2. Laws, etc.development theoriessociety

Law of acceleration of historical time

The elements of social structure are social statuses and roles. Their number; the order of arrangement and the nature of dependence on each other determine the content of the specific structure of a particular society. It is clear that there are great differences between the social structure of ancient and modern society.

By comparing the evolution of societies, the various stages that human civilization goes through in its development, scientists have identified a number of patterns. One of them; can be called a trend, or the law of accelerating history. It says that each subsequent stage takes less time than the previous one.

Thus, capitalism is shorter than feudalism, which, in turn, is shorter than slavery. Pre-industrial society is more extensive than industrial society. Each subsequent social formation is 3-4 times shorter than the previous one. The longest was the primitive system, which lasted several hundred thousand years. Archaeologists studying the history of society through excavations of monuments of material culture have derived the same pattern. They call each phase in the evolution of mankind an historical era. It turned out that the Stone Age, consisting of the Paleolithic, Mesolithic and Neolithic, is longer than the Metal Age, consisting of the Bronze and Iron Ages. The closer we get to modern times, the more the spiral of historical time contracts, and society develops faster and more dynamically.

Thus, the law of acceleration of history indicates the compaction of historical time.

Technical and cultural; progress constantly accelerated as we approached modern society. About 2 million years ago, the first tools appeared, from which technical progress began. About 15 thousand years ago, our ancestors began to practice religious rituals and paint on cave walls. About 8-10 thousand years ago they switched from gathering and hunting to farming and cattle breeding. Approximately 6 thousand years ago, people began to live in cities, specialize in certain types of work, and divided into social classes. 250 years ago, the industrial revolution took place, ushering in the era of industrial factories and computers, thermonuclear energy and aircraft carriers.

Law of Unevenness

The law of acceleration of historical time allows us to look at familiar things in a new light, in particular at changes in the social structure of society, or its status portrait.

The dynamics of the status portrait of society are connected with the dynamics of social structure and the dynamics of social progress. The mechanism for the development of the social structure of society and at the same time the mechanism for its social progress is the division of social labor. With the emergence of new industries National economy the number of statuses is growing.

Thanks to knowledge of the social structure (a set of empty statuses not filled by people), it is possible to determine the real time in which a given country is located, the level of its social development. In other words, did she find herself in her era?

Similar theoretical model allows the sociologist to do much more than determine the level of historical lag.

The second law, or trend of history, states that peoples and nations develop at unequal rates. That is why in America or Russia there are industrially developed regions and areas where the population has retained a pre-industrial (traditional) way of life.

When, without going through all the previous stages, they are involved in the modern stream of life, not only positive, but also Negative consequences. Scientists have found that social time at different points in space can flow at different speeds. For some peoples, time passes faster, for others slower.

The discovery of America by Columbus and the subsequent colonization of the mainland by highly developed European countries led to the death of the equally developed Mayan civilization, the spread of diseases and the degradation of the indigenous population. In the process of modernization in the second half of the twentieth century, Islamic countries followed America and Western Europe. Soon, many of them reached technical and economic heights, but the local intelligentsia sounded the alarm: Westernization leads to the loss of traditional values. The movement of fundamentalism is called upon to restore the original folk customs and morals that existed before the expansion of capitalism.

Existing theories of development can be divided into three groups: sociocultural, individual-technological and socio-economic. Each of the theories identifies its own specific factor of social development.

Sociocultural theories They consider the main changes occurring in the sociocultural sphere of society - worldview, religion, value system and mentality of a social group, society and entire eras. Sociocultural theories include the teachings of Comte, Weber, and Sorokin.

Comte divides the entire history of mankind into three stages of development, corresponding to the states of the human mind. The first state is theological (fictitious), when the main, factual part of science was contained in a theological shell, and all phenomena were explained by the will of animate objects or supernatural beings (spirits, gnomes, gods). The second is a metaphysical (critical) state, when more numerous facts are explained through various abstract, abstract, a priori concepts (such as cause, essence, matter, social contract, human rights, etc.). Comte sees the merit of this stage only in the destruction of theological ideas and the preparation of the transition to the next, third and final, positive, or scientific, stage. The task of positive philosophy is to classify and unify sciences, and sciences should clarify the laws of connection between phenomena, and not deal with metaphysical problems. Thus, according to Comte, it is impossible to know the essence of things and causality; therefore the sciences have only to test numerous facts “by the facts themselves, which are often simple enough to become principles.”

M. Weber created a general theory of rationalization of society. The hallmark of rationality is the presence of bureaucracy, but this conclusion reflects only one, albeit very important, aspect (along with capitalism) of the large-scale process of rationalization of society. He explored two types of rationalism (formal and substantive), but two others should also be mentioned: practical (everyday rationalism, with the help of which people perceive the realities of the world around them and strive to cope with them in the best possible way) and theoretical (the desire for cognitive control of reality using abstract concepts).

Sorokin did not so much accept the prevailing evolutionary or developmental models as believe that society is best understood as subject to cyclical, although not regular, patterns of change. In the most general and schematic form, this evolution can be characterized by the typically Russian formula “from Marxism to idealism.” He argued that the social disintegration and cultural crisis could only be overcome by new altruism.

Individual-technological theories consider social changes as derived from changes in the sphere of production. The most famous theories of this type were created by William Rostow and Daniel Bell.

Rostow created the theory of stages of economic growth, according to which the development of society is determined by changes in production technology (manual labor, manufacturing, machine production). According to Rostow, society goes through 5 stages - traditional, transitional, shift, maturity, high mass consumption.

Bell created the theory of industrial society, according to which society goes through three stages - pre-industrial (the main sphere of production is agriculture, since technology is not developed), industrial (the main sphere is industry), post-industrial (the main sphere is service).

Socio-economic theories consider the changes that occur in the system of economic relations to be decisive. The origins of the most famous socio-economic theories were Karl Marx, Karl Bücher and Bruno Hildebrand.

K. Marx: The basis for the development of society is material production. The starting points of this concept are that the basis for the existence and development of society is material production and those changes that are caused by shifts in the sphere of production and the progress of productive forces. With the development of production, new ones are created public relations. The totality of production relations and the material basis of society determine the forms of consciousness, the legal and political superstructure. Law, politics, religion are governed by the base; The relationship between the two sides of the social organism is unusually complex and contradictory. The sociological laws operating in society express the principle of correspondence between productive forces and production relations, as well as between the ideological and political superstructure and base. The principle of correspondence between the level of development of production and the form of organization of society explains why changes occur in social relations: relations of production become a brake on the development of productive forces and must be transformed in a revolutionary way. “With a change in the economic basis,” wrote K. Marx, “a revolution occurs more or less quickly in the entire enormous superstructure.” The main economic work of K. Marx “Capital” consists of 13 four volumes. The analysis of the system of economic relations begins not with wealth (too general a category), but with goods. It is in the commodity, according to Marx, that all the contradictions of the system under study are embedded in embryonic form.



SOCIAL REGULARITY

SOCIAL REGULARITY

social law, objectively existing, recurring, beings. phenomena of societies. life or stages of history. process, characterizing the steps. stories. In pre-Marxist philosophy and sociology dept. thinkers came to the idea of ​​the natural nature of history. process (Aristotle, the idea of ​​determinism in the history of Bodin, the historical cycle of Vico, the geographical. Montesquieu, Condorcet, Herder). Franz. , although he was generally idealistic. positions in explaining history, in a unique form also approached recognition 3. O. At 19 V. problems 3. O. were developed in works French historians of the Restoration era (Thierry, Mignet, Guizot). Huge for idea development 3. O. had the views of Hegel, who, in the words of F. Engels, “... was the first to try to show the development, the internal connection of history...” (M arks K. and Engels F., Works, T. 13, With. 496) . Saint-Simon approached the understanding of the logical nature of history; theory three stages historical development was put forward by the founder of positivism, Comte.

HISTORY OF THE QUESTION. In pre-Marxist philosophy and sociology dep. thinkers approached the idea of ​​the natural nature of history. process. Already in antiquity. philosophy, for example Aristotle's works contained the idea of ​​​​connecting various forms of state with certain stages of development of society, which, in turn, were associated with changes in the living conditions of a particular people (see Polit., IV 3, 15; V 3–9; Russian translation, St. Petersburg, 1911). In the Middle Ages, the propagated Christ reigned supreme. theologians. In the 16th century J. Bodin came up with a substantiation of the principle of connection between society and geography, the environment, which was a kind of attempt to solve the problem of determinism in history. In the 1st half. 18th century Vico created the theory of historical cycle, according to the cut of each, reproducing the stages of life separately. human (childhood, youth and maturity), naturally experiences 3 eras: divine, heroic and human, after which the process of degradation begins, a return to the primitive state, and the development cycle resumes ("Foundations of a new science...", 1725). Vico's theory was an attempt to consider the history of society as a single natural process. At the same time, bourgeois. Vico essentially recognized the highest point in the development of mankind, etc. denied admission. nature of development.

The development of society as a natural process of improving the mind and culture was considered by representatives. enlightenment of Montesquieu and Condorcet. Montesquieu in his main in the work “On the Spirit of Laws” he argued that “laws in the broadest sense of the word are necessary relations arising from the nature of things” (Izbr. prod., M., 1955, p. 163), and tried to decide about Z. O. from a geographical point of view. determinism. Montesquieu's views were directed against the prevailing theology. concepts of societies. development. Although Condorcet’s works did not specifically raise the question of environmental protection, they substantiated the idea of ​​the progressive development of society. Condorcet associated the historical. with the progress of reason and knowledge (see "Sketch of the historical picture of the progress of the human mind", M., 1936, pp. 100–01). Considering the private to be eternal, Condorcet considered progress essentially as the progress of the bourgeoisie. society. The idea of ​​development and patterns in history was Ch. the idea of ​​the philosophy of history of the representative of German. Herder's Enlightenment. He believed that there are not actions of isolated individuals, but a coherent process of activity of peoples, in which a strictly determined chain of causes and consequences can be traced. Herder sought to show the principle of historicism and the laws of nature and society and failed to see the qualities and specifics of the world.

Franz. materialists of the 18th century in general they were idealistic. and metaphysical positions in explaining societies and phenomena. At the same time, in the works of Helvetius, the idea of ​​\u200b\u200bZ. o. was expressed in a unique form. Thus, he assumed that society was going through a certainty. stages: the transition from poverty to wealth, then to the uneven distribution of wealth and despotism, which perishes under the blows of the people, and society is renewed (see "About Man...", M., 1938, pp. 253–54). Helvetius and other French. materialists tried to establish a connection between man and the environment, but did not go beyond the point of view of interaction. In the development of the idea of ​​Z. o. An important role was played by the views of J. J. Rousseau, who argued that there was a connection between the emergence of private property and inequality, and also emphasized the importance of tools for the emergence of civilization. Franz. historians of the restoration era - Thierry, Mignet, Guizot, were able to see the significance of the class struggle in the development of society and considered it as a determinant. society pattern. Of great importance for the development of the idea of ​​\u200b\u200bZ. o. had Hegel's views; “he was the first to try to show the development, the internal connection of history...” (F. Engels, see K. Marx and F. Engels, Works, 2nd ed., vol. 13, p. 496). Hegel argued that history is dominated by regularity and that all of it is a single natural process, in which each, being uniquely unique, is at the same time only a necessary link in action. development of humanity. Affirming the historical necessity, he tried to combine it with the recognition of a free person. activities. He viewed history as a process of learning the idea of ​​freedom, which is realized through people striving to satisfy their interests. Necessity does not appear directly, but paves the way through contingencies. But the starting point for Hegel is the self-development of the “world spirit” as the basis for the development of all historical phenomena. The content of the story is consistent. triumph of the spirit of some kind. people, who at this stage are the bearer of the “universal spirit” (see Soch., vol. 8, M.–L., 1935, pp. 68–69).

Representatives of utopianism also tried to understand the logical nature of history. socialism. Saint-Simon viewed history not as facts, but as definitions. connection of events; he believed that each society, form should be studied not in isolation, but in connection with the previous and subsequent forms (see Izbr. soch., vol. 2, M.–L., 1948, p. 31). The founder of positivism, Comte, tried to discover “universal natural laws in history” and argued that the development of society corresponded to the development of forms of thinking - the so-called. The law of three states, according to which it goes through three stages: theological, metaphysical and positive. This means that Comte borrowed this law from Saint-Simon (see "Course of Positive Philosophy", St. Petersburg, 1912, p. 2). Thus, Comte’s laws appeared in the form of definitions. idealistic schemes brought into history.

Marxism is about the laws of society. Scientific resolving the issue of Z. o. was given for the first time from a materialistic position. understanding of history. So far, history has been limited to the study of only ideological. society relationships, they could not detect patterns in human history. society. Separation of production facilities. relations, as primary and material relations, as economic. foundations of societies. life, made it possible for the first time to apply the criterion of recurrence to historical phenomena. This was the condition for the opening of the Z. o. Most bourgeois sociologists deny the concept of history, primarily based on the assertion that there is not and cannot be repetition of phenomena in history. Representatives of the Freiburg school of neo-Kantianism (Windelband and Rickert) contrasted the sciences with the sciences of culture. The natural sciences, according to neo-Kantians, generalize, generalize, because every natural science. concept expresses . The cultural sciences (i.e., social) only individualize the objects they study, because they themselves are historical. concepts are individual concepts (see G. Rickert, Boundaries of the natural science education of concepts, St. Petersburg, 1904, pp. 444–45, 260–61; V. Windelband, Preludes, St. Petersburg, 1904, p. 320). Therefore, in history it is only possible to separate. facts in their individuality. While natural Sciences are sciences about laws and societies. sciences are sciences about events. According to Rickert, the "concept" historical law“there is (in the definition)” (op. cit., p. 225). This is about history. process is associated with idealistic. and metaphysical contrast between the general and the individual. In reality, the events that take place in history are not only individual. Franz. bourgeois 1789 or the 1st World War are unique in their specific originality. But in the essence of these events one can detect features that are repeated under certain conditions in other events. Creatures French features bourgeois revolutions were to a certain extent repeated in every bourgeoisie. revolutions, some of the most creatures. features of the 1st World War - in every weapon. clash of imperialist state-in. In actual in the course of history process there is a dialectic. the unity of the individual and the general, the repeatable and the unique.

As Marxism established, in society. In life, the action of laws does not always manifest itself in a “pure” form and directly, but mostly in the form of a tendency due to the contradictory action of different forces. Laws in general “...have no other reality than in approximation, in tendency, on average...” (F. Engels, see K. Marx and F. Engels, Selected letters, 1953, p. 483; see also V.I. Lenin, Soch., vol. 4, p. 95). Manifestation of Z. o. as trends and means precisely that the laws determine the fundamentals. the line of development of society, without covering or predetermining many accidents and deviations; It is through these accidents and deviations that necessity makes its way as a law. When understanding this or that phenomenon of social life, it is very important to establish not only its individual features, but also the general thing that underlies a number of phenomena of this kind. The criterion for identifying this commonality in social development is, first of all, the concept of socio-economic formation, which captures the commonality that is repeated in different countries at the same stage of history and development. Thus, the development of capitalism in England, despite its specifics. features, has many similarities with the development of capitalism in France or Germany. “Whatever the uniqueness of the emergence and development of capitalism in a particular country, everywhere this system has common features and patterns” (CPSU Program, 1961, p. 7). Construction of socialism in the USSR and in the countries of the people. democracy also, despite a number of specific features. features, has a number of common features that express the pattern of emergence of a given society. building as defined socio-economic formations.

Recurrence in history appears, therefore, either as the reproduction of similar, common features in phenomena relating to different stages of history (for example, under communism, property that already existed under the primitive communal system of social property is “repeated”), or as the presence of common, obligatory . features in the life of different peoples and countries that are at the same stage of history. development (for example, general patterns of transition from capitalism to socialism in different countries).

