• Official name: The Republic of Korea
• Population: 48.3 million people (UN data, 2009)
• Capital: Seoul
• Area: 99 313 sq. km
• Main language: Korean
• Main religions: Buddhism, Christianity
• Average life expectancy (male/female): 76 years / 83 years (UN data)
• Currency unit: won
• Main export items: electronics, machine tools, transport equipment
• Average annual per capita income:$21,530 (World Bank data, 2008)
• Internet domain:.kr
• International dialing code:+82

Until recently, one of the strongest features of Korean history has been the tangible influence of Chinese civilization. The surviving written information about the peninsula and its inhabitants, relating to the time before the 5th c. AD, are contained only in early Chinese sources. In them, the lands immediately east of China were called Chaoxian (Korean Joseon, Japanese Chosen, "Land of the Morning Calm"). The word "Korea" became widespread much later and comes from the name of the Koryo dynasty (Chinese Gaoli, Japanese Korai), which ruled the country from the beginning of the 10th to the end of the 14th century. Marco Polo may have been the first to introduce the name to Europeans. However, after more than 500 years, until the end of the 19th century, Korea still remained known to the West as Joseon (or Chosun), and the Japanese in the 20th century. adhered to the former pronunciation of Chosen. Currently, the official name of North Korea contains its former name: Joseon Minjujui Inmin Gongwaguk (Democratic People's Republic of Korea), while South Korea officially called Daehan Minguk (Great Khan Republic). South Koreans usually abbreviate their state as Hanguk.

One of the ancient poetic names of Korea can be translated as "land of high mountains and rivers sparkling in the sun." This is a good definition of an elevated, dissected by a hydrographic network of terrain, alternating with flat areas. Approximately three-quarters of the territory of Korea is occupied by mountains. The most elevated are the northern and eastern regions of Korea. The North Korean mountains are plateaus and plateaus, dissected by mountain ranges. In the north, there is the Changbaeksan basalt plateau (in China it is called Changbeishan) with the highest peak of Korea - the Pektusan volcanic cone (2744 m above sea level, the last volcanic eruption occurred in 1702). The Kema plateau (average heights 1300–1700 m, maximum height 2520 m) is framed by the Nannim ranges (up to 2260 m high) in the west and Mahollen (up to 2430 m) in the east. The highest ranges are Hamgyong (up to 2540 m) and Pujolen (up to 2151 m). The western slopes of the Nannim Range are steep and heavily dissected, while the eastern slopes are more gentle.

The East Korean mountains have a submeridional strike and include the picturesque Geumgangsan (Diamond) mountains, the Taebeksan (up to 1708 m), Gyeongsan (up to 1219 m) and Sobaek (with the top of Jirisan, 1915 m) ridges. The main watershed of the Korean Peninsula between the basins of the Yellow and Japan Seas runs along the East Korean Mountains. The northernmost mountains are relatively low, with jagged ridges, and are characterized by various forms of weathering. The eastern ridges of the Geumgangsan Mountains (the so-called Sea Geumgangsan), with steep slopes facing the sea, are cut by canyons and abound with waterfalls. The Daebeksan Mountains consist of a series of relatively short ranges that strike northeast to southwest. Between the ridges of Gyeongsan and Sobaek there is a vast basin of the Nakdong River with a highly dissected relief.

About one quarter of the territory of Korea falls on the lowlands, which are confined mainly to the western half of the Korean Peninsula itself, the valleys major rivers(Chongcheongan, Taetongan, Hangang, Geumgang, Yongsangan, Nakdong) and a narrow coastal strip in the east and south of the country.

