After the Thirty Years' War, the nature of confrontations between countries in the world began to change. Local conflicts gave way to wars that had an international character. For example, such was the Seven Years' War, which began in Europe in 1756. It was an attempt by the Prussian king Frederick II to extend his influence over most of the continent. The aspirations of Prussia were supported by England, and a coalition of four states opposed such a powerful "tandem". These were Austria, Saxony, Sweden, France, which were supported by Russia.

The war lasted until 1763, ending with the signing of a series of peace treaties that affected political development countries.

Reason and causes of the war

The official reason for the war was the dissatisfaction of many countries with the results of the redistribution of the "Austrian heritage". This process lasted eight years - from 1740 to 1748, leaving the states of Europe dissatisfied with new territorial acquisitions. The political and economic situation of that time had a significant impact on the formation of contradictions between England and France, Austria and Prussia. So by the end of the 1750s. Two groups of reasons were formed that provoked the start of the Seven Years' War:

• England and France could not divide the colonial possessions among themselves. The countries constantly competed with each other in this matter and not only at the political level. There were also armed clashes that claimed the lives of the population in the colonies and the soldiers of both armies.
• Austria and Prussia were arguing over Silesia, which was the most developed industrial region of Austria, taken from it as a result of the conflict of 1740-1748.

Participants of the confrontation

Prussia, which kindled the fire of war, concluded a coalition agreement with England. This group was opposed by Austria, France, Saxony, Sweden and Russia, which provided significant support to the coalition. Neutrality was occupied by Holland, which participated in the war for the "Austrian Succession".

Main fronts of the war

Historians distinguish three directions in which the hostilities of the opponents took place. First, this is the Asian front, where events unfolded in India. Secondly, this is the North American front, where the interests of France and England clashed. Thirdly, the European front, on which many military battles took place.

Start of hostilities

Frederick II had been preparing for war for several years. First of all, he increased the number of his own troops and carried out its complete reorganization. As a result, the king received a modern and efficient army for that time, whose soldiers made a number of successful conquests. In particular, Silesia was taken from Austria, which provoked a conflict between the members of the two coalitions. The ruler of Austria, Maria Theresa, wanted to return the region, and therefore turned to France, Sweden and Russia for help. The Prussian army could not stand against such a united army, which became the reason for the search for allies. Only England was able to resist both Russia and France at the same time. For their "services" the British government wanted to secure possessions on the mainland.

Prussia was the first to start hostilities by attacking Saxony, which was strategically important for Frederick II:

• Bridgehead for further advance to Austria.
• Providing a permanent supply of food and water for the Prussian army.
• Use for the benefit of Prussia of the material and economic potential of Saxony.

Austria tried to repel the attack of the Prussian army, but everything was unsuccessful. No one could stand against Frederick's soldiers. The army of Maria Theresa was unable to hold back the attacks of Prussia, so all the time losing in local skirmishes.

Within a short time, Frederick II managed to capture Moravia, Bohemia, entering Prague for a short while. The Austrian army began to fight back only in the summer of 1757, when the Austrian commander Daun, using the entire military reserve, ordered a constant shelling of the Prussian army. The consequence of such actions was the capitulation of the troops of Frederick II and his gradual retreat to the city of Nimburg. In order to save the remnants of his army, the king ordered to remove the oblogue of Prague, and return to the border of his own state.

European front 1758-1763: main events and battles

An allied army of almost 300 thousand people came out against the army of the Prussian king. Therefore, Frederick II decided to split the coalition that fought against her. First, the French were defeated, who were in the principalities neighboring Austria. This allowed Prussia to invade Silesia again.

Strategically, Frederick II was several steps ahead of his enemies. He managed to deceive attacks to bring chaos into the ranks of the army of the French, Lorraine and Austrians. Thanks to a well-planned operation, Silesia ended up under the rule of Prussia in the second.

In the summer of 1757, Russian troops actively began to take part in the war, which tried to capture the eastern regions of the Prussian state through Lithuania. By August of the same year, it became clear that Frederick would lose the Second Battle of Koenigsberg and East Prussia. But Russian general Apraksin refused to continue military operations, arguing that the army was in a disadvantageous position. As a result of a successful company, Russian army left behind only the port of Memel, where the base of the fleet was located Russian Empire for the entire duration of the war.