Neither in the first nor in the second case does Marxism absolutize repetition. In historical development, every “repetition” occurs each time on a new, more high level, acquires qualitatively new features from the point of view of both content and form, which is associated with the inclusion of a recurring phenomenon in a new system of relations. “... Events that are strikingly similar, but occurring in different historical situations,” Marx wrote, “lead to completely different results” (“Correspondence of K. Marx and F. Engels with Russian political figures,” 1951, p. 223). Recognition of recurrence therefore does not contradict, but, on the contrary, presupposes the irreversibility of historical history. process. This is what distinguishes Marxism from all theories of “cyclicality,” “circulation,” etc., where repetition in the course of the development of world history is understood precisely as the repetition at a new stage of what has already been given in the past.

Therefore, the understanding of Z. o. is not limited to recognizing the repetition of societies. phenomena. The logical nature of history also means the nature of its development. Recognition of Z. o. is closely related to the understanding of history. progress.

The relationship between the laws of nature and society. Opening of Z. o. made it possible to present the development of society as a natural-historical one. process. There is a known between the laws of societies. development and laws of nature. The laws of society are less durable; they also differ from the laws of nature and in their complexity, like the laws of the highest. The attempts of some bourgeois are untenable. philosophers and sociologists transfer the laws of nature to societies. phenomena. The most characteristic in this regard is organic. the theory of Comte and Spencer, which proposed to consider society as a biological one. , where dep. social institutions are likened to animal organs. Another attempt of this kind is represented by , which transfers a number of provisions of Darwin’s theory to society, considering, in particular, such as competition, from the point of view. "struggle for existence" Finally, Bogdanov’s theory of “energy balance” represents the same kind of attempt, which examines the relationship between society and nature from the perspective. “equilibrium theories”, as a certain balance of energy of nature and society. All these theories have a methodological a vice that consists in a lack of understanding of the specifics of societies. life. The most important difference between the laws of social development is that they do not manifest themselves as the actions of blind spontaneous forces, but only and exclusively through the activities of people. They are the laws of this activity. Therefore, in relation to the laws of societies. development arises in a very specific way. the question of the relationship between the objective nature of laws and society. activities of people.

Laws of society and conscious activity of people. The objective nature of the laws of societies. development is that laws are not created and cannot be abolished by people, that they act regardless of whether they are desired by people or not, whether people know them or not. These are objective connections of the system of societies itself. relations, objective societies. development. In history there are people gifted with will and consciousness, who themselves create their own history. Everyone acts consciously, setting a determination for themselves. . But society the result that is obtained by adding up all individual actions, goals, etc., does not coincide with the intention of each. This is explained by two circumstances: firstly, each, being born, already finds the established forms of societies ready. relationships and therefore, at least at first, people must act in these already established forms. Secondly, people, performing conscious actions, can see, at best, only the immediate consequences to which they will lead, but cannot foresee distant societies. consequences of their actions. This is the creatures. feature of a society where development is carried out through a clash of antagonistic interests. classes. Z.o. in such a society it develops as a certain resultant of the totality of the actions of all members of society (see Letter from Engels to I. Bloch, September 21–22, 1890, in the book: K. Marx and F. Engels, Selected letters, 1953, p. 422 –24).

In pre-Marxist philosophy there was no correct solution to the question of the relationship between the objective laws of history and consciousness. activities of people. In a whole range of theological concepts of societies. development, for example in the writings of Augustine, the historical concept was formulated. fatalism, according to the historical development is predetermined by fate, fate, and human activity cannot change anything in history. Another direction in sociology is associated with voluntarism. concept (see Voluntarism) of societies. development (for example, Schopenhauer, Nietzsche) and consists in denying the objective nature of laws and recognizing the decisive importance of human beings. or deities. will in history. Some bourgeois. scientists (Stammler) argued that Marxism contains, because it simultaneously recognizes both the role of objective laws and the role of consciousness. activities of people. Modern bourgeois critics of Marxism follow the same line: some of them (K. Hunt) accuse Marxism of the fact that, while recognizing the historical. necessity condemns a person to the role of a passive observer of events. Others (S. Hook) argue that the communists are practical. activities refute determinism. In attacking , they seek to portray it as voluntaristic. concept. But in reality, Marxism-Leninism provides a truly dialectical. solution of the problem. Engels pointed out that people make history under certain conditions. circumstances, so their success is recognized. activity can be ensured only if this activity is carried out in accordance with objective laws. In this case, people's activities become enormously revolutionary. strength. Relying on the objectively existing law, people actually find sources and forces for its transformation.

General and specific laws of social development. History, materialism distinguishes different degrees of generality of laws operating in history. From this view. Three groups of laws can be distinguished. 1) Laws that apply throughout humanity. history, in all social and economic. formations. This is the so-called "general sociological laws", which include, for example, the law of conformity of production. relations character produces, forces, the law of the determining role of societies. being in relation to societies. consciousness, etc. 2) Laws that operate throughout a large period of history - at the entire stage of the existence of class societies.-economic. formations. This is, for example, the law of class struggle as the driving force of societies. development, the law of social revolution as a form of transition from one class-antagonistic. formations to, etc. 3) Laws in force for any one society.-economic. formations called specific. laws. For example, specific the law of capitalism is the law of anarchy of production and competition, specific. The law of socialism is the law of planned, proportional development of production. To specific laws along with the laws of the department. formations also include the laws of transition from one socio-economic. formation to another (for example, the laws of the transition from capitalism to socialism, the laws of the formation of a communist formation). The study of these laws has enormous practical implications. meaning. Becoming communist formation differs from the formation of any other formation precisely in that the role of consciousness here increases unprecedentedly. activity of the masses, and for the success of this activity it is necessary to be specific. laws underlying this process. It should also be distinguished among specific ones. laws such as those that apply throughout the entire formation, and those that apply to the department. stages of development of this formation. Thus, the law of distribution according to labor operates only in the first phase of communist development. formations - under socialism and during the transition from socialism to communism. Specific the laws of development of formations are at the same time general laws for different countries going through the same historical process. development. It is in this sense that we speak about the general laws of the construction of socialism, about the general laws of the formation of communism. formations, etc.

In this regard, the question of the relationship between general and specific. laws is of fundamental importance in ideological matters. international struggle communist movements with revisionism and dogmatism. Methodology, the flaw of the concept of dogmatism is the overestimation of the general laws of societies. development; Revisionists are characterized by their denial of the general laws of building socialism in various countries. In the Declaration (1957) and Statement (1960) of the Meetings of Communist Representatives. and workers' parties, the CPSU Program (1961) exposed the views of the revisionists, revealed the general laws of building socialism and showed their significance.

Knowledge and use of the laws of society. Just like the laws of nature, the laws of societies. developments can be known, but their knowledge has a number of features. Marx pointed out that in general in any science any process is easiest to study at its point higher development. In society sciences - knowledge of the laws of societies. development depends on the degree of maturity of societies. relationships. Underdevelopment of societies. relations gives rise to the immaturity of theories of societies. development (for example, the socialism of Saint-Simon, Fourier and Owen). The discovery of the essence of class relations and the laws of class struggle became possible only under capitalism, when class relations had sufficiently developed. Features of the laws of societies. development is determined by the specificity of the method of their research. Societies Researcher. phenomena is deprived of the opportunity to reproduce the phenomenon he is studying, or to stage. “... When analyzing economic forms, one cannot use either a microscope or chemical reagents. Both must be replaced by abstractions” (Marx K., Capital, vol. 1, 1955, p. 4). Finally, in understanding societies. laws, the class character of the researcher is manifested with particular force; it determines the direction of work, the selection of material and the solution of problems. Speaking of politics. economy, Marx pointed out that it was here, in connection with the unique nature of the scientific material. encounters such enemies as furies of private interest.

Knowledge of the laws of societies. development opens up the possibility of their use in practice. activities of people to transform society. People cannot create or abolish the objective laws of history, but they are not powerless regarding the operation of these laws. By changing the conditions in which this or that law operates, people can modify the forms and results of its action, and put it at their service. In antagonistic conditions. Different societies have different attitudes towards the same law. Thus, the oppressed classes are antagonistic. formations are always interested in the development of the class struggle (the objective law of social development), while at the same time the exploiting classes are interested in its development only to a certain extent. stage. The bourgeoisie led the class struggle against the feudal lords, but it “curtailed” and tried to prevent the most acute forms of its manifestation as soon as it turned out to be directed against itself. Any attempt to ignore the laws of societies. development leads to a kind of “retribution” (just as reluctance to take into account the objective laws of nature dooms a person’s practical aspirations to failure).

In socialist society, for the first time in history, favorable opportunities for consciousness arise. use of objective laws. Under socialism, the ratio of spontaneity and consciousness in societies changes. development, the importance of consciousness increases. activities of people, the ability (for society as a whole) to foresee distant societies. consequences of people's actions. Private ownership of the means of production determines the fundamentally spontaneous development of society; society ownership of the means of production, on the contrary, is an objective necessity and the possibility of the planned development of society. The objective law of planned, proportional development requires that, in accordance with it, people consciously plan the development of production. The plans for the development of the people's economy express the goal of socialism. production Under socialism, for the first time in history, economic laws do not act as the actions of spontaneous forces. However, this does not mean that under socialism all obstacles to consciousness have been eliminated. use of Z. o. Under socialism there are no reactions. social classes, but there is also a department. backward, which hinder the successful use of objective laws. The leadership role of the Communist. The party is manifested in the fact that the party promptly and decisively, widely deploying criticism and self-criticism, removes these obstacles and, relying in its policy on the known objective laws of history, directs the development of society. During the period of extensive construction of communism, the study of basic. patterns of economic, political. and the cultural development of socialism and its development into becomes the most important task of societies. Sci.

Laws of development of society and modern times. bourgeois and s o c i o l o g i . Question about the laws of societies. development is one of the most pressing issues of modern times. the struggle between two worldviews: Marxist and bourgeois. A characteristic feature of modern bourgeois philosophy and sociology is the refusal to recognize laws and the possibility of knowing and using objective laws. This is due to the change in the social role of the bourgeois class in modern times. era. At the time when she played the progressive historical. role, the theories of its ideologists contained recognition of the idea of ​​\u200b\u200bZ. From ser. 19th century, starting with the neo-Kantians, bourgeois. philosophers and sociologists are turning back on this issue. Modern followers of neo-Kantianism, when analyzing sociology and phenomena, continue to assert that history also uses different types of concepts and that all general concepts histories are only “ideal types” (M. Weber), which are not a reflection of an objectively existing general, but are only the most convenient tools for a sociologist to systematize facts. This is a peculiar form of denial of the Z. o. Neopositivism also denies the law. Proclaiming the need for a “positive” science, based only on empirical. facts, O. Neurath, for example, comes to the conclusion that historical. knowledge is impossible, because it does not allow experimental verification. K. Popper refers to the fact that since in history there are not laws, but trends, we cannot obtain accurate conclusions, because trends do not provide grounds for them and, therefore, theoretical. generalizations are impossible in history. Neopositivist sociologists (Landberg, Dodd, Lazarsfeld) essentially reduce sociology to a description of human forms. behavior, because general concepts expressing beings and social connections seem meaningless to them, because they cannot be verified. Denial of Z. o. also occurs among representatives of other philosophies. directions. Based on philosophy prerequisites of existentialism, R. Aron comes to the conclusion that research and causal history are impossible on the basis that “historical science, which would be obligatory for everyone, does not exist” (“Lá philosophie de l’histoire”, in collection. : "L"actvite philosophique contemporaine en France et aux Etats-Unis", t. 2, P., 1950, p. 321). He replaces the concepts of necessity and regularity with the concepts of possibility and probability. Some representatives of the bourgeoisie. historical thoughts in connection with the development of general problems of historical methodology are trying to raise the question of history. metaphysically and idealistically. So, for example, English. the historian Toynbee, recognizing the existence of the Earth's history, interprets it in the spirit of the old theories of the cycle ("theory of parallel civilizations" - see "A study of history", v. 9, 1955).

In the works of most bourgeois sociologists, general problems are not posed. Bourgeois sociology dominates, the most important feature of which is the refusal to penetrate society. phenomena, from the desire to reveal the objective laws of their development. Burzh. sociology appears as a collection of a large number of empirical. research dept. private phenomena of societies. life. And although sometimes these studies contain valuable factual information. material, they are essentially simple descriptions of facts. Limitations of the bourgeoisie empirical sociology is also obvious to some bourgeois. sociologists making attempts to put forward some kind of theoretical. empirical research (Lazarsfeld, Koenig). Supporters of microsociology (Gurvich) are even trying to create “new philosophical foundations” of sociology. theory (the so-called “dialectical hyperempiricism”). But no empirical results. research with idealistic premises. philosophy does not open the way to science. research of Z. o. The “laws” recognized by such a theory are not much different from the a priori constructions of the old philosophy of history and traditional sociology - they are not objective laws of the development of history.

The idea of ​​negating Z. o. has deep class roots. Recognition of an objectively existing law. would mean for the bourgeois. ideologists recognition historical. the need for the collapse of capitalism and its replacement with socialism. At the same time, the course of history refutes the theories of the bourgeoisie. sociology: objectively existing law. overthrows theories that deny it.

Historical development testifies to the truth of the Marxist theory of societies. development. “Marxism-Leninism, having discovered the objective laws of social development, showed the contradictions inherent in capitalism, the inevitability of their revolutionary explosion and the transition of society to communism” (CPSU Program, 1961, p. 7). The emergence and growth of socialism. camp, the colonial system of imperialism, the approaching inevitable collapse of imperialism is a clear action of the laws of history cognized by Marxism.

