Course work

Subject: " Hans Eysenck's personality type theory "

Introduction

1. Theoretical analysis of the problem of personality traits and types in the theory of G.Yu. Eysenck

1.1 Hierarchical model

1.2 Basic personality types

1.3 Neurophysiological basis of traits and types

2. Measurement of personality traits

2.1 Diagnostic study of personality traits and types according to the method of G.Yu. Eysenck EPi

2.2 Differences between introverts and extroverts

Conclusion

List of sources used

Introduction

Personality traits are stable, repeating in various situations, features of the individual's behavior. Mandatory properties of personality traits are the degree of their severity in different people, transsituation and potential measurability Personality traits are measurable using questionnaires and tests specially designed for this purpose. In experimental psychology of personality, such personality traits as extraversion - introversion, anxiety, rigidity, impulsivity are most widely studied. AT modern research the point of view is accepted, according to which the description of personality traits is not enough for understanding and prediction individual features behavior, since they describe only general aspects of personality manifestations.

Personality is a set of traits that allows you to predict the actions of a person in a given situation. Associated with both external and internal behavior of the individual. aim psychological research personality is the establishment of laws by which people behave in typical social situations.

Most Popular factorial theories personalities designed by Hans Eysenck. These theories of personality were oriented toward empirical research into individual personality differences.

Theory G.Yu. Eysenck is built according to a hierarchical type and includes a description of a three-factor model of psychodynamic properties (extraversion - introversion, neuroticism and psychotism). Eysenck relates these properties to the types of the general level of the hierarchical organization of the personality structure. At the next level are traits, below - the level of habitual reactions, actually observed behavior.

Eysenck's significant contribution to the field of factor analysis was the development of a criteria analysis technique, which made it possible to single out specific criteria groups of signs as much as possible, for example, to differentiate a contingent by neuroticism. An equally important conceptual position of Eysenck is the idea that the hereditary factor causes differences in people in terms of the reactivity of the autonomic nervous system, the speed and strength of conditioned reactions, that is, in terms of genotypic and phenotypic indicators, as the basis of individual differences in the manifestations of neuroticism, psychotism and extraversion - introversion.

The reactive individual is prone, under appropriate conditions, to the occurrence of neurotic disorders, and individuals who easily form conditioned responses demonstrate introversion in behavior. People with insufficient ability to form conditioned reactions and autonomous reactivity are more likely than others to develop fears, phobias, obsessions, and other neurotic symptoms. In general, neurotic behavior is the result of learning, which is based on reactions of fear and anxiety.

Considering that the imperfection of psychiatry and diagnoses is associated with insufficient personal psychodiagnostics, Eysenck developed questionnaires for this purpose and accordingly adjusted the methods of treatment in psychoneurology. Eysenck tried to define a person's personality traits along two main axes: introversion - extraversion (closedness or openness) and stability - instability (anxiety level).

Thus, the author of these psychological concepts believed that in order to reveal the essence of a personality, it is enough to describe the structure of a person's qualities. He developed special questionnaires that can be used to describe the individuality of a person, but not the whole personality. It is difficult to predict future behavior from them, because in real life people's reactions are far from constant and most often depend on the circumstances that a person encountered at a certain point in time.

The purpose of this term paper- to reveal the main provisions of the theory of personality types G. Eysenck.

The relevance of the topic of the course work is determined by the fact that personality is a special quality that a natural individual acquires in the system public relations. The dispositional direction in the study of personality is based on two general ideas. The first is that people have a wide range of predispositions to respond in certain ways in different situations (that is, personality traits). This means that people show a certain consistency in their actions, thoughts and emotions, regardless of the passage of time, events and life experiences. In fact, the essence of personality is determined by those inclinations that people carry through their lives, which belong to them and are inalienable from them.

The second main idea of ​​the dispositional direction has to do with the fact that no two people are exactly alike. The concept of personality is revealed in part by emphasizing characteristic features distinguishing individuals from each other. Indeed, each theoretical direction in personology, in order to remain viable in the market of psychological science, to one degree or another must consider the problem of differences between individuals.

Despite the fact that the exact impact of genetics on behavior has not yet been elucidated, all more psychologists believe that, perhaps, Eysenck is right on this issue.

1 Theoretical analysis of the problem of personality traits and types in theory G.Yu. Eysenck

1.1 Hierarchical model

Using a complex psychometric technique known as factor analysis, G.Yu. Eysenck in his theory tries to show how the basic structure of personality traits affects the observed behavioral responses of the individual. For Eysenck, two main parameters are extremely important in personality: introversion-extroversion and stability - neuroticism. The third parameter, called psychotism, is the power of the superego. Eysenck also considers as the main parameter in the structure of personality.