During 1758-1763. There were many battles, the main of which were:

• 1758 - East Prussia and Koenigsberg were conquered from the Russians, the decisive battle took place near the village of Zorndorf.
• The battle near the village of Kunersdorf, where a major battle took place between the Prussian army and the combined Russian-Astrian. After the battle, only three thousand soldiers remained from the 48 thousand army of Frederick II, with whom the king was forced to retreat across the Oder River. Another part of the Prussian soldiers were dispersed in neighboring settlements. It took several days for the king and his generals to get them back in line. The allies did not pursue the army of Frederick the Second, since the human losses went to tens of thousands, a lot of soldiers were injured and went missing. After the Battle of Kunersdorf, Russian troops redeployed to Silesia, which helped the Austrians drive out the Prussian army.
• In 1760-1761. military operations were practically not conducted, the nature of the war can be characterized as inactive. Even the fact that Russian troops occupied Berlin for a while in 1760, but then surrendered it without a fight, did not cause an intensification of hostilities. The city was returned back to Prussia because it was of strategic importance.
• In 1762, Peter the Third ascended the Russian throne, who replaced Elizaveta Petrovna. This had a radical effect on the further course of the war. The Russian emperor worshiped the military genius of Frederick II, so he went to sign a peace treaty with him. At this time, England destroyed the fleet of France, bringing her out of the war. Peter the Third was killed in July 1762 on the orders of his wife, after which Russia returned to the war again, but did not continue it. Catherine II did not want to allow Austria to strengthen in Central Europe.
• February 1763 was signed by the Austro-Prussian peace treaty.

North American and Asian fronts

AT North America confrontations took place between England and France, who could not divide the spheres of influence in Canada. The French did not want to lose their possessions in this part of the North American continent, so they aggravated relations with the British in every possible way. Numerous Indian tribes were also drawn into the confrontation, who were trying to survive in an undeclared war.

The battle that finally put everything in its place took place in 1759 near Quebec. After that, the French finally lost their colonies in North America.

A clash of interests between the two countries also occurred in Asia, where Bengal rebelled against the British. It happened in 1757, at the very beginning of the Seven Years' War. France, to which Bengal was subject, declared neutrality. But this did not stop the British, they began to attack the French outposts more and more often.

Waging war on multiple fronts and being absent from Asia strong army, led to the fact that the government of this country could not adequately organize the defense of its Asian possessions. The British hurried to take advantage of this by landing their troops on the island of Martinique. It was the center of French trade in the West Indies, and as a result of the Seven Years' War, Martinique was ceded to Britain.

The results of the confrontation between England and France were enshrined in a peace treaty, which was signed in early February 1762 in Paris.

The results of the war

In fact, the war ended in 1760, but local confrontations continued for almost three more years. Peace treaties between the countries were signed in 1762 and 1763, on their basis the system of relations in Europe after the Seven Years' War was created. The results of this conflict changed, once again, changed political map Europe, slightly adjusting the borders and reformatting the balance of power in the second half of the 18th century. in international relations.

The main consequences of the war include:

• The redistribution of colonial possessions in Europe, which caused the redistribution of spheres of influence between England and France.
• England became the largest colonial empire in Europe, thanks to the displacement of France from Northern Europe and Europe.
• France in Europe lost a lot of territory, which caused a weakening of the position of the state in Europe.
• In France, during the Seven Years' War, the preconditions for the beginning of the revolution, which began in 1848, gradually took shape.
• Prussia formalized its claims to Austria in the form of a peace treaty, under the terms of which Silesia, as well as neighboring territories, came under the rule of Frederick II.
• Aggravated territorial contradictions in Central Europe.
• Russia has gained invaluable experience in conducting military operations in Europe against the leading states of the continent.
• In Europe, a galaxy of outstanding commanders was formed, who then began to bring victories to their states.
• Russia did not receive any territorial acquisitions, but its positions in Europe were strengthened and strengthened.
• A large number of people died. According to average estimates, about two million servicemen could have died in the Seven Years' War.
• In the British colonies in North America, taxes increased several times to pay for military expenses. This aroused the resistance of the colonists, who in Canada and the North American states tried to develop industry, build roads, and invest in the economy of the colonies. As a result, the prerequisites began to take shape for the struggle against British rule on the continent.
• The Asian colonies of France became the property of the British Monarchy.

The victory of Prussia in the Seven Years' War could not have been predicted by the talented commanders of that time. Yes, Frederick II was a brilliant strategist and tactician, but his army was on the verge of complete loss many times. Historians believe that a number of factors prevented the final defeat of the Prussian army:

• The allied coalition formed against Prussia was not effective. Each country defended its own interests, which prevented at the right time to unite and act as a single force against the enemy.
• A strong Prussia was a profitable ally for Russia, England, and France, so the states agreed to seize Silesia and Austria.

Thanks to this, the consequences of the Seven Years' War had a serious impact on the situation in Europe. In the central part of the continent, a strong Prussian state arose, with centralized power. So Frederick II managed to overcome the separatism of individual principalities, get rid of the fragmentation within the country, focusing on the unity of the German lands. Prussia, in consequence, became the central core of the formation of such a state as Germany.

Seven Years' War

Prussia's rapid rise aroused general envy and dismay among the European powers. Austria, having lost Silesia in 1734, longed for revenge. France was worried about Frederick II's rapprochement with England. Russian Chancellor Bestuzhev considered Prussia to be the worst and most dangerous enemy of the Russian Empire.