Lit.: Marx K., Capital, vol. 1, M., 1955, p. 8–20; vol. 3, M., 1955, ch. 9; his, The Holy Family, Works, 2nd ed., vol. 2, ch. 6; him, Towards a critique of political economy, [M.], 1952, p. 212–22 (Method of political economy); his, [Letter] to P.V. Annenkov – 28.XII. 1846, in the book: Correspondence of K. Marx and F. Engels from Russian. political figures, 2nd ed., [M.], 1951, p. 10; Engels F., Ludwig Feuerbach and the end of classical German philosophy, M., 1955, section 4; his, Anti-Dühring, M., 1957 (Introduction. I. General remarks. Section three. Socialism - II. Essay on the theory); his, [Letters]. F. A. Lange – 29. III. 1865, I. Bloch – 21–22. IX. 1890, K. Schmidt – 12. III. 1895, K. Schmidt – 5. VIII. 1890, G. Starkenburg – 25.I.1894, in the book: Marx K., Engels F., Izbr. letters, [M.], 1953; him, Karl Marx. "Towards a critique of political economy"; Marx K. and Engels F., Soch., 2nd ed., vol. 13; Lenin V.I., What are “friends of the people” and how do they fight against the Social Democrats?, Works, 4th ed., vol. 1, p. 115–30; him, Economic Populism and his in the book of Mr. Struve, ibid., vol. 1, p. 389–91; him, Capitalism in agriculture , ibid., vol. 4, p. 95; him, Against the boycott, ibid., vol. 13, p. 21–22; him, Materialism and empirio-criticism, ibid., vol. 14, ch. 6, p. 306–41; him, Another destruction of socialism, ibid., vol. 20, p. 179; him, Karl Marx, ibid., vol. 21, p. 38–41 (Materialistic understanding of history); his, Prophetic words, ibid., vol. 27, p. 456; Plekhanov G.V., On the question of the development of a monistic view of history, Izbr. Philosopher proizv., vol. 1, M., 1956; Lafargue. P., Economic determinism of K. Marx, 2nd ed., M.–L., ; Khrushchev N.S., Report of the CPSU Central Committee to the XX Party Congress, M., 1956, p. 36–45; his, On the control figures for the development of the national economy of the USSR for 1959–65. Report at the extraordinary XXI Congress of the CPSU, M., 1959; his, Report of the CPSU Central Committee to the XXII Party Congress, M., 1961; by him, On the CPSU Program, M., 1961; Documents of the Meetings of representatives of communist and workers' parties held in Moscow in November 1957, M., 1957; Documents of the Meeting of Representatives of Communist and Workers' Parties, Moscow, November 1960, M., 1960; Program of the CPSU, M., 1961; Fundamentals of Marxist philosophy, M., 1959, part 2, chapter. 9, § 3; Asmus V.F., Marx and bourgeois historicism, M.–L., 1933; Tugarinov V.P., On the relationship between objective laws of social development, "Vestn. Leningrad State University. Ser. Social Sciences", 1954, No. 9, no. 3; Asatryan M.V., On the issue of knowledge and use of the laws of social development, "Bulletin of Moscow State University. Ser. Economics, Philosophy, Law", 1956, No. 1; Bikkenin N.B., On the problem of the relationship between general and specific laws of development, ibid., 1957, No. 3; Momdzhyan Kh. N., On the ideology of social pessimism, "Bulletin of the History of World Culture", 1957, No. 2; Kon I.S., Philosophical idealism and the crisis of bourgeois historical. thoughts, M., 1959; Lyuboshits L.I., General and specific economic laws, M., 1959; Glerman G. E., On the laws of social development, M., 1960; Historical materialism and the modern bourgeoisie. Sat. Art., M., 1960; Schaff A., The objective nature of the laws of history, trans. from Polish, M., 1959; Spengler O., Der Untergang des Abendlandes, Bd 1, 33–47 Aufl., Münch., 1923 (Russian translation, vol. 1, 1923); Neurath O., Empirische Soziologie, W., 1931; Bober. M. M., Karl Marx's interpretation of history, Camb. – , 1948; Weber M., Gesammelte Aufsätze zur Wissenschaftslehre, 2 Aufl., Tübingen, 1951; Popper. K. R., The open society and its enemies, v. 1 –2, , L., 1952; same, Misère de l'historicisme, P., ; Ginsberg M., The idea of ​​progress; a revaluation, L., ; Russel W., History as an art, Aldington (Kent), 1954; Aaron R. , L'opium des intellectuels, P., ; Hook S., Historical determinism and political in Soviet communism, "Proc. Amer. Philos. Soc", 1955, v. 99; Hunt R. N. S., The theory and practice of communism, 5 ed., L., 1957; Acton N. V., The illusion of the epoch., Boston, .

G. Andreeva. Moscow.

Philosophical Encyclopedia. In 5 volumes - M.: Soviet Encyclopedia. Edited by F. V. Konstantinov. 1960-1970 .

• Encyclopedic Dictionary - see Social regularity. Philosophical encyclopedic dictionary. M.: Soviet Encyclopedia. Ch. editor: L. F. Ilyichev, P. N. Fedoseev, S. M. Kovalev, V. G. Panov. 1983 ... Philosophical Encyclopedia

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Law, necessary, essential, stable, repeating relationship between phenomena. Z. expresses the connection between objects, the constituent elements of a given object, between the properties of things, as well as between properties within a thing. But not every connection... ...

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Subject: social studies

Class, profile: 8th grade, social studies

FULL NAME. teacher, No. OU: Grigorkina G.S., Municipal Educational Institution Gymnasium No. 19 named after Popovicheva N.Z.

Software and methodological support:

Program (basic level)

Textbooks used: A.I. Kravchenko

Lesson topic: “Social progress and development of society”

Target:

To acquaint students with the trends in the development of society, including the law of acceleration of history, the uneven development of different peoples and nations, to explain the essence of social progress and its types.

After studying the topic, students should:

explain the essence of the law of acceleration of history, justify your answer with specific examples;

know that peoples and nations develop at unequal speeds, be able to explain this trend using the example of the development of countries;

explain the essence of social progress, which includes economic, technical and cultural progress;

be able to determine in which cases society develops in a reformist way, and in which – in a revolutionary way;

know the definitions of the following concepts: the law of acceleration of history, progress, regression, reform, revolution, historical era.

Lesson plan:

Basic patterns of development of human society: why is history accelerating?

The law of uneven development of peoples and nations of the world.

Does society always develop progressively? What is social progress?

Reforms and revolutions.

When starting to consider the first question, the teacher needs to emphasize that, by studying the evolution of societies, scientists have come to the conclusion that there are patterns in their development.

Having examined the chronological framework of each historical era, students come to the conclusion about the compaction of historical time.

The figure for the paragraph shows the essence of the law of acceleration of historical time. Looking at the drawing (p. 33 of the textbook), students should explain:

a) How do the level of development of society and historical time relate to each other?

b) Why is this relationship called the law of acceleration of history?

The teacher draws the children’s attention to the additional text of the paragraph “Accelerating History” (p. 34 of the textbook). Have students explain statistics presented in the text.

Having completed such work, students come to the conclusion that each subsequent stage covers a much shorter period of time than the previous one. However, the level of development of society, on the contrary, is becoming higher.

Very impressive is the data of sociologists that each subsequent social formation is 34 times shorter than the previous one. However, tools and technologies are improving much faster.

A certain period of human development is called historical era. Having drawn the students' attention to this concept and explained its meaning, the teacher instructs groups of students to select facts known to them that indicate that technical inventions and scientific discoveries have been improved from era to era. For this purpose, students can be offered books as an assistant - history textbooks ancient world, Middle Ages, modern and contemporary times. The level of development of each era can be compared using the following parameters:

a) development of tools, technology and science;

b) development of human intelligence;

c) social organization of society.

(It is advisable to perform such work in a prepared class).

In the previous lesson, students, while completing an assignment using cards, learned that the Russian scientist N.N. Miklouho-Maclay studied in the 19th century. relict societies of Papuans living at the level of primitive society. Why does history “slow down” the evolution of individual nations and people? Let the guys express their guesses.

Why does social time not flow the same way everywhere?

Students are asked to think about whether the expansion of capitalistically developed countries into the territory of underdeveloped regions can be considered a progressive phenomenon? (On the one hand, there is an artificial attempt to speed up the process of development of peoples (import of equipment, etc.), on the other, the destruction of identity).

It is advisable that during the discussion the guys argue their point of view. To track heteropolar judgments, one student should be invited to the board (to a piece of Whatman paper attached to the wall), who should record these positions of the speakers. (Yes, this is progressive, because...; No, this is violence and is dangerous, because...)

Consideration of the third question should center around the concept "social progress". It is explained by our science as the global progress of the development of human society from less perfect to more perfect, from a state of savagery to the heights of civilization.

Explaining the essence of social progress, the teacher involves children in dialogue, who, with the help of specific facts, prove what characterized social progress and its components in certain historical eras.

Studying the issue completes the problem task:

Think about whether society can develop backwards, regressively?

When explaining this problem, the teacher must reinforce in the understanding of students that progress is global in nature, and regression is local and covers individual societies and periods of time.

Students are asked to complete the following task.

“The history of mankind is known for numerous wars. It remained in their state for a much longer period of time than in the state of peace. Think about how wars influenced the development of society? What function did they perform: progressive or regressive?”

You can invite students to divide into two groups with bipolar opinions and try to answer the question posed with a pre-proposed attitude (students try to prove the proposed position by polemicizing with their opponents):

Yes, wars had a progressive influence on the development of society, because:

During the period of hostilities, rapid improvement of equipment, including military equipment, occurs, and the country's military-industrial complex develops.

Enterprises and firms producing weapons receive government orders, their profits are growing rapidly. There is an enrichment of many structures.

In wartime, people manifest special feelings of patriotism and unity, which contributes to the unity of the nation and the growth of its intellectual capabilities.

During the war, many unique and talented works of science and art appear (songs, music, paintings...)

War exterminates part of the population, thereby regulating the solution of demographic problems.

War promotes new discoveries in the field of medicine.

No, wars have a negative impact on society, because:

war means numerous human sacrifices, grief and tears.

During the war, numerous cultural values ​​are destroyed, including number of buildings, structures

War leads to colossal material losses: destruction and devastation of cities and villages.

The stressful state of people leads to mental and health disorders

Society is destabilizing, losing able-bodied citizens and increasing the number of those who need social support.

The world is being redivided and new conflicts are being generated.

Social progress can occur gradually or in leaps and bounds. In the first case, reformative changes occur in society, and in the second, revolutionary changes occur. When considering this issue, you should pay attention to the difference in these concepts.

Students are asked to analyze the events below and group them into 2 columns of the table, explaining orally:

a) Why can this event be attributed to this type of social progress?

b) How did the changes take place, who became the initiator and “conductor” of changes in life?

Privatization of housing, legally permitted in Russia.

Introduction of tax benefits for domestic entrepreneurs.

Legal abolition of serfdom in 1861 in Russia.

changes in the judicial system in the 60s. XIX century, in accordance with which a jury trial, adversarial process, etc. were introduced.

The events of 1917 in Russia, which led to changes in the political system (monarchy - republic), the liquidation of the bourgeoisie, the destruction of private property.

The technological, industrial rise of Western European states in the 18th-19th centuries, as a result of which machine production replaced the old manufactory.

Thus, students independently, with the organizing role of the teacher, begin to understand that:

Reform- improvement in a certain area of ​​life, which is gradual in nature and does not affect the foundations of the existing system.

Revolution - a comprehensive change in most aspects of life, bringing society to a qualitatively new level of development.

At the end of the topic, the teacher can work with the concepts covered in the lesson. To do this, you should offer to build a terminological model of their relationship on the board and ask them to explain individual concepts orally.

D/w: paragraph 4, complete the tasks and answer the questions for the paragraph. Separate groups of children can be given individual tasks: select facts from literature and the media. Proving natural trends in the development of society.lesson...

Work program on general history grades 5-9 explanatory note

Working programm

... story like science, revealing patterns and trends development society ... development human society, and features development individual regions, as well as trace the dynamics of historical development and select it basic... cards. Why new ones beckoned...

Summary of a repeating and generalizing lesson Problem-discussion game

Abstract

Also ideas about patterns development human society from antiquity to... from main and additional... for children. Worldwide story. - M.: Avanta +, ... lesson. Statement of the problem question: Do you think Why ... . Speeded it up development Italy...

Lesson section I. Life of primitive people topic I. Primitive gatherers and hunters

Lesson

AND human society, the emergence of spiritual culture, social differentiation. Nowhere else on the course material stories... East, Greek scientists tried to find basic patterns development nature. Greatest achievement there was a teaching...

Typology of societies.

Several types of society, united by similar characteristics or criteria, make up a typology.

First typology chooses writing as the main feature, and all societies are divided to preliterate(i.e. able to speak, but not write) and written(knowing the alphabet and recording sounds in material media: cuneiform tablets, birch bark letters, books, newspapers, computers).

According to second typology, societies are also divided into two classes - simple and complex. The criterion is the number of levels of management and the degree of social stratification. In simple societies there are no leaders and subordinates, rich and poor. These are the primitive tribes. In complex societies there are several levels of management, several social strata of the population, located from top to bottom as income decreases.

Simple societies coincide with preliterate ones. They do not have pistism, complex management and social stratification. Complex societies coincide with written ones. Here writing, extensive administration and social inequality appear.

At the base third typology lies the way of obtaining means of subsistence (hunting and gathering, cattle breeding and gardening, agriculture, industrial and post-industrial society).

In the middle of the 19th century K. Marx proposed his typology of societies. The basis is two criteria: the method of production and the form of ownership. A society at a certain stage of historical development is called a socio-economic formation. According to K. Marx, humanity successively went through four formations: primitive, slaveholding, feudal and capitalist. The fifth was called communist, which was supposed to come in the future.

Modern sociology uses all typologies, combining them into some synthetic model. Its creator is considered a prominent American sociologist Daniela Bella. He divided all history into three stages: pre-industrial (characterized by power), industrial (characterized by money) and post-industrial (characterized by knowledge).

Law of acceleration of historical time. Its essence is as follows. By comparing the evolution of societies, the various stages that human civilization goes through in its development, scientists have identified a number of patterns. One of them can be called a trend, or the law of accelerating history. It says that each subsequent stage takes less time than the previous one. The closer we get to modern times, the more the spiral of historical time contracts, and society develops faster and more dynamically. Thus, the law of acceleration of history indicates the compaction of historical time.

Law of regularity. The second law, or trend of history, states that peoples and nations develop at unequal rates. That is why in America or Russia there are industrially developed regions and areas where the population has preserved the pre-industrial (traditional) way of life.

When, without going through all the previous stages, they are drawn into the modern stream of life, not only positive, but also negative consequences can consistently appear in their development. Scientists have found that social time at different points in space can flow at different speeds. For some peoples, time passes faster, for others - slower.

Some general laws of systems development can also be applied to society. When we talk about systems, we mean a whole that is made up of parts and is a unity. This unity, which is very important, is not limited to its constituent elements.

Society is also a system; it is an organized collection of people. We are all part of it, so many of us wonder how it develops. The laws of its development can be discovered by considering the sources of progress. In society, three spheres of reality, “worlds” that are not reducible to each other, interact with each other. This is, firstly, the world of things and nature, which exists independently of the consciousness and will of man, that is, it is objective and subject to various physical laws. Secondly, this is a world in which objects and things have a social existence, since they are products of human activity and labor. The third world represents human subjectivity, spiritual ideas and entities relatively independent from the objective world. They have the greatest degree of freedom.

Nature as a source of social development

The first source of social development is found in the natural world. The laws of social development in the past were often formulated based on it. It is the basis for the existence of society, which, interacting with it, improves. We should not forget that it was the laws of the development of nature that led to the emergence of man. The largest civilizations, characteristically, arose in the beds of large rivers, and the most successful development of the capitalist formation in the world took place in states with a temperate climate.

It should be noted that the current stage of interaction between society and nature is marked by the concept. Its main reason was the attitude of people to conquer nature, as well as ignoring the limits of its resistance to anthropogenic influences. People turn a blind eye to the basic laws of development, forget about everything in pursuit of short-term gain and do not take into account the consequences. The behavior and consciousness of billions of inhabitants of the Earth must be changed so that nature can continue to provide us with the necessary resources.

The role of technology in the development of society

The next source is technological determinants, that is, the role of technology, as well as the process of division of labor in the social structure. They also provide social development. Laws today are often formulated using the role of technology as a basis. This is not surprising - it is now actively being improved. However, according to T. Adorno, the question of the priority of technology and economics is the question of what came first: the egg or the chicken. The same can be attributed to the type and nature of human labor, which largely determine the system of social relations. All this has become especially obvious today, when the contours have emerged. The main contradiction in this case arises between the humane goals of his existence pursued by man and the potentially threatening world of information technology. Its active development causes many problems.

The laws of social development are therefore beginning to be revised, the emphasis is on which we will now talk about.

The spiritual sphere as a source of social progress

Marx believed, leaving aside the “primary” (initial) stage, as well as the “secondary forms” of the community that grew on its form, that in relation to the era of class society and civilization, ancient, feudal, Asian and bourgeois (modern) modes of production can be called progressive eras of social economic formation. In the social science of the USSR, a simplified formula for the process of historical development was used, implying the transition of a primitive society first to a slave society, then to a feudal one, then to a capitalist one and, finally, to a socialist one.

The concept of "local civilizations"

The concept of “local civilizations”, which was created through the efforts of A. D. Toynbee, O. Spengler and N. A. Danilevsky, enjoys the greatest recognition in the philosophical thought of the 19-20 centuries. According to it, all peoples are divided into civilized and primitive, and the former are also divided into cultural and historical types. The phenomenon formulated as "Challenge-and-Response" is of particular interest here. It consists in the fact that calm development is suddenly replaced by a critical situation, which, in turn, encourages the growth of a particular culture. The authors of this concept made an attempt to overcome Eurocentrism in the understanding of civilization.