Eiseneck believes that the purpose of psychology is to predict behavior. He also shares the commitment of other psychologists to factor analysis as a way to capture the whole picture of personality. However, Eysenck uses factor analysis in a slightly different way. According to Eysenck, a research strategy should begin with a well-founded hypothesis about some key trait of interest to the researcher, followed by an accurate measurement of everything that is characteristic of this trait.

Thus, Eysenck's approach is more tightly bound by the framework of theory. Eysenck is convinced that no more than three subfeatures (which he calls types) are needed to explain most of the behavioral manifestations of a person. Eysenck attaches much more importance to genetic factors in the development of the individual. This does not mean that Eysenck denies situational influences or the influence environment per person, but he is convinced that personality traits and types are determined primarily by heredity.

The core of Eysenck's theory is the concept he developed that the elements of personality are arranged hierarchically. Eysenck built a four-level hierarchical system of behavior organization.

The lower level is specific actions or thoughts, an individual way of behaving or thinking, which may or may not be characteristics of the individual. For example, we can imagine a student who starts drawing geometric patterns in his notebook if he fails to complete the task. But if his notes are not drawn up and down, we cannot say that such an action has become habitual.

The second level is habitual actions or thoughts, that is, reactions that are repeated under certain conditions. If a student constantly works hard on a task until he gets a solution, this behavior becomes his habitual reaction. Unlike specific responses, habitual responses must occur fairly regularly or be consistent. Habitual responses are isolated through factor analysis of specific responses.

The third level in the hierarchy formulated by Eysenck is occupied by the trait. Eysenck defined a trait as "an important, relatively constant, personal property." A trait is formed from several interconnected habitual reactions. For example, if a student has a habit of always completing assignments in class and does not give up any other work until he finishes it, then we can say that he has the trait of perseverance. Trait-level behavioral characteristics are obtained by factor analysis of habitual responses, and traits are "defined in the sense that there is a significant correlation between different types of habitual behavior"

The fourth, highest level of organization of behavior is the level of types, or superfactors. The type is formed from several interconnected traits. For example, assertiveness may be associated with feelings of inferiority, poor emotional adjustment, social shyness, and a few other traits that collectively form the introverted type. (Appendix A).

There are certain super-traits or types in his schema, such as extraversion, that have a powerful influence on behavior. In turn, he sees each of these super-features built from several composite features. These component traits are either more superficial reflections of the underlying type or specific qualities inherent in that type. Finally, traits are made up of numerous habitual responses, which, in turn, are formed from specific responses. Consider, for example, a person who, judging by the observations, demonstrates a specific reaction: smiling and holding out his hand when meeting another person. If we see that he does this whenever he meets someone, we can assume that this behavior is his habitual reaction to greet another person. This habitual response may be related to other habitual responses, such as the tendency to talk to other people, go to parties, and so on. This group of habitual responses forms a sociability trait that usually co-exists with a predisposition to respond in an active, lively, and assertive manner. Together, these traits make up a super trait, or type, that Eysenck calls extraversion (Appendix B).

Hans Eysenck and Raymond Cattell, using a complex psychometric technique known as factor analysis, attempted to show how the basic structure of personality traits influences an individual's observed behavioral responses. Eysenck agrees with Cattell that the goal of psychology is to predict behavior. He also shares Cattell's commitment to factor analysis as a way to capture the whole picture of personality. Unlike Cattell, Eysenck was also convinced that no more than three superfeatures (which he calls types) are needed to explain most of the behavioral manifestations of a person: introversion-extroversion, stability-neuroticism and psychotism-superego strength. Cattell lists at least 16 basic traits or factors that make up the structure of personality. Eysenck attaches much more importance to genetic factors in the development of the individual. This does not at all mean that Eysenck denies situational influences or the influence of the environment on a person, but he is convinced that personality traits and types are determined primarily by heredity. Despite the fact that the exact impact of genetics on behavior has not yet been clarified, a growing number of psychologists believe that Eysenck may be right on this issue. Finally, it should be noted that not all psychologists share the dispositional point of view. The latter are based on the fact that human behavior over time and circumstances reveals only a slight constancy of personal manifestations.

Basic concepts and principles of the theory of personality types

The essence of Eysenck's theory is that the elements of personality can be arranged hierarchically. There are certain super-traits or types in his schema, such as extraversion (sociability, liveliness, activity, perseverance, striving for success), which have a powerful influence on behavior. In turn, he sees each of these super-features built from several composite features. These component traits are either more superficial reflections of the underlying type or specific qualities inherent in that type. Finally, traits are made up of numerous habitual responses, which in turn are formed from many specific responses. Consider, for example, a person who, judging by the observations, demonstrates a specific reaction: smiling and holding out his hand when meeting another person. If we see that he does this whenever he meets someone, we can assume that this behavior is his habitual reaction to greet another person. This habitual response may be related to other habitual responses, such as a tendency to talk to other people, go to parties. This group of habitual reactions forms a trait of sociability. At the trait level, sociability correlates with a propensity to respond in an active, lively, and assertive manner. Together, these traits make up a super trait, or type, which Eysenck calls extraversion.