Back in 1755, Bestuzhev was fussing about concluding a so-called subsidized treaty with England. England was to be given gold, and Russia was to send 30-40 thousand troops. This project was destined to remain a project. Bestuzhev, correctly considering the significance of the "Prussian danger" for Russia, at the same time reveals a complete lack of maturity of judgment.

He believes to crush the Prussia of Frederick II "with a corps of 30-40 thousand", and for money he turns to none other than Prussia's ally - England. Under such circumstances, in January 1756, Prussia entered into an alliance with England, the answer to which was the formation of a triple coalition of Austria, France and Russia, joined by Sweden and Saxony.

Austria demanded the return of Silesia, Russia was promised East Prussia (with the right to exchange it from Poland for Courland), Sweden and Saxony were tempted by other Prussian lands: the first - Pomerania, the second - Lusatia. Soon almost all German principalities joined this coalition. The soul of the whole coalition was Austria, which put up the largest army and had the best diplomacy. Austria very cleverly managed to force all her allies, and mainly Russia, to serve her interests.

While the allies shared the skin of an unkilled bear, Frederick, surrounded by enemies, decided not to wait for their blows, but to start on his own. In August 1756, he was the first to open hostilities, taking advantage of the unpreparedness of the allies, invaded Saxony, surrounded the Saxon army in the camp near Pirna and forced it to lay down its arms. Saxony immediately fell out of action, and its captured army almost entirely went over to the Prussian service.

The Russian army campaign was announced in October 1756 and during the winter it was supposed to concentrate in Lithuania. Field Marshal Count Apraksin was appointed commander in chief, placed in the closest dependence on the Conference - an institution borrowed from the Austrians and representing in Russian conditions a worsened edition of the notorious "gofkriegsrat". The members of the Conference were: Chancellor Bestuzhev, Prince Trubetskoy, Field Marshal Buturlin, and the Shuvalov brothers. However, our “Austrophilism” was not limited to this alone, but went much further: the Conference immediately fell entirely under Austrian influence and, commanding an army a thousand miles from Petersburg, it seemed to be guided primarily by observing the interests of the Vienna Cabinet.

In 1757, three main theaters were identified, which then existed throughout the entire Seven Years' War - the Franco-Imperial, the main, or Austrian, and Russian.

Fusilier, chief officer, grenadiers of the Tengin Infantry Regiment, 1732–1756 Colored engraving

Frederick opened the campaign, moving at the end of April with different parties- concentrically - to Bohemia. He defeated the Austrian army of Prince Charles of Lorraine near Prague and locked it in Prague. However, the second Austrian army of Daun moved to its rescue, defeating Frederick at Kolin (June). Frederick retreated to Saxony, and by the end of the summer his position became critical. Prussia was surrounded by 300,000 enemies. The king entrusted the defense against Austria to the Duke of Bevern, and he hurried to the West. Having bribed the commander-in-chief of the northern French army the Duke of Richelieu and securing his inaction, he, after some hesitation caused by bad news from the East, turned to the southern Franco-imperial army. Frederick II would not have been a Prussian and a German if he had acted in the same honest ways.

With an army of 21,000, he utterly defeated the 64,000 Franco-Imperials of Soubise at Rossbach, and then moved into Silesia, where Bevernsky was meanwhile defeated at Breslau. On December 5, Frederick attacked the Austrians and literally incinerated their army in the famous battle of Leuthen. This is the most brilliant of all Frederick's campaigns; according to Napoleon, for one Leithen he is worthy of being called a great commander.

The Russian army, operating in the secondary East Prussian theater of the war, remained aloof from the main events of the 1757 campaign. Its concentration in Lithuania took the whole winter and spring. There was a great shortage in the troops, which was especially felt in the officers.

We did not go on a trip with a light heart. We were afraid of the Prussians. Since the time of Peter I and, especially, Anna, the German has been a reserved creature for us - a different, higher order, a teacher and a boss. The Prussian, on the other hand, was a German to all Germans. “Frederick, they say, beat the Frenchman himself, and even more Tsars - where can we stand against him with many sinners! ..” So the future winners near Palzig and Kunersdorf argued, kneading the Lithuanian mud with their boots. The nasty Russian habit of always belittling oneself in comparison with a foreigner ... After the first skirmish on the border, where three of our dragoon regiments were overturned by the Prussian hussars, "great timidity, cowardice and fear" took possession of the whole army, which, however, had an effect on the tops much stronger than on bottoms.

By May, the concentration of our army on the Neman was over. There were 89,000 people in it, of which no more than 50-55 thousand “really fighting” were fit for battle, the rest were non-combatants of any kind, or unorganized Kalmyks armed with bows and arrows.

Prussia was defended by the army of Field Marshal Lewald (30,500 regular and up to 10,000 armed inhabitants). Friedrich, busy fighting Austria and France, treated the Russians with disdain:

“Russian barbarians do not deserve to be mentioned here,” he once remarked in one of his letters.