Systems approach

In the last quarter of the 20th century, an approach was developed according to which the world is a system in which the laws of human and social development operate. This is due to the fact that at this time the process in the world conglomerate was gaining strength: a “periphery” and a “core”, forming as a whole a “world-system” that exists according to the laws of superformation. The main product of today's type of production has become information and everything connected with it. And this, in turn, changes the idea that the historical process is of a linear type.

Laws of economic development

These are constantly recurring, significant, stable connections between economic phenomena and processes. For example, the law of demand expresses the inverse relationship that exists between changes in the price of a certain product and the demand that arises for it. Like other laws of social life, economic ones operate regardless of the desires and will of people. Among them we can distinguish universal (general) and specific.

General ones are those that operate throughout human history. They functioned back in the primitive cave and continue to be relevant in the modern company, and will also operate in the future. Among them are the following laws of economic development:

Increased needs;

Progressive economic development;

Increased opportunity costs;

Growing division of labor.

The development of society inevitably leads to a gradual increase in needs. This means that over time, people have a growing understanding of the set of goods that they regard as “normal.” On the other hand, the standard of each type of good that is consumed increases. Primitive people, for example, they wanted, first of all, to have a lot of food. Today, people, as a rule, no longer care about not dying from its lack. He strives to ensure that his food is varied and tasty.

On the other hand, as purely material needs are satisfied, the role of social and spiritual ones increases. For example, in modern developed countries, when choosing a job, young people are increasingly concerned not so much with earning more (which allows them to dress and eat elegantly), but with the fact that the work is creative in nature and provides the opportunity for self-realization.

People, trying to satisfy new needs, improve production. They increase the range, quality and quantity of goods produced in the economy, and also increase the efficiency of using various natural resources. These processes can be called economic progress. If the existence of progress in art or morality is disputed, then in economic life it is undeniable. This can be achieved through the division of labor. If people specialize in the production of some specific goods, then overall productivity will noticeably increase. However, in order for each person to have a full set of goods that he needs, it is necessary to organize a constant exchange between members of society.

Redistribution and decentralized exchange

K. Polanyi, an American economist, identified 2 methods of coordinating actions between production participants. The first is redistribution, that is, exchange, centralized redistribution. The second is the market, that is, decentralized exchange. In pre-capitalist societies, redistributive product exchange prevailed, that is, natural exchange, carried out without the use of money.

At the same time, the state forcibly confiscated part of the products produced by its subjects from them for further redistribution. This method was typical not only for societies of the Middle Ages and antiquity, but also for the economies of socialist countries.

Even during the primitive system, market commodity exchange arose. In pre-capitalist societies, however, it was mainly a secondary element. Only in a capitalist society does the market become the main method of coordination. At the same time, the state actively encourages its development by creating various laws, for example, the “Law on Entrepreneurship Development.” Money relations are actively used. In this case, commodity exchange is carried out horizontally, between producers who have equal rights. Each of them has complete freedom of choice in finding transaction partners. The Small Business Development Law provides support for small firms that find it difficult to function in the context of growing competition.

Materialists argue that the study of the causes of social development should begin with a study of the process of production of immediate life, with an explanation practices from ideas, not ideological formations from practice.

Then it turns out that the source of social development is the contradiction (struggle) between people's needs and opportunities to meet them. The possibilities of satisfying needs depend on the development and struggle of two factors: productive forces and production relations, which constitute the method of production of material life, which determines the social, political and spiritual processes of life in general. Historical types of production relations are determined by the formational stages of development of productive forces.

At a certain stage of their development, the productive forces of society come into conflict with existing production relations. From forms of development of productive forces, these relations turn into their fetters. Then comes the era of social revolution. With a change in the economic basis, a revolution occurs more or less quickly in the superstructure. When considering such revolutions, it is always necessary to distinguish the revolution in the economic conditions of production from the legal, political, religious, artistic and philosophical forms in which people are aware of this conflict and struggle with it.

The essence idealistic understanding of history lies in the fact that the study of society begins not with an analysis of the results of practical activity, but with a consideration of its ideological motives. The main factor of development is seen in the political, religious, theoretical struggle, and material production is seen as a secondary factor. And then, consequently, the history of mankind appears not as the history of social relations, but as the history of morality, law, philosophy, etc.

Ways to develop society:

Evolution (from Latin evolutio - deployment, changes). In a broad sense, this is any development. In a narrow sense, it is a process of gradual accumulation of quantitative changes in society that prepare for qualitative changes.

Revolution (from Latin revolution - revolution) - qualitative changes, a radical revolution in social life, ensuring progressive progressive development. A revolution can occur throughout society (social revolution) and in its individual spheres (political, scientific, etc.).

Evolution and revolution do not exist without each other. Being two opposites, they are, at the same time, in unity: evolutionary changes sooner or later lead to revolutionary, qualitative transformations, and these, in turn, give scope to the stage of evolution.

Direction of social development:

First group thinkers argues that the historical process is characterized by cyclical orientation (Plato, Aristotle, O. Spengler, N. Danilevsky, P. Sorokin).

Second group insists that the dominant direction of social development is regressive (Hesiod, Seneca, Boisgilbert).

Third group States that progressive the direction of the story prevails. Humanity develops from less perfect to more perfect. (A. Augustine, G. Hegel, K. Marx).

At all progress- this is a movement forward, from lower to higher, from simple to complex, a transition to a higher level of development, change for the better; development of new, advanced; This is a process of upward development of humanity, implying a qualitative renewal of life.

Stages of historical development

Theoretical constructions of the progressive stage development of society were proposed by both idealists and materialists.

An example of an idealistic interpretation of progress can be the concept three-stage development of society, owned by I. Iselen (1728–1802), according to which humanity in its development passes through successive stages: 1) the dominance of feelings and primitive simplicity; 2) the predominance of fantasies over feelings and the softening of morals under the influence of reason and education; 3) the dominance of reason over feelings and imagination.

During the Age of Enlightenment, in the works of such outstanding scientists and thinkers as A. Turgot, A. Smith, A. Barnave, S. Desnitsky and others, a materialistic four-stage concept of progress (hunting-gathering, pastoral, agricultural, and commercial) based on an analysis of technological modes of production, geographic environment, human needs, and other factors.

K. Marx and F. Engels, having systematized and, as it were, summing up all the teachings on social progress, developed theory of social formations.

Theory of social formations by K. Marx

According to K. Marx, humanity in its development goes through two global periods: the “kingdom of necessity,” that is, subordination to some external forces, and the “kingdom of freedom.” The first period, in turn, has its own stages of ascension - social formations.

Social formation, according to K. Marx, this is a stage of development of society, distinguished on the basis of the presence or absence of antagonistic classes, exploitation and private property. K Marx considers three social formations: “primary”, archaic (pre-economic), “secondary” (economic) and “tertiary”, communist (post-economic), the transition between which occurs in the form of long qualitative leaps - social revolutions.

Social existence and social consciousness

Social existence - this is the practical life of society. Practice(Greek praktikos - active) - this is a feeling-objective, purposeful joint activity of people to develop natural and social objects in accordance with their needs and demands. Only a person is able to relate practically and transformatively to the natural and social world around him, creating the necessary conditions for his life, changing the world around him, social relations, and society as a whole.

The measure of mastery of objects in the surrounding world is expressed in forms of practice that are historical in nature, that is, they change with the development of society.

Forms of practice(according to the means of life of society): material production, social activity, scientific experimentation, technical activity.

Improvement material production, his

productive forces and production relations is the condition, basis and driving force of all social development. Just as society cannot stop consuming, it cannot stop producing. True

Social activities represents the improvement of social forms and relations (class struggle, war, revolutionary changes, various processes of management, service, etc.).

Scientific experimentation is a test for the truth of scientific knowledge before its widespread use.

Technical activities Today they constitute the core of the productive forces of the society in which a person lives, and have a significant impact on all social life and on the person himself.

Social consciousness(according to its content) - This

a set of ideas, theories, views, traditions, feelings, norms and opinions that reflect the social existence of a particular society at a certain stage of its development.

Social consciousness(according to the method of formation and mechanism of functioning) is not a simple sum of individual consciousnesses, but is that which is common in the consciousness of members of society, as well as the result of unification, the synthesis of common ideas.

Social consciousness(by its essence) - this is a reflection of social existence through ideal images in the consciousness of social subjects and in an active reverse impact on social existence.

Laws of interaction between social consciousness and social existence:

1. The law of relative compliance of social consciousness with the structure, logic of functioning and changes in social existence. Its content is revealed in the following main features:

In epistemological terms, social being and social consciousness are two absolute opposites: the first determines the second;

In functional terms, social consciousness can sometimes develop without social being, and social being can in some cases develop without the influence of social consciousness.

2. The law of the active influence of social consciousness on social existence. This law manifests itself through the interaction of social consciousnesses of various social groups, with the decisive spiritual influence of the dominant social group.

These laws were substantiated by K. Marx.

Levels of public consciousness:

Ordinary level constitute public views that arise and exist on the basis of people’s direct reflection of social existence, based on their immediate needs and interests. The empirical level is characterized by: spontaneity, not strict systematization, instability, emotional coloring.

Theoretical level social consciousness differs from empirical consciousness in greater completeness, stability, logical harmony, depth and systematic reflection of the world. Knowledge at this level is obtained primarily on the basis of theoretical research. They exist in the form of ideology and natural science theories.

Forms of consciousness (on the subject of reflection): political, moral, religious, scientific, legal, aesthetic, philosophical.

Morality is a type of spiritual and practical activity aimed at regulating social relations and people’s behavior with the help of public opinion. Moral expresses an individual slice of morality, that is, its refraction in the consciousness of an individual subject.

Morality includes moral consciousness, moral behavior and moral attitudes.

Moral (moral) consciousness- this is a set of ideas and views about the nature and forms of behavior of people in society, their relationship to each other, therefore, it plays the role of a regulator of people's behavior. In moral consciousness, the needs and interests of social subjects are expressed in the form of generally accepted ideas and concepts, prescriptions and assessments supported by the power of mass example, habits, public opinion, and traditions.

Moral consciousness includes: values ​​and value orientations, ethical feelings, moral judgments, moral principles, categories of morality and, of course, moral norms.

Features of moral consciousness:

Firstly, moral standards of behavior are supported only by public opinion and therefore moral sanction (approval or condemnation) is of an ideal nature: a person must be aware of how his behavior is assessed public opinion, accept this and adjust your behavior for the future.

Secondly, moral consciousness has specific categories: good, evil, justice, duty, conscience.

Thirdly, moral norms apply to relationships between people that are not regulated by government agencies (friendship, partnership, love).

Fourthly, there are two levels of moral consciousness: ordinary and theoretical. The first reflects the real mores of society, the second forms the ideal predicted by society, the sphere of abstract obligation.

Justice occupies a special place in moral consciousness. The consciousness of justice and attitude towards it have at all times been a stimulus for the moral and social activities of people. Nothing significant in the history of mankind has been accomplished without the awareness and demand for justice. Therefore, the objective measure of justice is historically determined and relative: there is no single justice for all times and for all peoples. The concept and requirements of justice change as society develops. The only absolute criterion of justice remains - the degree of compliance of human actions and relationships with the social and moral requirements achieved at a given level of development of society. The concept of justice is always the implementation of the moral essence of human relations, the specification of what should be, the implementation of relative and subjective ideas about good And evil.

The oldest principle - “Do not do to others what you do not wish for yourself” - is considered the golden rule of morality.

Conscience- this is a person’s ability to moral self-determination, to self-assessment of personal attitude towards the environment, towards the moral norms operating in society.

Political consciousness- is a set of feelings, persistent sentiments, traditions, ideas and theoretical systems that reflect the fundamental interests of large social groups regarding the conquest, retention and use of state power. Political consciousness differs from other forms of social consciousness not only in the specific object of reflection, but also in other features:

More specifically expressed by the subjects of cognition.

The predominance of those ideas, theories and feelings that circulate for a short time and in a more compressed social space.

Legal consciousness

Right- this is a type of spiritual and practical activity aimed at regulating social relations and people's behavior with the help of law. Legal awareness is an element of law (along with legal relations and legal activities).

Legal awareness there is a form of social consciousness in which knowledge and assessment of the legal laws adopted in a given society, the legality or illegality of actions, the rights and responsibilities of members of society are expressed.

Aesthetic consciousness - there is an awareness of social existence in the form of concrete, sensual, artistic images.

The reflection of reality in aesthetic consciousness is carried out through the concept of the beautiful and the ugly, the sublime and the base, the tragic and the comic in the form artistic image. At the same time, aesthetic consciousness cannot be identified with art, since it permeates all spheres human activity, and not just the world of artistic values. Aesthetic consciousness performs a number of functions: cognitive, educational, hedonistic.

Art is a type of spiritual production in the field of aesthetic exploration of the world.

Aestheticism- this is a person’s ability to see beauty in art and in all manifestations of life.

Laws of development of society:

General patterns- this is the conditioning of the real social process by the dialectical laws of development of the objective world, that is, the laws to which all objects, processes, and phenomena are subordinated without exception.

Under general laws understand the laws that govern the emergence, formation, functioning and development of all social objects (systems), regardless of their level of complexity, their subordination to each other, or their hierarchy. Such laws include:

1. The law of the conscious nature of the life activity of social organisms.

2. The law of the primacy of social relations, the secondary nature of social formations (communities of people) and the tertiary nature social institutions(sustainable forms of organization of human life) and their dialectical relationship.

3. The law of the unity of anthropo-, socio- and cultural genesis, which argues that the origin of man, society and his culture, both from “phylogenetic” and “ontogenetic” points of view, should be considered as a single, integral process, both in space and in time.

4. The law of the decisive role of human labor activity in the formation and development of social systems. History confirms that the forms of people’s activity, and, above all, labor, determine the essence, content, form and functioning of social relations, organizations and institutions.

5. Laws of the relationship between social existence (people's practices) and social consciousness.

6. Regularities of dialectical-materialistic development of the historical process: dialectics of productive forces and production relations, base and superstructure, revolution and evolution.

7. The law of progressive stage development of society and its refraction in the characteristics of local civilizations, which expresses the dialectical unity of shifts and continuity, discontinuity and continuity.

8. The law of uneven development of different societies.

Special laws. They are subject to the functioning and development of specific social systems: economic, political, spiritual, etc., or individual stages (stages, formations) of social development. Such laws include the law of value, the law of the revolutionary situation, etc.

Private public laws record some stable connections that appear at the level of the simplest social subsystems. As a rule, special and particular social laws are more probabilistic than general ones.

A fatalistic and voluntaristic understanding of the laws of social life should be avoided.

Fatalism - the idea of ​​laws as inevitable forces acting fatally on people, against which they are powerless. Fatalism disarms people, makes them passive and careless.

Voluntarism - this is a worldview that absolutizes the set of human goal-setting and action; a view of the law as the result of arbitrariness, as a consequence of a will that is not limited by anyone. Voluntarism can lead to adventurism and inappropriate behavior according to the principle “I can do what I want.”

Forms of social development:

formation and civilization.

Social formation - This is a specific historical type of society, distinguished by the method of material production, that is, characterized by a certain stage of development of its productive forces and the corresponding type of production relations.

Civilization in the broad sense of the word - this is a developing socio-cultural system that emerged as a result of the decomposition of primitive society (savagery and barbarism), which has the following features: private property and market relations; estate or estate-class structure of society; statehood; urbanization; informatization; producing farm.

Civilization has three type:

Industrial type(Western, bourgeois civilization) involves transformation, disruption, transformation of the surrounding nature and social environment, intensive revolutionary development, change of social structures.