Considering the hierarchical model of personality according to Eysenck, it should be noted that here the word "type" implies a normal distribution of parameter values ​​on a continuum. Therefore, for example, the concept of extraversion is a range with upper and lower limits, within which people are located, in accordance with the severity of this quality. Thus, extraversion is not a discrete quantitative indicator, but a kind of continuum. Therefore, Eysenck uses the term "type" in this case.

Basic personality types

In his early research, Eysenck identified two main types, which he called introversion-extroversion and neuroticism-stability (sometimes referred to as instability-stability). These two dimensions of personality are orthogonal, i.e. they are statistically independent of each other. Accordingly, people can be divided into four groups, each of which is a combination of a high or low score in the range of one type, together with a high or low score in the other type of range. Associated with each type are characteristics whose names are reminiscent of descriptions of personality traits. In considering the nature of these four groups, two points should be kept in mind:

• 1) both ranges of types have a normal distribution, are continuous and thus provide for a wide range of individual differences.
• 2) descriptions of the traits inherent in each type are extreme cases. Most people tend to be closer to the middle point - in both ranges of types.

It should be noted that Eysenck attached particular importance to individual differences. Thus, no combination of these personality types can be more preferable than the other. The carefree and sociable type of behavior has both good and bad points; the same can be said about the quiet, withdrawn demeanor. They are just different.

Later, Eysenck described and introduced into his theory a third type of personality dimension, which he called psychotism - the power of the superego. People with a high degree manifestations of this super trait are egocentric, impulsive, indifferent to others, and tend to oppose social norms. They are often restless, difficult to contact with people and do not meet with their understanding, deliberately causing trouble to others. Eysenck suggested that psychotosis is a genetic predisposition to becoming a psychotic or psychopathic person. He sees psychotism as a personality continuum on which all people can be placed and which is more pronounced in men than in women.

Neurophysiological foundations of traits and types.

Introversion-extraversion is closely related to levels of cortical activation, as shown by electroencephalographic studies. Eysenck uses the term "activation" to refer to the degree of arousal that changes in magnitude from a lower extreme (eg, sleep) to an upper extreme (eg, a state of panic). He believes that introverts are extremely excitable and highly sensitive to incoming stimulation - for this reason they avoid situations that are too strong for them. Conversely, extroverts are not sufficiently excitable and therefore insensitive to incoming stimulation; accordingly, they are constantly on the lookout for situations that can excite them.

The neurophysiological interpretation of aspects of personality behavior proposed by Eysenck is closely related to his theory of psychopathology. In particular, different types of symptoms or disorders can be attributed to the combined effect of personality traits and nervous system function. For example, a person with a high degree of introversion and neuroticism is at a very high risk of developing painful anxiety conditions such as obsessive-compulsive disorders as well as phobias. Conversely, a person with high levels of extraversion and neuroticism is at risk for psychopathic (antisocial) disorders. However, Eysenck is quick to add that mental disorders are not automatically the result of a genetic predisposition. "Genetically inherited is the predisposition of a person to act and behave in a certain way when placed in certain situations." Thus, Eysenck's belief in the genetic basis of various kinds of mental disorders is combined with an equally strong conviction that environmental factors can to some extent change the development of such disorders.

Differences between extroverts and introverts

To date, most of Eysenck's efforts have been directed at determining whether there are significant behavioral differences due to individual differences within the introversion-extroversion continuum.

Some empirically established differences between extroverts and introverts are given below.

• - Extroverts are much more tolerant of pain than introverts; they pause more during work to chat and drink coffee than introverts; excitement increases the effectiveness of their actions and actions, while it only interferes with introverts.
• - Introverts tend to prefer theoretical and scientific activities (eg, engineering and chemistry), while extroverts tend to prefer jobs that involve people (eg, sales, social services).
• - In college, introverts are more successful than extroverts. Also, students who leave college for psychiatric reasons tend to be more introverted; while those students who leave for academic reasons are more likely to be extroverts.
• - Introverts feel more alert in the mornings, while extroverts feel more alert in the evenings. Moreover, introverts work better in the morning and extroverts in the afternoon.