Korea is rich in minerals, which are unevenly distributed. Most of them are concentrated in North Korea. The explored coal reserves in North Korea are estimated at 6.6 billion tons, in South Korea - 1.7 billion tons. The reserves are represented by anthracite (Pyongyang basin, the middle course of the Taedongan river, the East Korean mountains - the DPRK, the Samcheok - Jeongson basin - RK) and brown coal (Tumangan and Anju basins - DPRK). Large deposits of iron ore Musan and Ylyul are located in the northeast and west of the DPRK and Yangyang - in the northeast of the Republic of Kazakhstan. Iron ore deposits are usually shallow and are mined in an open pit. The iron content in the ore is estimated at 40–65%. From the ore deposits stand out polymetallic with a high content of lead and zinc (Komdok, Kandong - North Korea; Ponghwa, Suwon - RK), copper ore (Kapsan - in the north of the DPRK; Koson, Jinhyo - RK), manganese ores (Gimhwa - DPRK; Ponghwa - RK ), chromium ores (Pureong - DPRK), nickel ores (Najin - DPRK, Namwon, Cheongju - RK), cobalt ores (Tancheon - DPRK), tungsten ores (Mannyeon - DPRK; Yongwol - RK), molybdenum ores (Kosan, Geumgang - DPRK; Changsu, Ulsan, Pohang - RK). Of the metallic minerals, gold deposits are also being developed (Unsan, Suan - the DPRK; Cheongju, Chongyang - RK) and silver deposits in South Korea. On the Korean Peninsula there are the world's largest graphite deposits (Obok - North Korea, Anson - RK), significant magnesite deposits (Tancheon and others - North Korea). Deposits of barium are being developed in the DPRK, kaolin, talc, limestone in South Korea. Monazite and thorium, which are used in nuclear energy and the military industry, were also found there.

Climate Korea is temperate, monsoonal, in the south - subtropical. In winter the weather is cold and dry, in summer it is hot and rainy. Significant interregional differences are observed, determined by the latitude of the area, absolute height and distance from the sea. The interior northern regions are characterized by severe frosts (average January temperatures down to -25°C, and minimum temperatures down to -41°C) and negative average monthly temperatures for five months of the year. On the plains and in the low mountains in the northwest, summers are hot (average August temperatures are above 23°C), winters are severe (average January temperatures are down to –17.5°C). On the northeastern coast, the climate is temperate, with warm summers (August average temperatures around 20°C) and mild winters (January average temperatures of -5°C). The extreme south of the country, including Jeju Island, is characterized by positive January temperatures and abundant summer precipitation, often showers, with thunderstorms. In autumn, typhoons often pass with heavy rains and heavy winds.

In the main part of the Korean Peninsula, the average temperatures of the warmest month are slightly higher than 25 ° C, the air often warms up to 27–32 ° C. The annual precipitation is from 600 to 1700 mm, with most of it falling on the east coast and in the south. The period of summer monsoon rains accounts for up to 500–700 mm of precipitation (with a maximum in June). In general, agro-climatic conditions are favorable for rice cultivation and intensive farming. Spring precipitation contributes to the successful planting of seedlings, and dry autumn weather - to the rice harvest. Winters are mild despite freezing temperatures. Snow cover reliably protects crops of winter barley, which is grown on upland lands, from frost.

Water resources. On the territory of Korea, predominantly mountain rivers flow, which are fed by snow and rain and are most full-flowing in the summer season. The Amnokan (Chinese: Yalujiang) River, which forms a deeply incised river valley, serves as the northwestern border of the country, and Tumangan (Chinese: Tumynjiang) serves as the northeastern border. The sources of both rivers are located on the slopes of the Macheollen mountain range, where the highest point of all of Korea, Mount Paektusan (2744 m), is recorded. The longest rivers of the Korea Peninsula proper originate in the high Taebaek Dividing Mountains that run along the east coast and flow westward. The Taedongan River cuts through the city blocks of Pyongyang, and Seoul is located on the banks of the Hangan River, the most important in the central part of the peninsula. The Kymgan River, with its source within the Sobe Range, drains the southwestern part of the peninsula and flows into the Yellow Sea. The Naktong River in the southeast of the country flows into the Korea Bay. At its mouth is the leading South Korean port of Busan. The remaining rivers, short and rapids, drain a narrow strip of coastal lowlands in the east of the peninsula. Major Korean rivers are navigable for a considerable length. In general, Korea is rich in hydropower resources, but river flow is unevenly distributed over the seasons. The rivers are at their fullest during the summer monsoon.