Agricultural type(eastern, traditional, cyclical civilization) presupposes the desire to get used to the natural and social environment, to influence it as if from the inside, while remaining part of it, extensive development, the dominance of tradition and continuity.

Post-industrial type- a society of high mass individualized consumption, development of the service sector, information sector, new motivation and creativity.

Modernization- This is the transition of an agrarian civilization to an industrial one.

Upgrade options:

1. Transfer of all progressive elements to in full taking into account local characteristics (Japan, India, etc.).

2. Transfer of only organizational and technological elements while maintaining old social relations (China).

3. Transfer of only technology while denying the market and bourgeois democracy (North Korea).

Civilization in a narrow sense - it is a stable socio-cultural community of people and countries that have retained their originality and uniqueness over large periods of history.

Signs of local civilization are: one economic and cultural type and level of development; the main peoples of civilization belong to the same or similar racial-anthropological types; duration of existence; the presence of common values, psychological traits, mental attitudes; similarity or sameness of language.

Approaches in the interpretation of the concept of “civilization” in its narrow sense:

1. Cultural approach(M. Weber, A. Toynbee) considers civilization as a special socio-cultural phenomenon, limited by space and time, the basis of which is religion.

2. Sociological approach(D. Wilkins) rejects the understanding of civilization as a society held together by a homogeneous culture. Cultural homogeneity may be absent, but the main factors for the formation of civilization are: a common space-time area, urban centers and socio-political connections.

3. Ethnopsychological approach(L. Gumilyov) connects the concept of civilization with the characteristics of ethnic history and psychology.

4. Geographical determinism(L. Mechnikov) believed that the geographical environment has a decisive influence on the nature of civilization.

Formational and civilizational concepts of social development:

Formational approach was developed by K. Marx and F. Engels in the second half of the 19th century. He pays his main attention to the consideration of what is common in the history of all peoples, namely, their passage through the same stages in its development; all this is combined with one degree or another of consideration of the characteristics of various peoples and civilizations. The identification of social stages (formations) is based on the ultimately determining role of economic factors (development and interrelation of productive forces and production relations). In formation theory, the class struggle is declared to be the most important driving force of history.

The specific interpretation of formations within this paradigm was constantly changing: Marx’s concept of three social formations in the Soviet period was replaced by the so-called “five-member” (primitive, slave, feudal, bourgeois and communist socio-economic formations), and now the four-formation concept is making its way.

Civilizational approach was developed in the 19th–20th centuries in the works of N. Danilevsky (the theory of local “cultural-historical types”), L. Mechnikov, O. Spengler (the theory of local cultures passing and dying in civilization), A. Toynbee, L. Semennikova. He examines history through the prism of the emergence, development, prospects and characteristics of various local civilizations and their comparison. Staging is taken into account, but remains in second place.

The objective basis of these approaches is the existence in the historical process of three interpenetrating layers, the knowledge of each of which requires the use of a special methodology.

First layer- superficial, eventful; requires only correct fixation. Second layer covers the diversity of the historical process, its features in ethnic, religious, economic, psychological and other respects. Its research is carried out using the methods of a civilizational approach and, first of all, a comparative historical one. Finally, third, the deeply essential layer embodies the unity of the historical process, its basis and the most general patterns of social development. It can be known only by means of the abstract-logical formational methodology developed by K. Marx. The formational approach allows not only to theoretically reproduce the internal logic of the social process. But also to build his mental model facing the future. The correct combination and correct use of the indicated approaches is an important condition for military historical research.

The problem of the laws of social development is solved differently in different theoretical concepts. Not everyone recognizes the existence of objective laws in society. In fact, on the surface of social phenomena it is extremely difficult to discover some stable, regular, necessary connections that are independent of human consciousness. The fact that certain changes are taking place in society and these changes lead to significantly different states of society is quite obvious. Everyone admits this. But it is not at all obvious that these changes are natural. And yet, deep theoretical analysis, penetrating beyond the surface of phenomena, makes it possible to establish these patterns. What appears on the surface as random events, phenomena, actions caused by the will, desire of individual people, in its depth appears as objective, i.e. relationships independent of the will and desires of people. Whether people want it or not, in order to satisfy their needs, they are forced to enter into relationships that develop as a result of previous activity, i.e. predetermined by the activities of previous generations. And each new generation finds these established relationships as objective data (given by past activities), i.e. independent of their choice, desires, whims, etc. This is an objective factor in social development, allowing us to talk about the presence of objective and necessary connections (laws) in society.

The idea of ​​regularity in society is most fully developed in the Marxist concept of society. According to this concept, material relations between people, primarily in the sphere of material production, in order to take shape do not require passing through the consciousness of people, i.e. are not recognized as such. This does not mean that people, entering into these relations (production, exchange, distribution), act as beings devoid of consciousness. This is basically impossible. It’s just that material relations of production do not require their awareness as some kind of integral system of relations that have a structure, direction, functioning, are subject to certain laws, etc. Ignorance of the laws of commodity production, ignorance of the physiological mechanisms of childbirth did not prevent people for thousands of years from producing and exchanging goods, as well as giving birth to children. Material relations, according to the Marxist model, being initial, primary, determine other relations, so-called ideological relations (political, legal, moral, etc.).

The specificity of the laws of social development is that, unlike the laws of nature, where blind, spontaneous forces operate, in society, natural connections and relationships are realized, paving the way only through the activities of people, and not outside of it and, along with it, precisely in activity people, in addition to random, situational moments caused by various human desires or even whims, there are, as already noted, objective, necessary ones, i.e. natural moments. And this pattern, historical necessity, does not exclude the conscious activity of people, being present in it as an objective, necessary factor. Historical necessity makes its way through a mass of accidents, i.e. has the character not of a strictly unambiguous predetermination, but of a certain tendency, a field of possibilities. In other words, within the framework of necessity, polyvariance of development is realized, which constitutes the space of human freedom. Making a conscious choice within the framework of various options (provided that the person has cognized these options, otherwise the choice will not be conscious), a person directs his efforts, his activities towards the implementation of the chosen option, within the framework represented by this multivariate necessity. Choice is associated with responsibility, an integral companion of human freedom.

N.L. Rumyantseva

Factors and patterns of human development. Part 1. Patterns of human development

Introduction

We are experiencing a global crisis of civilization, not only financial and economic, but in general moral decay and physical extinction (according to UN statistics, the population of Western Europe except Muslim Albania is not reproducing) of the people of advanced civilization. Is it possible to rely on any concept of Man that would resist decay? There are many such concepts, however, and at present the task remains to “reveal the dialectic of the social and biological in man” (Frolov I.T.)

The task of the proposed concept of Man is to reveal this dialectic, to understand the process of ascent to a harmonious Man.

When constructing the concept of human development, we will rely on the categories of system analysis of activity, designated as initial data and method. The initial concepts that will be further developed are the concepts of: I. Pavlov, who identified its preservation as the goal of life; Marx, who revealed the essence of social relations under capitalism as a basic external factor in human development; Vygotsky L.S., and his followers, who developed the fundamental principle of the primacy of the sociocultural factor in human development; Promptov, Lorenz, Fet and other scientists who substantiated the development of a biological factor in the sociocultural environment in a developing person; Zinchenko V.P., who outlined the contours of the patterns of human development.

The research method is systemic-dialectical, which means, firstly, that a person is an element of a system-society in which he is socialized, but, in turn, is a system himself. And, secondly, this method means considering a person as an element of the system and as a representative of the species Homo sapiens in development (ontogenesis and phylogeny), and, at the same time, analyzing the development of the factors themselves that determine human development.

To highlight the basic factors and patterns of human development, let us turn to the history of the human race. It has two stages: the stage of biological evolution and the stage of social evolution, when the non-natural component of human life began to take shape - culture (including religion). From here two aspects of human development are derived - biological and sociocultural. Culture and its values ​​have long been the basis for organizing the social or sociocultural life of people, but in recent centuries the ideology of society and its values ​​have begun to diverge from cultural values, which forces us to separate the social aspect from the cultural. We will build the concept on the synthesis of these aspects of considering a person: as a biological species (growth and maturation); How social being(socialization); as a carrier of culture (mastering and reproducing its values). But these principles are not independent, and the biological element already contains cultural memory as a deposit, nothing more.

The main type of biological principle is a material body with some inherited properties (energy, temperament, diseases, inclinations). Its maintenance and development is carried out according to the laws of nature, but human culture (culture of the body) also exerts its influence within the framework of these laws. Another type of biological principle is instincts, which are developed by society into biocomplexes for the preservation of life, biocomplexes form needs, needs cause desires or will, will causes actions. The third type of biological inclinations is the inclination of thinking, which is developed by society into thinking. The fourth type is ethical inclinations (“collective unconscious” in Jung, “spiritual code of culture”, “cultural code”, “cultural-spiritual code”, etc. in different conceptual systems), which are developed by the culture of society along with developing thinking, including the individual in one or another ethical system.

Development factors can be divided into internal and external, initial and emerging. From two initial aspects of considering a person, three grew, and then from the three named principles of a person, six internal factors of his development were formed: body, instincts - biocomplexes, thinking, ethical system, will, needs. The initial internal factors are the physical body with biological inclinations. External factors - cultural (ethical) and social (values ​​of the ideology of society) and the requirements of society arising from them. The dialectic of interaction between external and internal factors transforms socially significant internal biological factors into bio-cultural-social ones, and mastered and appropriated external ones (the ethical system) into internal ones. In addition to the body, such developing internal factors of human development include developing thinking, a will striving for freedom, a bio-complex for preserving life, formed on the basis of instincts in the sociocultural environment, a mastered and appropriated ethical system and the needs generated by all these factors. In this concept, culture refers to the spiritual culture of society, by joining which a person becomes cultivated. But the broader concept of culture also includes bodily culture, by joining which a person strengthens his health.

Patterns of human development

First stage (biological)

Following I. Pavlov, we introduce the concept of “instinct of preserving life” to designate a natural means of achieving the goal of life outlined by him - its preservation. Preserving the life of the animal world is based on the instinct of preserving life. What kind of instinct is this? The instinct for preserving life (population) in an animal (according to the studies of Lorenz, Efroimson, Kropotkin) includes the following main types: self-preservation, reproduction and the instinct of publicity or collectivity. In humans, instinct as the ability of behavior that preserves life dies out, turning into a deposit, being replaced by new means of preserving life - conscious work activity and culture. The same types of instinct for preserving life as in animals, but only as a deposit, can also be identified in humans: self-preservation, preservation of the species and preservation of the collective. The latter can be divided into several levels, from a team of friends, fellow countrymen, etc. up to the preservation of the people of their country, humanity, all living things. Together they form the complete instinct for preserving life. In “developed” countries with a dying population, the instinct for community or the preservation of groups of different levels as an inclination has long been “forgotten” (K. Jung) and is not developing, now before our eyes it is not developing as an inclination and instinct for preserving the race. And there is a danger of their complete extinction. The situation is similar in the animal world - an organ-function that was once necessary, but has become unclaimed, gradually dies off.

In a developing person, the instinct for preserving life, its named types, develop (with the exception of the infancy period) into the biocomplex of preserving life and its corresponding types, if there is a favorable socio-cultural environment, just as grain grows in a favorable environment or (in the cybernetic terminology of A.I. Fet) how open programs are supplemented with subroutines and only then “work”, forming needs, and needs, in turn, desires. I will also call desires will. The will strives for freedom - this is its main property, its law. But let us note here that the biocomplex of preserving human life is not the only source of his needs. Therefore, human behavior cannot be unambiguously associated with this biocomplex.

A man was born. He, his behavior, his attitude towards the world is determined by the instinct of self-preservation and nothing else. In a born person, the will naturally leads to action, i.e. free, because the will itself is still very primitive and is determined by the instinct of self-preservation and, as a result, does not cause external opposition. The remaining instincts (except for self-preservation) are present in a born person as inclinations or open programs, potentially as unformed sources of need, which will gradually form into appropriate biocomplexes, and how they will be formed depends on both the genetic program and the environment, in which they will hit. In a born person, only the first type of instinct, associated with the simple biological functioning of his body, works as a need, and love for relatives initially develops precisely as love for oneself, i.e. The child’s need for them is a need for means of self-preservation, which is what they are for him, until he has mastered these means himself. This stage can be called not just biological, but “vegetative” (“vegetative soul” in Aristotle). Communication with the world at this stage is emotional and sensual, thinking is not developed, and there are no ethical categories. Already at this stage, the first crisis of development arises - the crisis of the 1st year, described by L.S. Vygotsky. Biological evolution. Biological development takes a person to the next stage.

Second stage (communicative)

Further, as a person develops, he learns to control his body and this gives him greater freedom of action and begins to master space. A person connects to the culture of society, the process of deobjectification begins; he begins to master the language and, along with it, knowledge through activity and communication with the environment. The factors identified in our approach at this stage develop as follows: thinking develops along with language acquisition; in a collectivist environment, a biocomplex of collectivity begins to form (according to J. Bruner). It is transformed (according to Vygotsky, Fet, etc.) into a biocomplex and the instinct of self-preservation under the influence of the environment and external lack of freedom; this change depends on what kind of environment it is. Communication with the environment, in addition to intellectual influence that develops thinking, is also a process of organic inclusion of a person in this environment and his subordination to its laws. A person becomes an element of the system and at the same time loses free will due to the connections by which he is included in the system. Now he cannot always act the way he wants, because... its inclusion in the system is regulated by the relationship “possible-impossible” or “good-bad”), passing (according to Piaget) the pre-moral stage, then the stage of heteronomous morality. The socialization of the individual begins, which is still very limited within the framework of the family or child care institution. Here “external demands” arise, making the will unfree (external unfreedom).

This “impossible” will accompany a person for a very long time, and often throughout his life, like those laws or that necessity that his environment forces him to obey from the outside.

Submission of a person to this “impossible” is not passive, but active, even active-aggressive. Here the basic law of the will is manifested and will continue to operate all the time - its desire for self-determination or freedom. Psychologists (Erikson, Vygotsky, Bozhovich, etc.) note periods of activity emerging from the external restrictions of the will in childhood (and then in adolescence and youth) and leading to crises of this period.

Both intellectual development and organic inclusion in the system, i.e. into society is carried out through the ethical norms of a given society, through the main ethical categories, “good - bad”. So far, at stage 2, a person’s ethical system has not yet been formed and for him “good - bad” is still almost equivalent to “possible - impossible”, i.e. simply a less categorical formulation of the same relationship through which he is included in society.

External demands and the “external lack of freedom” of the will caused by them prevent the will from realizing its constant desire for freedom. And already at this stage, the desire to “throw off” unfreedom leads to a backlash from the environment, bringing resentment, disappointment, grief and forces a person to look for a way out of this contradiction. One of them is bifurcation. This split manifests itself when the child “lies”, and in such a way that it is not detected. The need for socialization takes him to the next stage.

Third stage (existential)

A person grows and joins various groups - educational, then labor. This inclusion takes him to the next stage of development. This stage is the stage of mastering the ethical system. The environment gradually unfolds before man a system of its moral values, and this result of centuries-old development of culture is passively imprinted in human consciousness through the categories “good - evil”. For a mind that is not yet dialectically developed, any ethical system created over centuries of social development looks logical, consistent and provides answers to those numerous “whys” that gradually form a person’s self-awareness. In Kohlberg's classification, this is the conventional level of morality. In parallel with this process and, at first glance, independently of it, biocomplex needs are formed: as independence becomes established, the mother and other relatives are alienated from his “I” - love for relatives is separated from self-love and becomes its negation; The simplest groups of “friends” may arise, love for friends (or friendship) may arise, incl. to representatives of the other sex.