One of the most notable differences between introverts and extroverts is their sensitivity to stimulation. If you put four drops of lemon juice on a person's tongue, it turns out that introverts produce almost twice as much saliva as extroverts. The basis of this interesting phenomenon has to do with the different patterns of physiological functioning in introverts and extroverts. Eysenck especially emphasizes that the ascending activating influence from the reticular formation of the brain stem is responsible for the differences in reactions to stimulation in introverts and extroverts.

Throughout his work, Eysenck consistently emphasized the role of neurophysiological and genetic factors in explaining individual behavioral differences.

Eysenck's significant contribution to the field of factor analysis was the development of criteria analysis techniques, which made it possible to single out specific criteria groups of features as much as possible, for example. differentiate the contingent by neuroticism. No less important conceptual position of Eysenck yavl. the idea that the hereditary factor causes differences in people in terms of the reactivity of the autonomic nervous system, the speed and strength of conditioned reactions, i.e. according to genotypic and phenotypic indicators, as the basis of individual differences in the manifestations of neuroticism, psychotism and extraversion - introversion. The reactive individual is prone, under appropriate conditions, to the emergence of a neurotic. disorders, and individuals who easily form conditioned responses demonstrate introversion in behavior. People with insufficient ability to form conditioned reactions and autonomous reactivity, more often than others, are prone to fears, phobias, obsessions, and other neurotic. symptoms. In general, neurotic behavior yavl. the result of learning, which is based on reactions of fear and anxiety.

Considering that the imperfection of psychiatry, diagnoses are associated with insufficient personality. psychodiagnostics, Eysenck developed questionnaires for this purpose and accordingly adjusted the methods of treatment in psychoneurology.

Eysenck believed that no more than three superfeatures, which he called types, were needed to explain most human behavior. In turn, each of these traits includes several component traits. These composite traits represent the qualities inherent in this type. And finally, traits consist of numerous habitual responses (FR), which, in turn, are formed from specific responses (SR). sees personality as hierarchical organization. At the most general level - types, at the next level - traits, below - the level of habitual reactions, below - specific reactions, i.e. actual observable behavior.

At the level types A Eysenck analyzes personality in three areas: neuroticism, extraversion-introversion and psychotism. In studies of the structure of personality, Eysenck distinguishes two main types of personality measurement. : introversion - extraversion neuroticism (instability) - stability

introversion - extraversion lie differences in the processes of inhibition and excitation of the nervous system. Eysenck believes that some people have a relatively stronger excitation, while others have a stronger inhibition. introversion-extraversion associated with the level of cortical activation. extrovert – an individual whose thoughts, feelings, interests and actions are directed to others, to objects outside world. He is good and easy to come into contact with other people, easily adapts to new situations. Introvert- an individual whose psychic energy is directed inward towards himself. His thoughts, interests and even actions are turned to his own "I".

stability - neuroticism - is associated with the activity of the limbic system and with the strength of the response of the autonomic nervous system to a stimulus. Greater activity in the limbic system causes some people to become more emotionally aroused in the event of a threat or stressful situation. These people have a strong neurotic factor. These two factors are statistically independent of each other, and therefore, Eysenck distinguishes 4 groups of people:

A stable introvert is calm, balanced, reliable, controlled, peaceful, attentive, caring, passive.

A stable extrovert is a leader, carefree, cheerful, flexible, responsive, talkative, friendly, sociable.

Neurotic introvert - anxious, rigid, easily amenable to mood swings, reasonable, pessimistic, withdrawn, unsociable, quiet.

Neurotic extrovert - vulnerable, restless, aggressive, excitable, unstable, impulsive, optimistic, active.