The Russian commander-in-chief depended entirely on the St. Petersburg Conference. He did not have the right to dispose of the troops without a formal “approbation” of the cabinet each time, he did not have the right to take the initiative in the event of a change in the situation, and he had to communicate with St. Petersburg over all sorts of trifles. In the campaign of 1757, the Conference instructed him to maneuver in such a way that for him "it would not matter for him to march straight on Prussia or to the left through all Poland into Silesia." The purpose of the campaign was to capture East Prussia, but Apraksin was not sure until June that part of his army would not be sent to Silesia to reinforce the Austrians.

S. F. Apraksin. Unknown artist

On June 25, Farmer's vanguard captured Memel, which was the signal for the opening of the campaign. Apraksin went with the main forces to Verzhbolovo and Gumbinen, sending the vanguard of General Sibilsky - 6,000 horses, to Friedland to act in the rear of the Prussians. The movement of our army was distinguished by slowness, which is explained by administrative troubles, an abundance of artillery and the fear of the Prussian troops, about which there were whole legends. On July 10, the main forces crossed the border, on the 15th they passed Gumbinen and on the 18th they occupied Insterburg. Sibilsky's cavalry did not live up to the hopes placed on it, as a hundred and fifty years later - in the same places, their detachment of Khan of Nakhichevan would not justify them ... Levald was waiting for the Russians in a strong position across the Alle River, near Velau. Having united with the vanguard - Farmer and Sibilsky, Apraksin moved on August 12 to Allenburg, in a deep bypass of the position of the Prussians. Upon learning of this movement, Lewald hurried to meet the Russians and attacked them at Gross-Egernsdorf on August 19, but was repulsed. Lewald had 22,000 people in this battle, Apraksin had up to 57,000, of which, however, half did not take part in the case. The fate of the battle was decided by Rumyantsev, who seized the infantry of the vanguard and went with it through the forest with hostility. The Prussians did not survive this attack. The trophies of victory were 29 guns and 600 prisoners. The damage of the Prussians - up to 4000, ours - over 6000. This first victory had the most beneficial effect on the troops, showing them that the Prussian is no worse than the Swede and the Turk is running from the Russian bayonet. She made the Prussians think too.

After the Battle of Jagernsdorf, the Prussians withdrew to Weslau. Apraksin moved after them and on August 25 began to bypass their right flank. Lewald did not accept the fight and retreated. The military council assembled by Apraksin decided, in view of the difficulty of supplying the army, to retreat to Tilsit, where to put the economic unit in order. On August 27, the retreat began, carried out very covertly (the Prussians only learned about it on September 4). On the march, it became clear that, due to the complete disorder, it was impossible to go on the offensive that same autumn and it was decided to retreat to Courland. On September 13, Tilsit will be abandoned, and the Russian military council decided to evade battle with Lewald's vanguard despite all our superiority in strength; "Cowardice and fear", of course, was no longer in sight, but the notorious "timidity", apparently, did not have time to completely leave our senior commanders. On September 16, the entire army was withdrawn beyond the Neman. The campaign of 1757 ended in vain due to the extraordinary embarrassment of the actions of the commander-in-chief by cabinet strategists and the disorder of the economic part.

Musketeer headquarters and chief officers of the Life Guards of the Preobrazhensky Regiment, 1762. Colorized engraving

Chief officer and reytar of the Life Guards Horse Regiment, 1732–1742 Colored engraving

Chief officer of the Horse Regiment, 1742–1762 Colored engraving

The conference demanded an immediate transition to the offensive, as our diplomacy promised the Allies. Apraksin refused, was removed from office and put on trial, died from a blow without waiting for the trial. He was treated unfairly, Apraksin did everything that could be done in his place by any chief of average talents and abilities, put in a really impossible position and bound hand and foot by the Conference.

Instead of Apraksin, General Farmer was appointed commander-in-chief - an excellent administrator, a caring boss (Suvorov recalled him as a "second father"), but at the same time he was fussy and indecisive. The farmer took up the organization of the troops and the establishment of the economic part.

Frederick II, dismissive of the Russians, did not even allow the thought that the Russian army would be able to make a winter campaign. He sent the entire army of Lewald to Pomerania against the Swedes, leaving in East Prussia only 6 garrison companies. The farmer knew this, but, not receiving orders, did not move.

In the meantime, the Conference, in order to refute the reprehensible opinions about the fighting qualities of the Russian troops that were circulating in Europe through the efforts of the Prussian "gazeters", ordered the Farmer to move on the first snow to East Prussia.

On the first day of January 1758, the columns of Saltykov and Rumyantsev (30,000) crossed the border. On January 11, Koenigsberg was occupied, and then all of East Prussia, turned into a Russian general government. We were acquiring a valuable base for further operations and, as a matter of fact, we had achieved our goal of the war. The Prussian population, sworn into Russian citizenship by Apraksin, did not oppose our troops, while the local authorities were sympathetic to Russia. Having mastered East Prussia, Farmer wanted to move on Danzig, but was stopped by the Conference, which ordered him to wait for the arrival of the Observation Corps, demonstrate together with the Swedes to Küstrin, and then go with the army to Frankfurt. In anticipation of summer time, the Farmer deployed most of the army at Thorn and Posen, not particularly concerned about maintaining the neutrality of the Commonwealth.