The degree of formation of one or another type of biocomplex need at this level is determined by the environment in which a person lives, the social relations that reign in society and the culture in which he is included. By environment, I mean, first of all, the family and the immediate environment - the provision of the family with the basic means of existence, action and interaction of the people around them. The more difficult it is financially for a person’s family to live, the more it needs help, the unity of its members with each other and with other people, the more actively the bio-complex of preserving groups and the corresponding needs are formed. The manifestations of mutual assistance that a person experiences and observes have a similar effect.

All these biocomplexes, being types of one life-preserving biocomplex, are in constant struggle in the human soul, denying

each other. In the same struggle, the concept of good develops, passing through negations. These factors shape a person still unconsciously, unreflectively.

Inclusion in groups requires a person to undergo larger-scale socialization, increasingly limiting his free will. The law of the will’s striving for freedom also explains man’s desire to escape from the power of external unfreedom in that part of his activity that is limited by it. This protest can result in dramatic events that are difficult to experience and push a person to move to the next stage of development - reflexive. Another continuation is also possible - exactly the one offered by individualistic ideology, i.e. an ideology based on the priority of private interests over the general interests of society: bifurcate. It helps to maintain one's free will when there are “no witnesses” and to learn to play roles when a person interacts with other people. Moreover: it is on the priority of the biocomplex of self-preservation (and more broadly, individualism as the priority of individual interests) that the ideology of an individualistic society is based, supporting it as the basis for success, albeit under the “cover” of role behavior dictated by legal norms and moral postulates, in particular Christianity. If a person does this well, then this means his successful “socialization”. This split begins at the second stage and manifests itself when the child “lies.” Such a state, as a rule, does not stimulate further human development, and the economic system adopted in society forms an implicit ethical one, mixing good and evil with wealth-poverty, or power-subordination, or strength-weakness, and does not attach importance to the distinction between lies and truth, ( more precisely, it replaces the truth with a lie, a simulacrum).

It is the third stage that is typical for an active person in a modern individualistic society, and even the third stage, due to its “inhibiting” influence on active activity, is only partially completed, i.e. to the extent that the struggle of biocomplexes does not prevent the individual from actively acting, does not obscure the hierarchy of goals learned and built in the process of socialization (money, success, power, self-realization, etc.).

The performance of “roles” at this stage is regulated by the categories of “good and evil” formed in society. In an individualistic society, they are replaced by laws designed to reflect “good” and prevent “evil,” understood in the individualistic paradigm. Conscience is still almost not disturbing, the truth is almost merged with lies, almost indistinguishable (because it has not been reflected), the “self” is not open, or rather, not built. A person splits into two, losing integrity. Collectivist society, i.e. a society with a priority of general interests over private ones in ideology, through social relations and inclusion in a collectivist culture pushes a person to another way out, to the search for integrity, to the next stage. IN modern Russia an individualistic ideology has been adopted, and the culture that still persists is collectivist. Therefore, in it, the socio-cultural evolution of a person at this stage is bifurcated: the social pushes a person onto one path, and the cultural one onto another. It is precisely this contradiction in the developing person for Russia that is the main reason for its unstable state and the main problem that requires resolution.

Fourth stage (reflective)

A person, trying to remove external lack of freedom and contradictions with the world around him, experiencing them, begins to realize himself as an imperfect being. The stage of self-knowledge and self-improvement begins. This is a long path of reflection, a dialectical path of becoming a spiritually developed personality, the formation of one’s worldview, first of all, one’s ethical system. This is the way of denying the ethical values ​​previously imprinted in the consciousness, then affirming them, etc. As a result, the spiral of negations twists into some synthesized, relatively stable worldview. This stability is determined by the degree of awareness of the rules of life of human society, expressed in “external requirements”. The more humane the society in which he lives (we define a humane society as “a society that contributes to the satisfaction of vital needs and the elevation of man), the more a person is freed from the pressure of external demands, translating them into his own rules of life. In the ideal case, “external unfreedom” is completely removed for a person; external requirements now do not exist for him, because his own demands on himself completely replace them. However, there are no ideally organized societies, or, in any case, they are very rare. A Christian or other religious community approaches them, but “secular” life takes place in other groups.

External requirements sometimes prescribe to a person behavior that contradicts his morality and the ethical system he has formed. In these cases, the behavior of a person at level 4 differs from the behavior at level 3, when he submits to the demands of society. Now he does not obey them, thereby demonstrating his “external freedom,” but obeys the ethical law achieved within himself (post-conventional ethical level according to Kohlberg). This disobedience can lead to conflict between a person and society, even to the point of death. It is at the cost of the death of one person that possible change laws of society and its progress towards humaneness. These are the results of the death of Socrates, Jesus Christ, G. Bruno and others. Life is at stake for the rebirth of humanity. Pioneers always suffer, if not die, and geniuses are more often appreciated by society after death than during life. Simultaneously with the awareness of social laws, there is an awareness of the laws of human life - it is stimulated by the experiences, or rather the suffering, that a person experiences when communicating with people, by the empathy that he experiences when joining high art.

The main factor of development at this level remains the developing ethical categories “good - evil”. However, at this level, another development factor is the development of reflection and with it an understanding of oneself, one’s imperfections and other people, which gradually shifts a person from an egocentric position.

The gradual removal of external unfreedom at this level turns into “internal unfreedom” for a person. It should be noted here that we use this term to denote the lack of freedom of will-desire from the mind, whereas in psychology this term has a different meaning. For example, Leontyev D.A. internal lack of freedom - “in the lack of understanding of the internal and external forces, lack of orientation in life, indecision." This difference is due to the different concept of will in this study, will-feeling, and not will-reason. In this text, internal lack of freedom means that between the will and its implementation, a person himself puts an obstacle for himself, or, more precisely, a “censor” in accordance with his ethical system. Speaking about this stage of human development, L.I. Bozhovich characterizes it this way: “in younger ages deprivation of newly emerged needs is associated primarily with external obstacles (adult prohibitions, etc.); In the crisis of adolescence, internal factors also play an equally important role: prohibitions imposed by the teenager on himself, previously formed psychological formations (habits, character traits, etc.), which often prevent the teenager from achieving the desired and, above all, his own chosen model.” And she sees the main reason for this new contradiction in a person not in external conditions, and not in puberty (as many psychologists believe), but in the development of reflection, in “the emergence in a teenager of the ability to recognize himself as a person possessing precisely this, in difference from all other people, inherent qualities."

A person now has a constant struggle with himself, this eternal contradiction of “mind and heart” is sometimes so strong that if a way out of it is not found into the next 5th stage, then a way out can only be found in self-denial, i.e. suicide. In particular, due to the intolerance of suffering associated with the exacerbation of internal contradictions, psychologists strive to free their “wards” or pupils from this level, pointing out the undesirability of “too much attention paid by a person to his Self.” Freud and his followers came especially close to solving the question of how to free a person from this internal struggle, preparing, so to speak, the “scientific foundation” of the sexual revolution that broke out after his appearance. But only after overcoming this stage, experiencing this internal struggle, does a person then come to understand the moral law of human life and human society.

A person can at this stage act in accordance with his will - against his mind - or in accordance with his mind - but against his will - in any case, the contradiction within him with an active mind is not resolved, but becomes aggravated, because the more actively the mind fights the will, i.e. asserts its right to determine human behavior, the more actively the will defends this same right as its law - the desire for freedom. This stage thus leads (with a strong mind) to the denial of human nature, which has not yet freed itself from the predominance of the biocomplex of self-preservation and self-affirmation. But collectivist ideology, culture, environment, helping to remove this dominance, and with it internal contradictions, pushes a person to the next stage.

Fifth stage (spiritual)

The next stage of development begins with the formation of a complete biocomplex for the preservation of life, in which the biocomplex of collectivity takes its place (i.e., activated when something threatens the collective of one or another level). This process directly depends on the influence of the environment and is ultimately determined by the ideology and culture of society, and through them the production relations and ethical systems embedded in the ideology. The ethical systems that have entered into a person and, with their participation, his own formed - this is the main force that forms and implements the complete biocomplex of preserving life and contributes to finding the measure of each of its types.

At the same time, self-knowledge continues, but not just of one’s nature, but knowledge of one’s movement, i.e. reflection of the stages passed with a completely new “measure”, a new instrument of cognition. Such reflection is stimulated by the aggravation of internal contradictions that arose at stage 4 and the desire to remove the internal lack of freedom created by the mind.

Now a person’s tool for knowing himself is the category “natural (true) – unnatural (false).” These categories are a negation of the ethical categories “good - evil”, on which the human ethical system was built at previous stages, and thereby its negation. Now it is realized that a reasonable and internally unfree person was forced to often (or sometimes, depending on the degree of formation of the biocomplex) lie when communicating with the outside world, to “play a role,” denying his “sinful” nature, i.e. their “lower” biocomplexes, primarily self-preservation. Moreover, at stage 4, the mind took upon itself the management of those needs of its own body that are not related to communication (P.Ya. Galperin called them “organic”), believing that, having knowledge, it better understands what this body needs , (later man will understand the imperfection of knowledge and reason), “curbing” his “unreasonable” desires (and he was right to the extent that he helped the body distinguish pleasures from true needs).

At stage 5, the mind recognizes the “true”, which has become “natural”, as the main ethical value, thus, it itself removes its violence against human nature, now a new nature, as an inevitable source of lies. Spiritual evolution.

The moment of the onset of stage 5 is determined by the formation and implementation of a complete bio-complex of preserving life as a source of needs, finding the measure of each of its types: now there is no need for their control and mind control, and now they can freely manifest themselves. Now the eternal struggle of “mind and heart” finds its resolution. In the Gospel of John we find an exact description of this spiritual stage: “and you will know the truth, and the truth will make you free.” If at the third stage a person, obeying the demands of society, gave way to the old woman in transport, and at the fourth stage he gave in, obeying the demands of reason and conscience, now he gives in, fulfilling his own desire to give in, experiencing compassion for the weak, a desire to help a weak person, coinciding with already unnecessary demands of reason. Now a person achieves internal harmony: each time the one of the biocomplexes that is threatened by something is activated or predominates; love for a child pushes one to self-sacrifice for his sake; love for the Motherland, if something threatens it, pushes towards behavior called “feat” or “heroism”. Only here, at stage 5, is a new natural “I” formed in harmony of all types of bio-complex for the preservation of life. At this stage, the need to have gives way to the need to give. Reason finally finds (although it may find it earlier) the law of human life and human society. We find this law in I. Pavlov, T. De Chardin, V. Vernadsky, N. Moiseev and others - the law of preserving the life of Homo sapiens. Different philosophers have sought it in different forms: for Kant it is “act in such a way that your rule had the force of a universal law,” in A. Schweitzer it is expressed in ethical categories: “good is what serves to preserve and develop life, evil is what destroys life or interferes with it.” In Christianity, this law is love, and the main commandment is “love your neighbor,” but the paradox is that a person cannot be told “love”; After all, this (like any word) is an appeal to the mind, and the mind will completely agree with this and will lead a person to a maximum of stage 4. But the 5th stage differs from the previous ones in that only here the moral demands of reason and the revealed law of nature coincide with a person’s own formed nature, with realized potential, which gives rise to this love, this respect, this compassion. Here is what P. Kropotkin writes about this: “the words “love for one’s neighbor” incorrectly express the feeling that moves a person when he sacrifices his immediate benefits for the benefit of others... But the word “altruism”, as well as the word “self-sacrifice”, is incorrect expresses the nature of this kind of actions, since they are good only when they become natural, when they are committed ... due to an irresistible internal impulse.”

Here there is a harmony of awareness of oneself as part of the whole and a sense of collectivism as the perception of oneself as part of the whole, generating behavior that contributes to the preservation of this whole. Here Vl. Solovyov’s definition of morality finds its completion: “morally good actions are those that have as their goal the own good of other subjects, ... and not the exclusive good of the acting subject.”

Here Hegel’s rationalism turns out to be overcome in the unity of reason and feeling that he guessed (but did not develop), here, finally, K.H.’s posed problem is resolved. Delokarov’s question: “In modern conditions, we need a new rationalism, which includes the experience of comprehending the mistakes of the past and is therefore based on the unity of science and morality, reason and feeling. Therefore, it is logical to raise the question of the need to limit its claims to generality and universality. “I think” does not cease to be a fundamental requirement, only “I think” should not displace “I feel”, “I believe”, etc.” .

We find the features of this stage in other terminology in K. Jung, V. Frankl, A. Langle, A. B. Orlov and other psychologists, however, in these concepts there is no division of everything that follows the existential path of human development: reflexive, spiritual, spiritual vision.

Here it is necessary to make such an important clarification: the movement from stage to stage, from level to level does not proceed by replacing one thing with another, but by layering the next one on top of the previous one. This layering does not occur immediately, but gradually, as development progresses, the previous layers decrease and the last one begins to predominate. In this vein, we must understand “harmony” - it is in the opposition of stages and the gradual displacement of previous stages by subsequent ones, which does not happen by itself, but is achieved through difficult spiritual work - maintaining the dominant in the central nervous system. Ukhtomsky describes this process as follows: “The dominant is a fairly persistent excitation occurring in the centers at a given moment, acquires the significance of a dominant factor in the work of other centers: it accumulates excitation from individual sources, but inhibits the ability of other centers to respond to impulses that have a direct impact on them.” attitude." As A.A. Gagaev explains, “dominants are in biological affinity with the heredity and history of a unique organism, the history of culture and populations.” It is the formation of a dominant, which enhances the excitation of some centers and inhibits the excitation of others, that changes a person’s behavior and his reaction at different stages of development to external signals. Considering harmony as a synthesis of the general, the particular, the individual, Ukhtomsky believes that “in this process, the selection and formation of new instincts is carried out” (new biocomplexes for preserving life in our terminology). What is this synthesis? Ukhtomsky speaks of following in the discovery of truth one’s subconscious nature, which is identical to: 1. the world, the whole, 2. oneself, both We and I. But how to achieve this? “If you want to maintain the same vector at the same height, you need all the time, I would say, to educate this dominant, carefully take care of it, make sure that it does not get overexcited, does not step over a certain value, but that’s all.” time corresponded to the current conditions in the centers, on the one hand, and in the surrounding environment, on the other.”

Sixth stage (spiritual vision)

The harmony achieved at stage 5 is harmony, one might say, “with oneself,” as achieved free will, but not always harmony with the people around us. After all, not all of the people around us (or very few) have reached the same level and are also harmonious inside, i.e. correspond to the same moral grounds. Moreover, this harmony is not always found with society, in which, even with a collectivist ideology and culture, but under a government that does not carry this ideology and culture (which happened in the USSR), it may never be found, but, on the contrary, a found moral law leads to active work for the reconstruction of such a society; harmony of man and society is possible only in a humane society in which the condition is met: “every social organism should be for each of its members not the external boundary of its activity, but a positive support and replenishment” (Vl. Soloviev).

Therefore, there still remains a feeling of injustice when a person is treated differently from the way he treats others. They don’t always understand him; sometimes they try to “reveal” his non-existent insidious or mercantile plans, prescribing his behavior to a particular role or self-interest. This can be clearly observed in the assessments of some “commentators” who analyze the behavior or statements of high officials of the country.

A person is still tormented by grievances (although no longer the desire to repay in kind and, especially, not revenge), especially against the closest people. A person does not always understand others, and cannot always move to the position of another. Therefore, ongoing reflection, experiencing one’s grievances and misunderstandings takes him to the next, 6th stage. At this stage, a new moral law operates, which is the dialectical completion of the completed turn of the spiral; “true good” is recognized as the main moral value. What does this mean? After all, goodness was a moral criterion before. But from the original, subjective good to the true good is a very long way. On this path, disappointment and resentment await a person, but only after going through them does a person leave the closed space of egocentrism into the open space of polycentrism, learn to distinguish and create true good, learn to understand another person. The criteria for identifying true good can be divided into 2 groups: 1st - relates to oneself, 2nd - to others.