27. The main provisions of the theory of personality a. Maslow.

The question of motivation is perhaps the most important in all of personology. Maslow believed that people are motivated to seek personal goals, and this makes their lives meaningful and meaningful. Indeed, motivational processes are at the heart of the humanistic theory of personality. Maslow described man as a "desiring being" who rarely achieves a state of complete, complete satisfaction. The complete absence of desires and needs, when (and if) it exists, is short-lived at best. If one need is satisfied, another one rises to the surface and directs the person's attention and effort. When a person satisfies her, another noisily demands satisfaction. Human life is characterized by the fact that people almost always want something. Maslow suggested that all human needs are innate, or instinctoid, and that they are organized into hierarchical system priority or dominance. physiological needs; safety and security needs; the need for belonging and love; self-esteem needs; self-actualization needs, or personal improvement needs. The key point in Maslow's hierarchy of needs concept is that needs are never satisfied on an all-or-nothing basis. Needs partially coincide, and a person can be motivated at two or more levels of needs at the same time. Maslow suggested that the average person satisfies their needs in approximately the following degree: 85% physiological, 70% security and protection, 50% love and belonging, 40% self-respect, and 10% self-actualization. In addition, the needs that appear in the hierarchy arise gradually. People do not just satisfy one need after another, but at the same time partially satisfy and partially do not satisfy them. It should also be noted that it does not matter how far a person has advanced in the hierarchy of needs: if the needs are more low level cease to be satisfied, the person will return to this level and remain there until these needs are sufficiently satisfied. Maslow suggested that numerous symptoms associated with a hoarding and consumption-oriented, but not self-sufficient lifestyle are indicative of metapathologies. These are symptoms such as the inability to deeply love someone; the desire to live only for today; unwillingness to see anything valuable and worthy in life; inability to appreciate perseverance in search of personal improvement; unethical behaviour. A person suffering from metapathology often does not notice this. He may vaguely feel that something is missing in life, but not know what exactly. Maslow even suggested that impairments in cognitive functioning could be understood as a deprivation of metaneeds (that is, as an expression of metapathologies). The denial of truth (metaneed), for example, can make a person suspicious and fearful of others. Clinical psychologists traditionally call such a person paranoid. A healthy sense of curiosity can also be weakened if a person is denied or denied cognitive metaneeds. Some people are not at all interested in what is happening in the world: events abroad, scientific discoveries, new styles in painting and music, and the weather forecast for tomorrow. Even the great mysteries of life can be ignored or taken for granted. Metamotivated people, on the other hand, are very interested in what is happening in the world and are constantly amazed by new discoveries. They do not take the mysteries of life for granted.

1.2 Hans Eysenck's personality type theory

Hans Eysenck is another representative of the dispositional direction.

Eysenck agrees with Cattell that the goal of psychology is to predict behavior. He also shares Cattell's commitment to factor analysis as a way to capture the whole picture of personality. However, Eysenck uses factor analysis somewhat differently than Cattell. According to Eysenck, a research strategy should begin with a well-founded hypothesis about some key trait of interest to the researcher, followed by an accurate measurement of everything that is characteristic of this trait. In contrast, Cattell states that the basic building blocks of personality are identified through the application of a battery of tests and subsequent processing of the data. Thus, Eysenck's approach is more rigidly bound by the framework of theory than Cattell's. Unlike Cattell, Eysenck was also convinced that no more than three superfeatures (which he calls types) are needed to explain most of the behavioral manifestations of a person. As you may remember, Cattell lists at least 16 traits or factors that make up the structure of personality. Finally, Eysenck attaches much more importance to genetic factors in the development of the individual. This does not at all mean that Eysenck denies situational influences or the influence of the environment on a person, but he is convinced that personality traits and types are determined primarily by heredity. Despite the fact that the exact impact of genetics on behavior has not yet been clarified, a growing number of psychologists believe that Eysenck may be right on this issue.

The essence of Eysenck's theory is that the elements of personality can be arranged hierarchically. In his schema (Appendix A) there are certain super-traits or types, such as extraversion, that have a powerful effect on behavior. In turn, he sees each of these super-features built from several composite features. These component traits are either more superficial reflections of the underlying type or specific qualities inherent in that type. Finally, traits are made up of numerous habitual responses, which in turn are formed from many specific responses. Consider, for example, a person who, judging by the observations, demonstrates a specific reaction: smiling and holding out his hand when meeting another person. If we see that he does this whenever he meets someone, we can assume that this behavior is his habitual reaction to greet another person. This habitual response may be associated with other habitual responses such as the tendency to talk to other people, go to parties, etc. This group of habitual reactions forms a trait of sociability. As illustrated in Appendix A, at the trait level, sociability correlates with a propensity to respond in terms of active, lively, and assertive behavior. Together, these traits make up a super trait, or type, which Eysenck calls extraversion.

Considering the hierarchical model of personality according to Eysenck, it should be noted that here the word "type" implies a normal distribution of parameter values ​​on a continuum. Therefore, for example, the concept of extraversion is a range with upper and lower limits, within which people are located, in accordance with the severity of this quality. Thus, extraversion is not a discrete quantitative indicator, but a continuum. Therefore, Eysenck uses the term "type" in this case.

Chapter II Methods of research and development of personality in the studies of Hans Eysenck

2.1 Eysenck personality types research methods

In early research, Eysenck singled out only two general types or superfactors: extraversion (Extraversion) type (E) and neuroticism (Neuroticism) type (N) (Eysenck, 1947, 1952). Later he identified a third type - psychoticism (Psychoticism) (P), although he did not deny "the possibility that some more dimensions will subsequently be added." Eysenck considered all three types as parts of the normal personality structure. On fig. 27.2 shows the hierarchical structure of the Eysenck factors - P, E and N.