On July 2, the army set off for the Franfort, as directed. It numbered 55,000 fighters. The disorder of the Observation Corps, ignorance of the terrain, food shortages, and the constant interference of the Conference led to wasted time, lengthy halts and counter marches. All maneuvers were carried out under the cover of Rumyantsev's cavalry of 4,000 sabers, whose actions can be called exemplary.

The military council decided not to get involved in the battle with the Don corps, which had warned us in Frankfurt, and to go to Kustrin to communicate with the Swedes. On August 3, our army approached Kustrin and on the 4th began bombarding it.

Frederick P. himself hurried to the rescue of the threatened Brandenburg. Leaving 40,000 people against the Austrians, he moved to the Oder with 15,000, joined the Don corps and went down the Oder to the Russians. The farmer lifted the siege of Küstrin and retreated to Zorndorf on August 11, where he took up a strong position. For the expulsion of Rumyantsev's division to the crossings across the Oder, in the ranks of the Russian army there were 42,000 people with 240 guns. The Prussians had 33,000 and 116 guns.

Frederick bypassed the Russian position from the rear and forced our army to give him a battle with an inverted front. The bloody battle of Zorndorf on August 14 had no tactical consequences. Both armies "crashed one against the other." Morally, Zorndorf is a Russian victory and a cruel blow to Friedrich. Here, as they say, "I found a scythe on a stone" - and the Prussian king saw that "these people can be killed rather than defeated."

Here he also experienced his first disappointment: the vaunted Prussian infantry, having tasted the Russian bayonet, refused to attack a second time. The honor of this bloody day belongs to Seydlitz's armored men and those old regiments of the iron Russian infantry, on which the gust of their avalanches crashed ... The Russian army had to rebuild the front already under fire. Its right and left flanks were separated by a ravine. Friedrich's detour maneuver pinned our army to the Mitchell River and turned the main advantage of our Zorndorf position into an extreme disadvantage, the river found itself in the rear. On the part of Farmer, who was completely out of control of the battle, not the slightest attempt was made to coordinate the actions of the two disunited masses, and this allowed Frederick to fall first on our right flank, then on our left. In both cases, the Prussian infantry was repulsed and overturned, but, pursuing it, the Russians became upset and fell under the blow of the Prussian cavalry masses. We had almost no cavalry, only 2700, the rest under Rumyantsev. By the end of the battle, the front of the armies made a right angle with the original front, the battlefield and the trophies on it were, as it were, divided in half.

Our loss - 19,500 killed and wounded, 3,000 prisoners, 11 banners, 85 guns - 54 percent of the entire army. Out of 9143 people, only 1687 remained in the ranks of the Observation Corps.

The Prussians - 10,000 killed and wounded, 1,500 prisoners, 10 banners and 26 guns - up to 35 percent of the total. The steadfastness of the Russians, Frederick II, set an example for his own troops, especially the infantry.

By pulling Rumyantsev to him, the Farmer could have resumed the battle with a greater chance of success, but he missed this opportunity. Frederick retreated to Silesia - the Farmer set out to capture the heavily fortified Kolberg in Pomerania. He acted indecisively and at the end of October withdrew the army to winter quarters along the Lower Vistula. The campaign of 1758 - a successful winter and unsuccessful summer campaigns - was generally favorable for Russian weapons.

On the remaining fronts, Friedrich continued active defense, acting along internal lines of operations. At Gohkirch, he was defeated, Daun attacked him at night, but the indecision of Daun, who did not dare to take advantage of his victory, despite the double superiority in forces, rescued the Prussians.

V. V. Farmer. Artist A. P. Antropov

By the opening of the 1759 campaign, the quality of the Prussian army was no longer what it had been in previous years. Many military generals and officers, old and experienced soldiers died. The ranks had to put prisoners and defectors on a par with untrained recruits. Lacking those forces, Frederick decided to abandon his usual initiative in opening the campaign and wait first for the actions of the allies, in order to then maneuver on their messages. Being interested in the short duration of the campaign due to the scarcity of his funds, the Prussian king sought to slow down the start of the Allied operations, and to this end, undertook cavalry raids on their rear to destroy stores. In that era of store rations for armies and the "five transition system", the destruction of stores entailed the disruption of the campaign plan. The first raid on the Russian rear in Poznań by small forces in February went well for the Prussians, although it did not cause any particular harm to the Russian army. Rumyantsev vainly pointed out to Farmer, when occupying apartments, all the disadvantages and danger of cordon location. This even caused them to break up. In 1759, Rumyantsev did not receive a position in the active army, but was appointed inspector of the rear, from where Saltykov was already requested to join the army. Another raid into the rear of the Austrians in April was much more successful, and the Austrian headquarters were so frightened by it that they abandoned all active operations during the spring and early summer.