The criteria of the 1st group include the development of moral foundations found at stage 5. Now the imperative “don’t do to others what you don’t wish for yourself” is not enough, because... He doesn’t tell me, but what should I do? After all, what is good for you is not always good for another person. The desire to do good, sometimes mutual, even to the point of making one’s own sacrifice – but from one’s own point of view – also leads to disharmony with others. Good cannot be imposed on another. A clarification of the above imperative is “don’t judge” (a person, but not his deeds or words), “don’t offend” (but at the same time, if you don’t agree with the judgments, don’t agree, argue if it makes sense, if you don’t approve of the action, don’t approve, etc.), “be tolerant,” etc. (These clarifications can also be formed at previous stages). But “true goodness” is not tolerance or compromise (as at the stage of contractual legal orientation in Kohlberg), but benevolent complicity and assistance.

Criteria of the 2nd group, i.e. true goodness in the world around us is also formed gradually. The simplest one is trust in a person’s words.

This criterion already made it possible to distinguish between people’s goals and support some and not support others. But in modern world information wars and “double standards” (lies), as a rule, it does not work. The next criterion is “believe not in words, but in deeds.” With this criterion, the circle of people whom a person trusts is significantly reduced. But still, here too the criterion does not go beyond the scope of what is observed, i.e. phenomena.

The next criterion is the compliance of not only words, but also deeds with thoughts. Individual “good deeds” (for example, a gift for a holiday) do not yet indicate good intentions. And finally, the last criterion is the compliance of affairs not only with a conscious decision, but with one’s own needs of free will. This is how the “relative” truth of good moves and develops. The question arises, how can you find out what deeds or actions correspond to? This can only be judged by observing a person in different circumstances, comparing different deeds or actions, and the longer the observations and the more extreme the conditions in which the actions are performed, the more reliable the conclusions can be.

At this stage, love, which accompanies a person throughout his life and brings him the highest joy and severe pain and torment, reaches its harmonious state, turning into voluntary service, but no longer accompanied by grievances and not expecting the same response. A person cannot be offended at this stage. Spiritual evolution.

Human development does not end with stage 6, it continues throughout life and consists of maintaining the found thin border of the considered opposites and increasing the scale of reality that he is able to embrace. Thus, human development is, in essence, a way of completing the initial biological inclination with a sociocultural one, i.e. formation of the sociocultural nature of man.

Table 1, moving from stage to stage, presents the pattern of human development as a result of the dialectical development of the main factors:

• unreflective thinking – reflective thinking;
• free unconscious will - unfree external will - unfree internal will - free conscious will;
• mastered ethical categories: good – truth – true good;
• instinct as a deposit - consciousness - a “complete” biocomplex of preserving life.

Table 1

The main question of philosophy - the primacy of matter or consciousness, is dialectically resolved in this concept in a developing person by the following triad: from the primacy of matter (i.e., the instinct of self-preservation and free will) at the biological stage to the primacy of consciousness (suppression of the biocomplex of self-preservation by consciousness and internally unfree will) at the reflexive stage and again to the primacy of matter, but already spiritualized (formed as a source of needs, a complete bio-complex of preserving life and free conscious will) at the spiritual stage.

All these chains are turns of a dialectical spiral into which any development is embedded.

How is the proposed concept related to known system concepts? Let us compare the proposed concept with the most fundamental concept of human development - the concept of Hegel.

With a difference in the conceptual apparatus, the “genuine, moral way of thinking” of individuals, which is “knowledge of substance and the identity of all their interests with the whole,” in Hegel coincides with the content of the concept of “collectivism” at the reflexive level, defined as awareness of oneself as a part of the whole, generating behavior , contributing to the preservation of this whole.

The main content of both concepts of human development is the advancement of man to a moral state with free will and reflective thinking, which is equally understood in both concepts as: “ True Freedom as morality is that the will has non-subjective goals as its goals, i.e. selfish, interests, but universal content. It would be absurd to exclude thinking from morality...” The will of a natural, living person, striving for freedom, in Hegel’s concept receives this freedom (already, however, not natural, but reasonable person) at the final point of development. This coincides with the idea of ​​free will in the concept developed in this work. This advancement consists in the transition of the original selfish will through its lack of freedom into a rational will and through this rational will, i.e. the will of the mind - to the “feeling soul”, to the will of the feeling (sympathetic) and the experiencing (empathetic), i.e. again natural man, but with a new nature transformed by reason.

But the differences lie in the patterns of progress towards this state.

The main difference is the absence of a transcendental spirit in the proposed concept, therefore there are completely different reasons for the ascent, namely: overcoming suffering caused by the desire of the will for freedom, the increase in contradictions of both internal factors, and the collision of internal factors and external ones.

For Hegel, reason and the ascent to the absolute determine the development of man. The feelings of this person are vicious and must be overcome by reason. In the concept we have developed, the final point of the development round is the triumph of a new nature, new feelings that coincide with the requirements of the mind.

For Hegel, ought comes from the absolute idea. In our concept, obligation (non-freedom) comes from “external requirements” at the existential level and from “internal” requirements of reflective thinking (coinciding with external ones in a humane society) - at the reflective level. But in any case, it is not the obligation, but the desire to remove it, the desire for free will as its law that transfers a person from the existential to the reflective and further to the spiritual level. Shouldness only leads to “entering into roles”, the fulfillment of which is required of him first by society (“social roles” at the existential level), and then by his own reflective thinking (at the reflexive level). And, further, the desire to remove these roles (at the spiritual level) moves a person further, from the spiritual level to the level of spiritual vision. In Hegel, man is brought only to the reflexive level; his development as self-knowledge goes through reflective thinking, which “should be.” Stages when it has not yet been formed and a person finds other ways of life in society (mastery of roles) are absent from Hegel. Therefore, we will not find in him an explanation of the modern Postmodern man. Just as there are no post-reflective stages - spiritual and spiritual vision. But Hegel's rationalism was rejected.

Bibliography

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Introduction

Conclusion

Introduction

Modern ideas about human society are largely based on a systematic approach to its analysis. In the philosophical aspect, a systems approach means the formation of a systemic view of the world, based on the idea of ​​integrity, complex organization and self-movement of the systems under study. A system is usually understood as a set of its constituent elements that are in stable connections and relationships with each other.

The system has special systemic qualities: order, organization of the system as a whole is higher than its individual elements. Important system principles are also structurality - the possibility of describing a system through the establishment of its structure, i.e., the network of connections and relationships of the system, the conditionality of the functioning of the elements of the system by the properties of its structure. All these characteristics are met by human society, which is a complexly organized system of the highest “organic” type, a supersystem, or societal system, which includes all types of social systems and is characterized by structural and functional integrity, stability, balance, openness, dynamism, self-organization, self-reproduction, evolution .

From a systemic point of view, society is a certain collection of people connected by joint activities to achieve common goals. In the process of joint activity, diverse hierarchically structured relationships develop between people, which are the structure of society. Society as a system has another important characteristic - integrity, that is, it has properties that cannot be derived from the properties of individual elements. People pass away, generations change, but society constantly reproduces itself. The mechanism of reproduction presupposes the presence in the structure of society of such particularly stable relations (invariant of the system), which have significant independence in relation to individual elements and even structural links.

Society, like any living system, is an open system that is in a state of continuous exchange with its natural environment, exchange of matter, energy and information. Society has more high degree organization rather than its environment. And in order to preserve itself as an integrity, it must constantly satisfy its needs, first of all, the needs of people, who are objective and at the same time historically changeable in nature.

The greatest thing that pre-Marxist sociology achieved was the introduction into science of the concept of “social organism” (O. Comte). The value of such a discovery is undeniable. However, society is not reduced to an organism. In a broader sense, i.e. not only sociologically, but also philosophically, human society acts as a specific type of objective reality and as a special stage in the cosmic process.

Social life within the framework of Marxism was understood as the highest form of movement of matter, which arose at a certain stage of its development (self-development) and has its own logic of existence. The latter means that, although human society is a living system, it is qualitatively different from other living systems and acts both as an object and as a subject of material reality. Moreover, the objective is not equal to the material, and the subjective is not equal to the ideal.

1. Laws of social development and their specificity

philosophical materialist marxism society

1.1 History of the development of views on the development of society in philosophical thought

IN modern sociology There is such a definition of society: “Society is a historically developing integral system of relations and interactions between people, their communities and organizations, emerging and changing in the process of their joint activities.”

The first and essential sign in this definition are the words “historically developing”. What is the development of society?

In the most general sense, development is a process of movement from the lower (simple) to the higher (complex), the main characteristic feature of which is the disappearance of the old and the emergence of the new.

When reflecting on the historical process, the following questions arise: is the development of society, that is, history, progress and improvement, or regression and decline? Or perhaps it represents a periodic or even randomly fluctuating cyclical process, in which eras of prosperity and decline succeed each other, sometimes almost regularly, sometimes completely unsystematically? Or is it the result of the superposition of all these components, so that periodic or disorderly fluctuations are superimposed on a certain unambiguous tendency?

At different times there were different views on the development of society. Thus, Aurelius Augustine believed that the development of society was based on a certain divine force.

Hegel argued that changes in social reality are determined by the Absolute Idea and its self-development.

A. Toynbee, P.A. Sorokin, N.A. Berdyaev recognized the spiritual basis of social development.

The historical process has its own logic and laws - some scientists say: these are objective historical patterns, the unity of world history, progress in the development of society. Others believe that this is not the case - all phenomena and processes are unique and inimitable. Therefore, there are no patterns, no single world history.

Proponents of the first approach include the German philosopher G. Hegel. Based on previous achievements in the study of the development of society and, in particular, on the theory of social progress, the idea of ​​​​the unity of the historical process and the diversity of its forms, Hegel put forward and substantiated, however, from the standpoint of objective idealism, a fundamentally new and original concept of history as a natural process , in which each period and era, no matter how unique and unusual they may be, nevertheless, taken together, represent a certain logical step in the development of human society. Hegel's views were very progressive for his time.

1.2 Dialectical-materialistic concept of social development

Despite some correct thoughts expressed by various philosophers in ancient times, the science of society and the laws of its development was not created before Marxism. Ultimately, philosophers remained idealists in their views on society, and their philosophical teachings suffered from a number of significant shortcomings.

The authors of various concepts, at best, considered only ideological motives historical activity people without examining what causes them, without grasping the objective pattern in the development of the system of social relations, without seeing the roots of these relations in the level of development of material production. Consequently, they stopped at the surface of phenomena, while the task of science is to penetrate beyond the often deceptive appearance and surface of events into their essence, to discover their determining causes.

Pre-Marxist sociologists saw a gap between the surrounding nature and society, not seeing and not understanding that man and, in a certain sense, human society, although specific, are still part of a single material world, and, consequently, the patterns of development of society are also objective, despite their specificity.

Only by overcoming shortcomings in views on the development of society could it be possible to substantiate a scientific, dialectical-materialist understanding of history. This was done by Marx and Engels.

The social concept of Marxism is based on the fundamental principle that in society, as in nature, there are laws in accordance with which social changes occur. This, of course, does not mean that the activities of an individual and society as a whole are completely determined by these laws. Neither man nor society can change these laws, but they have the power to understand these laws and use the knowledge gained either for the benefit or harm of humanity. The main provisions of these laws were formulated at the dawn of the formation of historical materialism. Their essence is that “In the social production of their lives, people enter into certain, necessary, relations independent of their will - production relations that correspond to a certain stage of development of their material production forces. The totality of these production relations constitutes the economic structure of society, the real basis on which the legal and political superstructure rises and to which certain forms of social consciousness correspond. The method of production of material life determines the social, political and spiritual processes of life in general. It is not the consciousness of people that determines their existence, but, on the contrary, their social existence determines their consciousness. At a certain stage of their development, the material productive forces of society come into conflict with existing production relations, or - which is only the legal expression of the latter - with property relations within which they have hitherto developed. From forms of development of productive forces, these relations turn into their fetters. Then comes the era of social revolution. With a change in the economic basis, a revolution occurs more or less quickly in the entire enormous superstructure. When considering such revolutions, it is always necessary to distinguish the material revolution, stated with natural scientific precision, in the economic conditions of production from the legal, political, religious, artistic or philosophical, in short, from the ideological forms in which people are aware of this conflict and are fighting for its resolution. Just as one cannot judge an individual person on the basis of what he thinks about himself, in the same way one cannot judge such an era of revolution by its consciousness. On the contrary, this consciousness must be explained from the contradictions of material life, from the existing conflict between social productive forces and production relations. Not a single social formation dies before all the productive forces for which it provides sufficient scope have developed, and new, higher relations of production never appear before the material conditions of their existence have matured in the depths of the old society itself. Therefore, humanity always sets itself only such tasks that it can solve, since upon closer examination it always turns out that the task itself arises only when the material conditions for its solution are already present, or at least are in the process of becoming.”

The Marxist doctrine of society - historical materialism - is the result of the extension of the laws of materialist dialectics to society. So, for example, the dialectical law of unity and struggle of opposites, which points to the internal source of all development, in relation to society means that the source of its self-development is social contradictions. The law of the transition of quantitative changes to qualitative ones and vice versa indicates the mechanism of development. The development of productive forces occurs in an evolutionary manner (quantitative change), while production and economic relations are replaced by a leap. The leap occurs precisely through revolutions (qualitative change). The law of negation indicates the general direction of development - the negation of the previous socio-economic formation.

In addition, the classics of Marxism discovered a number of sociological laws: the determining role of social existence in relation to social consciousness; the priority role of the economic base in relation to the superstructure; compliance of production relations with the level and nature of the productive forces; progressive change of socio-economic formations; social revolutions; the increasing role of the masses in history; increased needs, etc. At the same time, feedback connections operate everywhere, and therefore the laws appear: the relative independence of social consciousness and its active influence on social existence; active role of the superstructure in relation to the base; the reverse impact of production relations on the productive forces; along with the formational actions of general civilizational processes; the functioning of natural evolutionary self-adjusting processes in the life of society; against the backdrop of the growing role of the people, the increasing importance of its individual subjects, right down to personalities, both outstanding and ordinary. The emphasis on feedback, civilizational and natural evolutionary processes is an achievement mainly of modern socio-philosophical thought.

Nowadays, the concept of the law of society as a philosophical and sociological category to designate the essential, general, necessary, stable, systemic relations of social existence, the formation, functioning and reproduction of which take place in the process of human activity, has received wide recognition.

The laws of society, like the laws of nature, are objective in nature; their qualitative difference is that they are laws of human activity and social relations.

The problem of the laws of society and their use continues to be among the most pressing. However, there are also contradictory situations here. Thus, a significant part of political scientists, political economists, sociologists, and philosophers in the West now prefer not to use the concepts of “law of society” or deny its scientific status. At the same time, many of them professionally analyze significant, necessary, recurring relationships in various spheres of social life (i.e., the actual laws of society) and conclude their studies with recommendations that are not so much of an apologetic nature, but rather have theoretical and practical value.

P. Samuelson considers repeating, necessary connections and relationships in the economic process of society as laws, problem solver what, how and for whom to produce. J. Keynes, V. Leontiev, J. Galbraith, P. Sorokin, T. Parsons, D. Bell, A. Toffler and others explore the laws of society, analyzing essential, necessary, recurring relationships not only in economic but also in other spheres social life, while often formulating practical recommendations. G.S. Gurvich believes that sociological laws are an integrative characteristic of existing combinations of real ensembles; they cannot claim universality and immutability, therefore it is necessary to focus on microsociology, on the study of a person in specific situations of his activity. Society, Gurvich believes, is a product of collective creativity and strong-willed efforts of people. Society should strive to develop mechanisms that block the growth of negative trends in it (this is led to by centralization, bureaucratization, technocratization of social life). Gurvich's ideal is pluralistic democracy, decentralized economic planning, "pluralistic collectivism" on the principles of self-government.