All three types are bipolar, and if at one end of the E factor is extraversion, then the opposite pole is occupied by introversion (Introversion). Similarly, the N factor includes neuroticism at one pole and stability at the other, and the P factor contains psychotism at one pole and a strong "superego" (Superego strenght) at the other. The bipolarity of the Eysenck factors does not imply that the majority of people belong to one or the other pole. The distribution of characteristics belonging to each type is bimodal rather than unimodal. For example, the distribution of extraversion is very close to normal, similar to the distributions of intelligence and height. Most people end up in the center of a hilly distribution; thus, Eysenck (1994c) did not think that people could be divided into several mutually exclusive categories.

Eysenck used the deductive method scientific research, starting with theoretical constructions, and then collecting data that logically corresponds to this theory. As we have already indicated, Eysenck's theory is based on the use of factor analysis techniques. He himself, however, argued that abstract psychometric research alone is not enough to measure the structure of properties human personality and that traits and types derived from factor-analytical methods are too sterile to be given any value until their biological existence has been proven.

Eysenck established four criteria for identifying factors. First, psychometric confirmation of the existence of the factor must be obtained. A natural consequence of this criterion is that the factor must be statistically significant and verifiable. Other researchers belonging to independent laboratories should also be able to obtain this factor. The second criterion is that the factor must have the property of inheritance and satisfy the established genetic model. This criterion excludes learned characteristics from consideration, such as, for example, the ability to imitate voices. famous people or political and religious beliefs. Third, the factor must make sense from a theoretical point of view. The last criterion for the existence of a factor is its social relevance, that is, it must be shown that the mathematically derived factor has a relationship (not necessarily strictly causal) to social phenomena, such as drug abuse, the tendency to get into unpleasant situations (accident proneness), outstanding achievements in sports, psychotic behavior, crime, etc.

Eysenck argued that each of the types he singled out meets these four criteria for identifying personality characteristics.

Firstly, there is strong psychometric evidence for the existence of each factor, especially for factors E and N. Factor P (psychoticism) appeared in Eysenck's works later than the first two, and there is still no equally reliable evidence for it from other scientists. . Extraversion and neuroticism (or anxiety) are the main types or superfactors in almost all factor-analytic studies of personality traits. For example, Royce and Powell compared Eysenck's E and N factors with Cattell's second-order traits and found that Eysenck's E (extraversion) factor was comparable to Cattell's QI (exvia/invia) factor, and the N (neuroticism) factor was very similar to Cattell's QII factor. (anxiety).

"Perhaps of all the factor analysts you know, I am the least one. I regard factor analysis as a useful adjunct, a technique in some cases invaluable, but which we must put aside as soon as possible in order to be able to define the factors with an open mind and simply understand what they mean" (Evans, 1976, p. 259).

Second, Eysenck argued that there is a strong biological basis for each of these three superfactors. At the same time, he argued that traits such as social compliance (agreeableness) and conscientiousness (conscientiousness), included in the "Big Five" taxonomy (John, 1990), do not have biological basis.

Third, all three types, especially E and N, make sense theoretically. Jung, Freud, and other theorists have noted that factors such as extraversion/introversion and anxiety/emotional stability have a significant impact on behavior. Neuroticism and psychotism are not properties of exclusively pathological individuals, although the mentally ill do show more high marks on a scale measuring these two factors than normal people. Eysenck proposed a theoretical justification for the P factor (psychoticism), built on the hypothesis that the characteristics of mental health in the bulk of people are distributed continuously. At one end of the hilly distribution are exceptionally healthy traits such as altruism, good social adjustment, and empathy, and at the other end are traits such as hostility, aggressiveness, and schizophrenic tendencies. A person according to his characteristics can be at any point of this continuous scale, and no one will perceive him as a mentally ill person. Eysenck, however, developed the diathesis-stress model of the occurrence of mental illness, according to which some people are more vulnerable to illness because they have some kind of genetic or acquired weakness that makes them more prone to mental illness. Predisposition (diathesis), together with a stressful situation, gives rise to psychotic manifestations. Eysenck suggests that people whose characteristics are closer to the healthy end of the P-scale will be resistant to psychotic breaks even during periods severe stress. On the other hand, for those closer to the unhealthy edge, even minimal stress can cause a psychotic reaction. In other words, the higher the indicator of psychotism, the less strong stress exposure is necessary for the occurrence of a psychotic reaction.

Fourth, Eysenck has repeatedly demonstrated that his three types are associated with social issues such as drugs (Eysenck, 1983), sexual behavior (Eysenck, 1976), crime (Eysenck, 1964; Eysenck & Gudjonsson, 1989), cancer prevention, and heart disease (Eysenck, 1991b, 1991c; Grossart-Maticek, Eysenck, & Vetter, 1988) and creativity (Eysenck, 1993).