Meanwhile, the St. Petersburg Conference, finally falling under the influence of Austria, developed a plan of operations for 1759, according to which the Russian army became auxiliary to the Austrian. It was supposed to be brought up to 120,000, of which 90,000 should be sent to join the Tsesars, and 30,000 left on the Lower Vistula.

At the same time, the commander-in-chief did not indicate at all where exactly to connect with the Austrians and what to be guided by when performing operations “upstream or downstream of the Oder”.

It was not possible to complete the army even up to half of what was expected - due to the insistent demands of the Austrians, they had to set out on a campaign before the arrival of reinforcements. At the end of May, the army marched from Bromberg to Posen and, moving slowly, arrived there only on the 20th of June. Here the rescript of the Conference was received, appointing Count Saltykov as commander-in-chief, the Farmer received one of 3 divisions. Saltykov was instructed to link up with the Austrians at a point where these latter wished, then he was ordered, "without obeying Daun, to listen to his advice" - by no means sacrificing the army for the sake of Austrian interests - and, to top it all, not to engage in battle with superior forces.

Frederick II, confident in Daun's passivity, transferred 30,000 from the "Austrian" front to the "Russian" one - and decided to defeat the Russians before joining them with the Austrians. The Prussians acted sluggishly and missed an opportunity to break the Russian army in parts.

Not embarrassed by the presence of this strong enemy mass on his left flank, Saltykov moved on July 6 from Poznan in a southerly direction - to Karolat and Crossen to join the Austrians there. He had under his command up to 40,000 combatants. The Russian army brilliantly made an extremely risky and courageous flanking march, and Saltykov took measures in case the army was cut off from its base - Poznan.

P. S. Saltykov. Engraving

The Prussians hurried after Saltykov to get ahead of him at Crossen. On July 12, in the battle of Palzig, they were defeated and driven back beyond the Oder - under the walls of the Krossen fortress. In the battle of Palzig, 40,000 Russians with 186 guns fought 28,000 Prussians. Against the linear battle order of the latter, Saltykov used separation in depth and a game of reserves, which gave us victory, which, unfortunately, was not brought to the complete destruction of the Prussians by a sufficiently energetic pursuit of the enemy.

Our damage is 894 killed, 3897 wounded. The Prussians lost 9,000 people: 7,500 retired in battle and 1,500 deserted. In fact, their damage was much more significant, and it can be considered no less than 12,000, the Russians buried 4,228 bodies alone killed Prussians. 600 prisoners, 7 banners and standards, 14 guns were taken.

All this time, Down was inactive. The Austrian commander-in-chief based his plans on Russian blood. Fearing to engage in battle with Frederick, despite his double superiority in strength, Daun sought to bring the Russians under the first fire and draw them to him - deep into Silesia. But Saltykov, who had managed to "bite" his Austrian colleague, did not succumb to this "strategy", but decided after the Palzig victory to move on Frankfurt and threaten Berlin.

This movement of Saltykov equally alarmed both Friedrich and Daun. The Prussian king feared for his capital, the Austrian commander-in-chief did not want a victory won by the Russians alone without the participation of the Austrians (which could have important political consequences). Therefore, while Frederick was concentrating his army in the Berlin region, Daun, "carefully guarding" the weak Prussian barrier left against him, moved Laudon's corps to Frankfurt, ordering him to warn the Russians there and profit from the indemnity. This ingenious calculation did not materialize: the Franfort was already occupied by the Russians on July 19.

Having captured Frankfurt, Saltykov intended to move Rumyantsev with cavalry to Berlin, but the appearance of Friedrich there forced him to abandon this plan. In connection with Laudon, he had 58,000 men, with whom he took up a strong position at Kunersdorf.

Against the 50,000 Prussians of Friedrich in the Berlin region, three masses of allies concentrated in this way: from the east, 58,000 soldiers of Saltykov, 80 versts from Berlin; from the south 65,000 Daun, 150 versts; from the west, 30,000 imperials, 100 versts away, Frederick decided to get out of this unbearable situation by attacking with all his forces the most dangerous enemy, the enemy who advanced most forward, the most brave and skillful, moreover, who did not have the habit of evading battle, in short - the Russians.