Dialectical-materialist philosophy distinguishes the laws of society according to the degree of coverage of spheres of social life (social space) and the degree of duration of functioning (social time). In this regard, three main groups of laws are distinguished. These are the most general laws, they cover all the main spheres of social life and function throughout human history (for example, the law of conditionality of the method of production of material life, the existence and development of society, the law of interaction of the economic base and superstructure). Further, these are general laws - they function in one or several areas and over a series of historical stages(law of value, law of correspondence of production relations to productive forces, etc.). Finally, these are specific, or private, laws inherent in individual spheres of social life and operating within the framework of a historically specific stage of development of society (the law of surplus value, etc.).

It is a mistake to believe that all social laws are open. As conditions change, some laws die out, others arise. For example, the laws of natural exchange were replaced by the laws of commodity-money relations.

Similarities between the laws of nature and the laws of society were discovered. Thus, the behavior of an individual particle in physics is described in a probabilistic manner; similarly, a sociologist describes the behavior of an individual. Behavior large number particles and people are subject to statistical laws. At the same time, unlike natural ones, social regularity has specific features. The development of society contains not one, but several opportunities, so the task of determining the real opportunity that expresses the dominant trend in development always remains relevant.

Social relations and forms of culture are more mobile and transitory than changes in nature. Peaks and declines, returns, slowdowns and accelerations of historical movement are natural.

Thus, from the point of view of materialist philosophy, social laws have a number of specific features.

1. Social relations take the form of public interests, needs, goals, feelings and moods of people, which means that social laws are laws not only of material, but also of spiritual activity.

2. Since society is both an object and a subject, social laws are the laws of human activity. Without human activity, which is genetically primary, there is and cannot be a social pattern. History is nothing more than the activity of a person pursuing his goals. G.V. Plekhanov wrote: “Unfortunately, not everyone is still clear about the absurdity... of contrasting individuals with the laws of social life; the activities of people - the internal logic of the forms of their community life."

3. Social laws are statistical in nature, i.e. laws-trends. Laws of this type function where massive random actions and phenomena (stochastic processes) take place. History is “made” in such a way that the final result always results from the collision of many separate expressions of will, which are ultimately determined by specific life circumstances.

Whatever the course of history, people make it this way: everyone pursues their own, consciously set goals, and the overall result of this multitude of aspirations acting in various directions, their resultant is historical events, from which the course of history is formed.

4. The specificity of social laws is their historicity. Due to the fact that social evolution proceeds at a faster pace than the evolution of nature, social relations and forms of culture are more mobile than geological periods. That is why utopian projects should not be created, history should not be constructed in its own way, and social laws should not be considered given once and for all. The social organism is extremely dynamic, and its laws make it possible to grasp only the general line of development, the trend, and this creates a low probability of establishing strict timing for the occurrence of events.

Social laws reflect the presence of social necessity and the objective course of social life.

The actions of social laws are specified, first of all, by general philosophical categories, which, when applied to society, acquire a social connotation. They are determined by the social form of the movement of matter. These are the categories “social matter”, “social time”, “social space”, “social contradiction”, “social negation”, “social revolution”, as well as “social being” and “social consciousness”. In social philosophy, new pairs of categories arise - “freedom” and “necessity”, “base” and “superstructure”, “objective conditions” and “subjective factors”, as well as “social formation”, “mode of production”, etc.

The objectivity of the historical process is most clearly manifested in the dependence of society on nature and astrophysical factors, which has always been emphasized by representatives of the philosophy of cosmism.

The criterion for the objectivity of social life, and therefore social laws, lies in the presence of social continuity, since each generation begins with the real basis that it inherited.

Modern philosophy, using the ideas of synergetics, emphasizes that the action of sociological laws manifests itself gradually, based on its own forms of education, its own strengths, abilities, and potentials. At the same time, in the dynamics of society, the elemental-spontaneous principle is intertwined with the purposeful-volitional principle, the objective predetermination of processes and states is connected with the subjective aspirations of people. A person gives additional energy to certain conditions, treats others neutrally, i.e. allows them to flow without his intervention, and tries to stop other directions of flow. Understanding the place and role of man in the mechanism of social regularity overcomes simplified ideas about the automaticity of the action of laws and their unidirectionality.

2. The nature and functions of social contradictions and conflicts

The dialectical-materialist concept considers the resolution of social contradictions and conflicts to be the main source of development of society. What are the concepts of “contradiction” and “conflict”, what are their contents and types?

Social contradiction in modern social philosophy and sociology is understood as the interaction of social strata and groups associated with the discrepancy between their interests and goals. Its nature and essence is that in the process of striving to satisfy and realize one’s needs, goals and interests, the actions of some social subjects do not correspond and are not consistent with the actions of others. The causes of social contradictions and problems can be: lack of funds and conditions; obstacles on the way to the goal; inconsistency of goals between subjects, etc. Being different in level of significance, contradictions at a certain stage often lead to social conflict.

Conflict (from the Latin confliktus - clash) is usually called the highest stage of contradiction, when the opposites existing in the contradiction turn into extreme opposites, reaching the point of denying each other. Social conflict is always associated with people’s awareness of the contradictions between their interests as members of certain social groups and the interests of other subjects. Aggravated contradictions give rise to open or closed conflicts.

Contradictions permeate all spheres of society: economic, political, social, spiritual. The aggravation of certain contradictions creates zones of crisis. The crisis manifests itself in a sharp increase in social tension, which often develops into conflict. Sociologists of Marxist and non-Marxist orientation note that conflict is a temporary state of society that can be overcome by rational means.

Conflict from the point of view of philosophy is a category that reflects the stage (phase and form) of development of the category “contradiction”, when the opposites existing in a contradiction turn into extreme opposites, reaching the moment of denying each other and removing the contradiction.

Most scientists are inclined to believe that the existence of a society without conflicts is impossible, because conflict is an integral part of people’s existence, the source of changes occurring in society. Conflict makes social relationships more mobile. Under the influence of conflicts, society can be transformed. The stronger the social conflict, the more noticeable its influence on the course of social processes and the pace of their implementation.

The origins of conflict research go back to ancient times. Even Chinese philosophers in the 7th-6th centuries. BC. saw the source of the development of nature and society in the struggle of opposites. The thinkers of Ancient Greece created the doctrine of opposites and their role in the emergence of things.

N. Machiavelli paid great attention to the study of conflicts. In his works on Roman history, he examines conflicts at various levels and notes their positive role in social development.

However, the conflict was examined more thoroughly by A. Smith. In 1776, his work “Research on the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations” was published, in which he wrote that the conflict was based on the division of society into classes and economic rivalry between them. The latter was seen as the driving force for the development of society.

G. Hegel made a great contribution to the understanding of social conflicts. He considered one of their reasons to be the social polarization between the “accumulation of wealth” and the “labor-bound class.”

Already in the last century, many thinkers assumed that conflict is a reality, an inevitable phenomenon in the life of society and a stimulus for social development. These views were held by the German sociologist M. Weber, the Austrian sociologist L. Gumplowicz and others.

From the standpoint of historical materialism, K. Marx and F. Engels considered social conflict, who believed that conflicts are generated, first of all, by social inequality and manifest themselves in the class struggle. It is the class struggle that is not only inevitable, but also necessary for identifying and resolving the contradictions of the capitalist system.

Marx was the first philosopher who viewed society as an objective, self-developing reality. The source of this self-development is contradictions and conflicts, primarily in material life. “At a certain stage of their development,” he writes, “the material productive forces of society come into conflict with existing production relations, or—which is only the legal expression of the latter—with the property relations within which they have hitherto developed. From forms of development of productive forces, these relations turn into their fetters. Then the era of social revolution begins... Consciousness must be explained from the contradictions of material life, from the existing conflict between social productive forces and production relations.”

You should pay attention to three fundamental ones. The driving force behind the development of society is the contradiction between productive forces and production relations. Social revolution is not a political accident, but a natural manifestation of historical necessity. People's consciousness reflects real life contradictions. In other words, regardless of the subjective desires of individual people, the ruling elite, the masses think and act depending on the nature of the contradictions, primarily in material life. Contradictions and conflicts change—the forms of people’s thinking change accordingly, and values ​​are reassessed. If the material interests of the masses are constantly not taken into account, if contradictions grow and deepen, then revolutionary consciousness arises, setting the masses in motion, and through social revolution There is a radical change, a qualitative renewal of social relations.

Critics of Marxism note that the problem of conflict in Marxism has not received a comprehensive justification, because conflicts were considered by this teaching only as a clash between antagonistic classes. In addition, the Marxist concept absolutized economic relations, which were considered the main cause of conflict between classes and other social groups.

The modern concept of “social conflict” was first introduced into scientific circulation by the German philosopher Georg Simmel, who gave this name to one of his works published in the first quarter of the 20th century.

The problem of conflict received its further theoretical justification in the 20th century. At the same time, the theory of conflict is opposed to the theory of structural-functional analysis of society. Representatives of functionalism adhere to an equilibrium, conflict-free model of society. According to the views of supporters of this direction, society is a “system”, the vital activity and unity of which are ensured through the functional interaction of its constituent elements, such as the state, political parties, industrial associations, trade unions, churches, families, etc.

Ralf Dahrendorf created the theory of the conflict model of society based on the fact that any society is constantly subject to social changes and, as a result, experiences social conflict every moment. The scientist saw a conflict of interests as the basis for the formation and development of social conflicts. Any society, in his opinion, is based on coercion. Members of society are initially characterized by inequality of social positions (for example, in the distribution of property and power), and hence the difference in their interests and aspirations, which causes mutual friction and antagonism. Dahrendorf comes to the conclusion that social inequality and the social contradictions generated by it create social tension and conflict situations. The interests of the subjects directly influence the formation of the conflict. Therefore, in order to understand the nature of the conflict, it is necessary, first of all, to understand the nature of interest and the ways in which the subjects of the conflict perceive it.

According to Dahrendorf, social conflicts are often based on political factors: the struggle for power, prestige, authority. Conflicts can arise in any community where there are dominant and subordinate people. Inequality of social positions means unequal access to development resources of individuals, social groups or communities of people. And hence the contradictions of their interests. The inequality of social positions is reflected in the power itself, which allows one group to control the results of the activities of other groups of people.

The struggle for the possession and disposal of resources, for leadership, power and prestige make social conflicts inevitable. Conflict is perceived not as a good thing, but as an inevitable way to resolve contradictions.

Dahrendorf argues that conflicts are pervasive components of social life. They cannot be eliminated just because we do not want them; they must be taken into account as a reality. Conflicts are sources of innovation and social change. They do not allow society to stagnate, as they constantly create tension. According to Dahrendorf, suppressing and “cancelling” a conflict leads to its escalation. Therefore, the task is to be able to control the conflict: it must be legalized, institutionalized, developed and resolved on the basis of the rules existing in society.

The general theory of conflict is also developed by the American sociologist Kenneth Ewart Boulding, who wrote the work “Conflict and Defense: A General Theory” (1963). He states that in modern societies it is possible and necessary to regulate social conflicts. Boulding believes that conflict is inseparable from social life. The idea of ​​the essence of social conflicts allows society to control and manage them, to foresee their consequences. According to K. Boulding, a conflict is a situation in which the parties understand the incompatibility of their positions and strive to get ahead of the enemy with their actions. Conflict acts as a type of social interaction in which the parties are aware of their confrontation and their attitude towards it. And then they consciously organize themselves, develop a strategy and tactics of struggle. But all this does not exclude the possibility that conflicts can and should be overcome or limited.

All conflicts can be classified on different grounds.

According to their functions, conflicts are usually divided into destructive (disintegrative) and creative (integrative).

Destructive. Many social conflicts are highly destabilizing in social systems. Internal conflict destroys group unity. Strikes could leave thousands of people unemployed and cause serious damage to industry; a nuclear conflict threatens to destroy humanity.

Even when conflicts reach a new equilibrium, when new structures are formed, the price for this can be very high. The Thirty Years' War (1619-1648) established the principle of religious tolerance and created new social structures, but it reduced the population of Germany by at least a third, brought destruction, and left a lot of abandoned lands.

Speaking about the integrative, positive aspects of the conflict, it should be noted that a limited, private consequence of the conflict may be an increase in group interaction. As a result of social conflict, the rapid implementation of new policies and new norms is possible. Conflict may be the only way out of a tense situation.

Modern dialectical-materialist philosophy also pays considerable attention to clarifying the role of conflicts in the development of society. The laws of social development inevitably lead to the emergence of a divided (structured) society. Society is stratified into social groups with differing, even difficultly compatible, interests and claims reaching the point of antagonism. The intensity of the struggle between individuals, groups, classes, states, etc. is moderated by their interest in preserving shared resources for the preservation and further development of human civilization. The division (differentiation) of society becomes a source of serious conflicts, and the need to eliminate or localize these conflicts becomes a source of new tensions. To avoid this, social and spiritual mechanisms must be formed in society to smooth out and mitigate inevitable contradictions based on the use of reasonable compromises.

Conclusion

Thus, modern philosophy views society as a collection of various parts and elements that are closely related to each other and constantly interact, therefore society exists as a separate integral organism, as a single system.

Modern social philosophy identifies four main characteristics of society: initiative, self-organization, self-development, self-sufficiency.

The development of society occurs according to certain laws. Social laws are necessary connections between certain parties and spheres of social life.

From the point of view of materialist philosophy, social life is determined, but, unlike natural life, social laws have a number of specific features.

The application of the dialectical-materialist method to the analysis of social life and its history made it possible to discover a number of general sociological laws. What are these laws?

1. The law of the determining role of the method of production in relation to other areas of activity.

2. The law of the determining role of the economic base in relation to the superstructure.

3. The law of correspondence of production relations to the level and nature of productive forces.

4. The law of progressive change of socio-economic formations.

5. The law of social revolution.

6. The law of the growing role of the masses in history.

7. The law of relative independence of social consciousness.

8. The law of increasing needs, etc.

The world of social laws has many faces. As conditions change, some of them die off, others are formed. (For example, the law of shape change). Therefore, it is absurd to believe that all social laws have already been discovered and social science has reached completion.

There are a large number of private social laws that operate in certain areas of society and are studied by specific social sciences(political economy, demography, political science, law, art history, linguistics, etc.). But in any case, regardless of the scale of action, social laws reflect the presence of social necessity and the objective course of social life.

The source of development of society is social contradictions and conflicts. Conflict from the point of view of philosophy is a category that reflects the stage (phase and form) of development of the category “contradiction”, when the opposites existing in a contradiction turn into extreme opposites, reaching the moment of denying each other and removing the contradiction.

There is a fluid relationship between the tendencies of society to move towards stability and towards conflict. These two lines of social dynamics constitute a unity of intersecting and complementary opposites.

List of sources used

1. Babosov E.M. General sociology: Textbook. manual for university students. - Mn.: TetraSystems, 2002.

2. Barulin V.S. Social philosophy: Textbook. -- Ed. 2nd. -- M.: FAIR PRESS, 2000.

3. Volchek E.Z. Philosophy: Textbook. manual with textbook extracts - Mn.: Interpresservis, 2003.

4. Kalmykov V. N. Fundamentals of Philosophy: Textbook. allowance - Mn.: Higher. school, 2003.

5. Marx K. Towards a critique of political economy /Marx K., Engels F. Works. - 2nd ed. - T.13.

6. Philosophy: studies for students of institutions providing higher education / Yu. A. Kharin - Mn. : TetraSystems, 2006.

7. Philosophy: Course of lectures: Proc. aid for students higher textbook institutions / Under the general editorship. V.L. Kalashnikov. - M.: Humanit, ed. VLADOS center, 2003.

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