"Genetically inherited is the predisposition of a person to act and behave in a certain way when placed in certain situations" (Eysenck, 1982, p. 29).

All three superfactors - extraversion, neuroticism and psychotism - are heavily dependent on genetic factors. Eysenck (1990a) argued that about three quarters of the variation in each of the three superfactors is due to heredity and only about one quarter to environmental conditions. He collected a lot of evidence of the significance biological component in the formation of personality. First, almost identical factors have been found in people all over the world - "from Uganda and Nigeria to Japan and mainland China, from the capitalist countries of Western Europe and the Americas to Eastern Bloc states such as Soviet Union, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Bulgaria and Yugoslavia" (Eysenck, 1990a, pp. 245–246). that identical twins show significantly closer characteristics than fraternal twins of the same sex who grew up together, which may serve as confirmation of the determining role of genetic factors in the manifestation of individual differences between different people.

» Personality typology according to Eysenck

Theory personality traits Hans Eysenck (1916-1997).
Structure and personality types. Introversion, extraversion and neuroticism

Hans Eysenck is a British psychologist of German origin. He developed and experimentally investigated the descriptive theory of personality traits, the theory of the conditionality of these traits, and demonstrated the importance of genetic factors in personality development.

Hans Eysenck, 1970s

Also Eysenck:

• created a wide range of research on genetic basis emotionality;
• developed a model of IQ (intelligence quotient), which depends on the speed, errors and duration of an individual's mental actions;
• proposed and tested a two-factor model of the structure of social abilities;
• contributed to the development of clinical psychology in Britain;
• played a significant role in the emergence and development of behavioral therapy;
• founded and published "Journal of Behavioral Research and Therapy".

Defining the structure of the human personality, Eysenck primarily uses the concepts of extraversion and introversion. In the selection of these personality traits, he is already on the beaten path. (Lazursky, Jung, Kretschmer and etc.)

Extroverts manifest themselves in such traits as affectivity (the desire to express emotions externally), cheerfulness, gaiety, satisfaction, humor, sociability, compassion, underdevelopment of self-awareness, high motor activity, low perseverance, restraint threshold, slow capture.

The qualities of an introvert are defined as diametrically opposed. However, in studies of persistence, no correlations were found for extraversion or introversion.

Eysenck also opined that extroverts exhibit the typical hardness as opposed to the softness of introverts. Having rigid attitudes towards others, they tend to use coercion, carry out corporal punishment, sterilization, kill in cases of an incurable disease, and the like.

Introverts, on the other hand, advocate the abolition of the double standard of morality, death penalty, proclaim pacifism, etc.

The tendency to hardness or softness, according to Eysenck, does not depend on age or upbringing. True, he suggests certain correlations with sex, noting that women are softer than men. In the sphere of politics and public life, respectively, such opposites as authoritarianism and democracy appear. However, the comparison of radicalism and conservatism does not fall under the original opposition of extraversion and introversion.

Briefly about Eysenck's theory of personality

Hans Eysenck (1916-1997) - British-German psychologist who studied genetically determined personality traits due to differences in the brain's response to emotional stimuli. He singled out 3 main personal dimensions:

Introversion - extraversion:

The degree to which a person directs their energy inwards or outwards towards others. Introversion refers to directing attention to inner experiences, while extraversion refers to focusing on other people and the environment.

Emotional stability - neuroticism:

A person's predisposition to emotional distress or stability. A neurotic person (unstable type) tends to change emotions quickly, whereas an emotionally stable and stable person tends to maintain a constant mood.

Psychoticism:

A low value means warmth in relationships and a desire to care for others.
- High manifests itself in antisocial, coldness, hostility and indifference to others.

Using the first two dimensions, Eysenck described 4 basic personality types:

Choleric;
- melancholic;
- phlegmatic;
- sanguine.

Trying to find a natural basis for personality typology, Eysenck points to hereditary traits. Thus, the balance of excitation and inhibition has genetic roots and determines the nature of the activity of the cerebral cortex. An extrovert quickly creates inhibition, but is released from it slowly. Introverts have the opposite trait.

Since the cerebral cortex controls consciousness, extroverts inhibit conscious judgment and, compared to introverts, act less consciously about their considerations. Eysenck also noted that extroverts are more spontaneous in their behavior, while introverts are more reserved. Schematically, this is shown as follows:

Introverts: cortical arousal -> behavioral inhibition

Extroverts: cortical inhibition -> behavioral spontaneity

Already at the beginning of Eysenck's presentation of the personality typology, his serious methodological miscalculation becomes clear: he puts biological, physiological, logical, psychological, social, ideological, etc. phenomena on the same plane.

home psychological problem is that an individual cannot be rigidly defined as an introvert or an extrovert. These are just moments of human activity.