Reiter of the Horse Regiment, 1742–1762 Colored engraving

On August 1, he fell upon Saltykov and in the fierce battle that took place at the Kunersdorf position - the famous "Franfort Battle" - was utterly defeated, losing two-thirds of his army and all artillery. Friedrich intended to bypass the Russian army from the rear, as under Zorndorf, but Saltykov was not a Farmer: he immediately turned the front around. The Russian army was heavily echeloned in depth on a relatively narrow front. Friedrich shot down the first two lines, capturing up to 70 guns, but his attack bogged down, and Seydlitz's cavalry died, untimely rushing to the undisrupted Russian infantry. Having launched a crushing counteroffensive to the front and flank, the Russians overturned Frederick's army, and Rumyantsev's cavalry completely finished off the Prussians, who fled wherever they could. Of the 48,000 people, the king failed to collect even a tenth immediately after the battle! The Prussians show their final damage at 20,000 in the battle itself and over 2,000 deserters when fleeing. In fact, their loss should be at least 30,000. We buried 7,627 Prussian corpses on the site, took over 4,500 prisoners, 29 banners and standards, and all 172 guns that were in the Prussian army. Russian damage - up to 13,500 people (a third of the troops): 2614 killed, 10,863 wounded. In the Austrian corps of Laudon, about 2,500 lost. In total, the Allies lost 16,000 people. The despair of Frederick II is best expressed in his letter to one of his childhood friends, written the next day: “From an army of 48,000, I don’t have even 3,000 left at this moment. Everything is running, and I no longer have power over the army ... In Berlin they will do well if they think about their safety. A cruel misfortune, I will not survive it. The consequences of the battle will be even worse than the battle itself: I have no more means, and, to tell the truth, I consider everything lost. I will not survive the loss of my fatherland. Farewell forever". The pursuit was short-lived; Saltykov had no more than 23,000 men left after the battle, and he could not reap the fruits of his brilliant victory.

Down, devoured by envy of Saltykov, did nothing on his part to relieve him, but with idle "advice" he only annoyed the Russian commander in chief.

Frederick II came to his senses after Kunersdorf, gave up thoughts of suicide and again assumed the title of commander in chief (which he resigned from himself in the evening of the "Franfort battle"); On August 18, near Berlin, Friedrich already had 33,000 people and he could calmly look at the future. Daun's inaction saved Prussia.

The Austrian commander-in-chief persuaded Saltykov to move to Silesia for a joint offensive against Berlin, but one raid by the Prussian hussars to the rear was enough for Daun's hasty retreat to his original position ... He did not prepare the promised allowance for the Russians.

The indignant Saltykov decided to act independently and headed for the Glogau fortress, but Friedrich, having foreseen his intention, moved parallel to Saltykov in order to warn him. Both had 24,000 soldiers each, and Saltykov decided not to get involved in the battle this time: he considered it inappropriate to risk these troops 500 miles from his base. Friedrich, remembering Kunersdorf, did not insist on a battle. On September 14, the opponents dispersed, and on the 19th, Saltykov retreated to winter quarters on the Varta River. The winner at Kunersdorf, who received the field marshal's baton, had the civic courage to prefer the interests of Russia to the interests of Austria and reject the demand of the Conference, which insisted on wintering in Silesia together with the Austrians and the outfit of 20-30 thousand Russian infantry in the Laudon corps. Having already arrived at the Warta, Saltykov, at the insistence of the Austrians, showed the appearance that he was returning to Prussia. By this, he saved the valiant Daun and his eighty thousandth army from the Prussian offensive, which the Caesar commander imagined.

Officer and Sergeant of the Life Company, 1742–1762 Colored engraving

The campaign of 1759 could decide the fate of the Seven Years' War, and with it the fate of Prussia. Fortunately for Frederick, he had opponents, in addition to the Russians, also the Austrians.

In the campaign of 1760, Saltykov planned to capture Danzig, Kolberg and Pomerania, and from there to act on Berlin. But the "home-grown Austrians" at their Conference decided otherwise and again sent the Russian army "on errands" to the Austrians in Silesia - the winners at Kunersdorf were all equated with the losers at Leuthen! At the same time, Saltykov was also instructed to "make an attempt" to master Kolberg - to act in two diametrically opposite operational directions. Saltykov's position was further complicated by the fact that the Austrians did not inform him of either Frederick's movements or their own. At the end of June, Saltykov, with 60,000 and a supply of provisions for 2 months, set out from Poznan and slowly moved towards Breslau, where, in the meantime, the Austrians of Laudon also headed. However, the Prussians forced Laudon to retreat from Breslau, and Frederick II, who arrived in Silesia, defeated him (August 4) at Liegnitz. Frederick II, with 30,000, arrived from Saxony on a forced march, having traveled 280 miles in 5 days (an army crossing - 56 miles). The Austrians demanded the transfer of Chernyshev's corps to the left bank of the Oder - into the mouth of the enemy, but Saltykov opposed this and retreated to Gernstadt, where the army stood until September 2. At the end of August, Saltykov fell dangerously ill and handed over his superiors to Farmer, who first tried to besiege Glogau, and then on September 10 withdrew the army near Crossen, deciding to act according to circumstances. The following fact perfectly characterizes the Farmer. Laudon asked for his help in the proposed siege of Glogau.

