result of communication, etc.)
7) Idealized Self (how we like to see ourselves now)
8) Presented Self (persona, how we present ourselves to others)
9) False Self (a person’s distorted idea of ​​himself)

What is a personality - the minds of ancient philosophers and thinkers tried to determine what is in a person that can be described as a given phenomenon, because it has long been known that a person is not born, but becomes one. The Russian poet V. Bryusov spoke about personality as the uniqueness of each person with external similarity to others.

What is a person's personality?

What is a personality? The definition of this concept is multifaceted and can be as follows: “personality” is the bearer of an individual principle, which is revealed in interaction with society and develops in communication with others. What is a full-fledged personality? Being such a person means entering into relationships and fulfilling one’s social roles, treating people with respect and seeing everyone as an individual.

The concept of personality in psychology

The term “personality” comes from the Latin. persona is a mask worn by an actor in ancient Greek theater. It turns out that personality is a kind of “mask” that a person puts on when he goes out into society. This definition gave rise to different socially desirable characteristics according to the following criteria:

• physical attractiveness;
• charm;
• popularity;
• status.

What is personality in psychology? Different areas of psychology explain and see “personality” based on the framework of their theory, but in general this concept can be described as follows:

• personality - a person with a set of psychological traits, habits and characteristics peculiar only to him;
• personality is an object of a social unit who controls his life, knows how to organize his activities and bears full responsibility for his words and actions

Personality structure in psychology

Theories of personality in psychology are faced with the problem of structuring the personality and the underlying psychological traits, of which there are a lot, this is further complicated by the polemics of psychologists of different movements about the relationship between human social and biological factors, therefore there are several classifications of personality structure and each complements and illuminates the existing ones.

Personality structure according to K.K. Platonov consists of 4 substructures:

1. Biopsychic– instincts, temperament, gender and age properties.
2. Psychological– individual characteristics of cognitive processes, expression of emotions and feelings.
3. Social– increasing experience of interaction with society, acquiring specific skills and abilities.
4. Motivational– personality orientation, including worldview and worldview, beliefs and principles, interests and positioning of oneself.

S. Freud's personality structure:

1. Id (It)– instinctive, innate biological aspects functioning in the unconscious (food, sleep, sex). The id is impulsive, irrational mental energy.
2. Ego (I)– grows out of the Id and strives to realize the desires emanating from it. The ego is responsible for making decisions and is an intermediary between the id and the society in which restrictions apply. The ego relies on the principle of reality and seeks the realization of desires in accessible ways.
3. Superego (Super Ego) cultivated in the process of socialization - the moral and ethical component of the personality includes conscience and ego-ideal. Conscience is formed under the influence of parents who punish for disobedience, and the ego-ideal grows, on the contrary, from approval.

Personality types in psychology

Personality typology in psychology is based on identifying certain traits characteristic of an individual. There are also many classifications and divisions into types, it is important to remember that all divisions are conditional and reflect only the average value, therefore there are no pure types, a person sees himself in the described criteria in something more that fits his personal descriptive characteristic, in something less.

Personality type by temperament (founder Hippocrates):

• melancholic– prone to depression, depressed mood;
• sanguine– cheerful, balanced, active and always in search of activity;
• choleric– “bilious” type with a bright character, prone to outbursts of anger and aggression;
• phlegmatic person– a balanced, calm type, prone to leisurely, inertia, does not spill over with emotions and feelings.

Holland personality types:

• social– aimed at interaction with society;
• initiative– a leader person called upon to influence and lead a team;
• artistic– attracting attention, influencing and evoking feelings and emotions;
• intellectual– a scientist, researcher of various natural processes, objects, phenomena;
• conservative– loves structure, systematization;
• realistic– a person with a technical background, creates or works with material objects and equipment.

Personality properties in psychology

What is personality if we describe it in properties? The fundamentals of personality psychology describe properties as stable mental phenomena that influence human activity and characterize him from the socio-psychological side. Personality properties include:

• focus– unity of motives, aspirations, desires, actions on the way to the goal;
• needs– what a person needs forces him to act in order to satisfy these needs of a material or spiritual order;
• motive– the internal motivation of a person to perform an action; the content of the motive depends on objective conditions.

Methods for studying personality in psychology

The problem of personality in psychology arose due to the fact that all methods show only an average value, and each study has its own pros and cons. A person’s personality is multifaceted and cannot be squeezed into any specific framework that is set by different methods, tests and studies, so their task is to identify inclinations, abilities, and characteristics.

Personality research methods:

1. Observation. Natural – carried out in real life situations. Field – involves experimental conditions within the framework of a specific task.
2. Survey (interview). Structured - special questionnaires, unstructured based on open questions, encourages more.
3. Standardized tests. The study of qualities is based on answers to test questions (“yes”, “no”, “I don’t know”).
4. Experiment. The method is used more often in a group and always pursues a specific task, for example, the study of an individual in a conflict situation.
5. Correlation method. Establishing connections between variables. The method helps to identify relationships and answer questions.
6. Projective techniques. There are a variety of them: picture and association tests, the method of unfinished phrases.

What is personality development?

What is a strong personality? This question is asked by people who have embarked on the path of self-improvement and knowledge, who have decided to achieve their goals. Personal development begins in childhood and depends on the cultivation and stimulation of certain qualities in a person; this process is based on education and training. A harmonious personality develops comprehensively: physically, intellectually, morally and spiritually.

What is personality socialization?

Personality psychology is inextricably linked with socialization, which represents a mutual process of the individual’s assimilation of the norms, rules, regulations and values ​​of society and the individual’s influence on society in the form of various transformations and the individual’s building up his own values. What is the social status of an individual - this is a factor that plays a large role in the socialization of a person, indicating his inclusion in a certain social group, or society - there can be many statuses.

What is a personality disorder?

The psychology of a person’s personality would not be complete if only his full, harmonious development were affected. For a number of reasons, a deviation from the norm occurs, considered by psychiatrists as a disorder or psychopathology. Sometimes the concepts of normal and pathological are blurred. Personality disorder leads to social disintegration and destruction of personal structure.

What is split personality

Dissociative disorder or multiple personality is a psychopathology in which several personalities coexist in the human body. An example is the notorious Billy Milligan, who “possessed” 24 personalities, two of which behaved antisocially. What is split personality - symptoms:

• the existence of two or more personalities within an individual;
• each personality has its own characteristics, memory and does not know about the presence of another, this explains the memory lapses during the “capture” and control of one of the personalities;
• With age, the number of personalities increases.