Eysenck uses the achievements of the behavioral direction, including Pavlovskoye doctrine and the latest discoveries in physiology at that time, related to the properties of the reticular formation. Therefore, he immediately determines that the center that controls the processes of inhibition and excitation of the cortex is precisely the reticular formation.

The experiment, which investigated the relationship "excitation - inhibition" on the scale "extraversion - introversion", covered 90 subjects. 10% of the most introverted and extroverted were selected. They had to perform an action that required a certain amount of endurance: to knock with a metal stick on a metal tile. A minute after the start of the experiment, the number of subjects who voluntarily remained was as follows: from introverts - 1, from extroverts - 18.

Inhibition, which turned out to be in such experiments, Eysenck called reactive inhibition, borrowing this term from learning theory. K. Galla. This type of inhibition has no conditioned nature and is not associated with a specific stimulus. If the individual was stimulated for a long time, the cortical (reactive) excitation increased. Therefore, extraverts perceived the outlines of the stimulus less sharply than introverts. This leads to certain conclusions, in particular to the establishment of the fact that extroverts experience "stimulus hunger" more acutely than introverts. Extroverts are in constant expectation of food, drink, copulation, smoke more and take risks. Psychopaths, single mothers, and prisoners tend to come from extroverts.

Quite abstractly Eysenck characterizes the opposition "neuroticism - emotional stability". He identifies the phenomenon of emotional stability he interprets with that described by Webb in 1915.

Webb suggested the following factors: perseverance, constancy, kindness, truthfulness, mindfulness. Eysenck significantly supplemented this list, emphasizing the need to take into account gullibility, will, self-control, stability, lack of emotionality.

But here he did not see that freedom can be different: every person has self-control, but of a different nature. Credulity - a moral trait in its content - rises above such an analysis factor as emotional stability, and includes all the methodological shortcomings in relation to the bodily, mental and spiritual, which have already been mentioned. And it is completely incomprehensible how the lack of emotionality determines emotional stability.

Establishing two factorial poles - emotional stability and emotional instability, selecting the characterological and personal features of this opposition, Eysenck again falls into the thrall of his methodology. He associates emotional stability with restraint, objectivity, cooperation, courage, lack of introspection, and emotional instability with nervousness, overcriticality, increased sensitivity, femininity, and a tendency to introspection.

Eysenck associates an additional number of definitions of neurotic with fear, hysteria, low energy, poor work achievements, family disorder, early childhood neuroticism, dissatisfaction early age, non-congenial environment, reactive depression, suicidal tendencies, guilt.

In this, Eysenck sees the innate nature of neuroticism, and looks for its biological roots in autonomous nervous system. Neurotic symptoms are not adaptively conditioned autonomous responses. And clinical neuroses are nothing but manifestations of these responses. Eysenck argues that reconditioning has a healing effect on neurosis.

In the works of 1964-1965, Eysenck, summing up his research, offers four types of personality (which are actually types of temperament), linking them with the oppositions "extrovert - introvert", "neuroticism - emotional stability". Its schema looks like this:

Choleric - extrovert, neurotic.

Melancholic - introvert, neurotic.

Phlegmatic - introvert, emotional instability.

Sanguine - extrovert, emotional stability.

Eysenck expresses behavioral, characterological typology as follows:

Similarly, he proposes a schema-relationship of neuroticism and emotional stability:

At the same time, Eysenck notes that reliability is more characteristic of emotional stability than introversion, aggression is more characteristic of neuroticism than extraversion. However, no individual can be seen as belonging exclusively to one dimension. And here the image of a rope and supports for hanging clothes, which was proposed by Sheldon, would come up.

Considering psychotism, Eysenck confirms the existence of a continuum between the "norm" and extreme psychotism, which was a denial of the "cyclothymia - schizothymia" opposition. He also identifies certain characteristics of psychotism, among which are social remoteness, being a prisoner of illusions, lethargy, suspicion, motor restlessness, hallucinations, perversions, mental and mnemonic hyperactivity, irritability, mania, hysteria, endogenous depression, suicide, guilt. Neuroticism, extraversion and psychotism were found by him among student youth, as well as the working population.

Two popular books by Eysenck on research tests mental capacity came out in 1962 and 1964. It establishes a negative correlation between intelligence and neuroticism. He also notes changes in the correlation between intelligence and extraversion that occur with age. However, finding out the correlation as the main goal of the study can be compared with the case when the artist shows the colors and requires people to see in them the image of a future masterpiece.

Romenets V.A. Manokha I.P. History of psychology of the XX century. - Kyiv, Lybid, 200 3