The farmer, who did not take a step without the permission of the Conference, notified St. Petersburg about this. While relations and relations were being written back and forth for 1,500 miles, Laudon changed his mind and decided not to besiege Glogau, but Kempen, about which he informed the Farmer. In the meantime, a rescript of the Conference was obtained, authorizing traffic on the Glogau. The farmer, a too well-disciplined commander, moved on Glogau, despite the fact that this movement, due to the changed situation, lost all meaning. Going to the fortress, the Farmer saw that it was impossible to take it without siege artillery. Chernyshev's corps, with Totleben's cavalry and Krasnoshchekov's Cossacks, totaling 23,000, half cavalry, was sent to raid Berlin.

Officer of the Musketeer Prince Wilhelm Regiment, 1762. Colorized engraving

Guards Grenadier Officer. Engraving

Oboe player, flute player and drummer of the Musketeer Regiment, 1756–1761 Colored engraving

The capture of the Kolberg fortress during the Seven Years' War. Artist A. Kotzebue

Flayer of the Life Guards of the Preobrazhensky Regiment, 1763–1786 Engraving

On September 23, Totleben attacked Berlin, but was repulsed, and on the 28th Berlin surrendered. In addition to 23,000 Russians, 14,000 Lassi Austrians participated in the raid on Berlin. The capital was defended by 14,000 Prussians, of whom 4,000 were taken prisoner. The mint, the arsenal were destroyed and the indemnity was taken. The Prussian "newspapers", who, as we have seen, wrote all sorts of libels and fables about Russia and the Russian army, were duly flogged. This event hardly made them special Russophiles, but it is one of the most comforting episodes in our history. After spending four days in the enemy's capital, Chernyshev and Totleben withdrew from there as Frederick approached. The raid had no important results.

When the impossibility of any productive cooperation with the Austrians became clear, the Conference returned to Saltykov's original plan and ordered Farmer to seize Kolberg in Pomerania. Busy with organizing a raid on Berlin, Farmer moved Olitz's division under Kolberg. The new commander-in-chief, Field Marshal Buturlin, who arrived in the army (Saltykov was still ill), lifted the siege of Kolberg in view of the late season and in October led the entire army to winter quarters along the Lower Vistula. The campaign of 1760 did not bring results ...

In 1761, following the example of a number of past campaigns, the Russian army was moved to Silesia to the Austrians.

From Thorn, she went on her usual way to Posen and Breslau, but at this last point she was forestalled by Frederick. Passing by Breslavl, Buturlin contacted Laudon. The entire campaign took place in marches and maneuvers. On the night of August 29, Buturlin decided to attack Frederick near Gochkirchen, but the Prussian king, not relying on his own strength, evaded the battle. In September, Frederick II moved to the messages of the Austrians, but the Russians, quickly connecting with these latter, prevented him and forced Frederick to retreat to the fortified camp at Bunzelwitz. Then Buturlin, reinforcing Laudon with Chernyshev's corps, withdrew to Pomerania. On September 21, Laudon took Schweidnitz by storm, with the Russians especially distinguished themselves, and soon after both sides took up winter quarters. During the assault on Schweidnitz, 2 Russian battalions were the first to climb the ramparts, then opened the gates to the Austrians and stood in perfect order with a gun at their feet on the ramparts, while at their feet the Austrians indulged in revelry and robbery. The Allies lost 1,400 men. 2600 Prussians surrendered with 240 guns, 1400 were killed.

Rumyantsev's corps, operating separately from the main army, approached Kolberg on August 5 and laid siege to it. The fortress turned out to be strong, and the siege, conducted with the help of the fleet, lasted four months, accompanied at the same time by actions against the Prussian partisans in the rear of the siege corps. Only Rumyantsev's indomitable energy made it possible to bring the siege to an end - the military council convened three times called for a retreat. Finally, on December 5, Kolberg surrendered, 5,000 prisoners, 20 banners, 173 guns were taken, and this was the last feat of the Russian army in the Seven Years' War.

The report on the surrender of Kolberg found Empress Elizabeth on her deathbed ... The emperor who ascended the throne Peter III- an ardent admirer of Friedrich - immediately stopped hostilities with Prussia, returned to her all the conquered regions (East Prussia was under Russian citizenship for 4 years) and ordered Chernyshev's corps to be with the Prussian army. In the spring of the 1762 campaign, Chernyshev's corps raided Bohemia and regularly cut down yesterday's Austrian allies, for whom the Russians at all times - and then especially - had contempt. When in early July Chernyshev was ordered to return to Russia, where a coup had taken place at that time, Friedrich begged him to stay for another "three days" - until the battle, which he gave on July 10 at Burkersdorf. The Russians did not participate in this battle, but by their very presence they greatly frightened the Austrians, who still did not know anything about the events in St. Petersburg.

So sadly and unexpectedly ended for us the Seven Years' War, which glorified Russian weapons.

Officer of the Grenadier Prince Wilhelm Regiment, 1762. Colorized engraving

The war with Russia is the kind of war where you know how to start, but you don’t know how it will end.