Vegetable world. Climatic differences have led to the diversity of the vegetation cover of Korea. Flora has approx. 4 thousand species, and approx. 400 endemic. In the past, most of the territory of Korea was occupied by forests, which were cut down in the 20th century. Currently, forests have been preserved mainly in the mountains. In the lower belt of the North Korean mountains, broad-leaved forests are widespread, dominated by several species of maple and linden, ash, and chosenia. Below 1100 m, oak forests grow with the participation of hornbeam, velvet tree, Manchurian walnut and other broad-leaved species, as well as forests of red pine. Higher up, they are replaced by mixed forests with a predominance of conifers and an admixture of birch, maple, linden, and then they pass into coniferous forests of spruce, fir, and larch. On steeper slopes, Korean pine grows in places, which has valuable commercial timber. In the vicinity of Mount Paektu, pure larch forests are common. The upper border of the forest runs at a height of approx. 2000 m. Above is the subalpine belt, characterized by shrub and shrub communities with the participation of rhododendron, elfin cedar and berry shrubs, giving way to alpine meadows.

Less forests have been preserved in Central and South Korea. The broad-leaved forests of the East Korean mountains differ from the North Korean ones in a greater species diversity of oak, linden, maple, ash, elm, and hornbeam. Acacia, Manchurian walnut, and velvet tree also grow here. Tree trunks are braided with vines - lemongrass, wild grapes, etc. Ginseng is widespread in the ground layer. Pine forests are also confined to the lower mountain belt. In the south of the Korean Peninsula, in broad-leaved forests at altitudes up to 300–400 m, evergreen tree species (Japanese camellia, oaks, benzoin, etc.) are found, and higher up, summer-green broad-leaved forests with different types of hornbeam, chestnut, and other species are common. Red pine forests grow in the mountains up to a height of 1500 m. In the valleys there are thickets of bamboo with shoots up to 10 m high.

Animal world. The fauna of the Korean Peninsula includes approximately 100 species of mammals, more than 400 species of birds, 27 species of reptiles, and 15 species of amphibians. More than 500 species of fish live in inland and coastal waters. In hard-to-reach forest areas, among large mammals, there are tiger, leopard, lynx, Ussuri and white-breasted bears. The fox, Siberian weasel, and otter are more widespread. The forests are characterized by wild boars, gorals, roe deer, squirrels, as well as spotted deer and red deer. The bird fauna of the coastal zone and rice fields is especially rich. There are many in Korea different types passerines, yellow-billed and other herons, Daurian cranes, etc., storks, geese, ducks, including mandarin ducks, waders, gulls, cormorants, auks, guillemots, guillemots. Of the birds of prey, there are the Kamchatka eagle, of the chicken - pheasants, black grouse, hazel grouse. The coastal waters of Korea are rich in fish resources.

In order to preserve wild flora and fauna on the territory of the DPRK and the RK, National parks, reserves and monuments of nature. The most favorable conditions for the habitat of animals have developed in the demilitarized zone along 38°N.

POPULATION

photos of Seoul

According to estimates for 1998, of the 69.3 million inhabitants of Korea, 34% live in the DPRK, and 66% of the population in the ROK. The average population density of Korea as a whole is 311, the DPRK - 192 and the Republic of Kazakhstan - 468 people per 1 sq. km. km. Thus, South Korea is one of the most densely populated countries in the world. In 1910 Korea had only 13 million inhabitants. Due to the high birth rate, the population increased to 24 million by 1940 and, despite the loss of life and forced displacement during World War II and hostilities during the Korean War (1950–1953), reached 35 million by 1960.

According to the 1997 census, the population of the Republic of Kazakhstan was 45,991 thousand people. The birth rate, which had reached 45 per 1,000 in the late 1950s, dropped to 15 per 1,000 by 1999. During the same period, the death rate in South Korea, thanks to advances in health care, decreased and in 1999 was 6 per 1,000. annual demographic growth gradually decreased and by 1998 reached 9‰. Due to the rather high birth rate, the proportion of children and young people in the age pyramid is large.

The population is distributed unevenly within the country. Since only a quarter of the territory of the Republic of Kazakhstan is suitable for cultivation, the rural population is concentrated in four rice-producing provinces located in the west, southwest and southeast. Approximately 75% of the population lives in cities, with more than half of them in Seoul and Busan.

Confessional composition. Most South Koreans adhere to Buddhist or Confucian canons, and often both at the same time, especially at such important events as weddings, funerals, and ancestor worship. Shamanism, especially the exorcism of evil spirits, is also among the religious cults of a certain part of the population, primarily the village. In 1991, South Korea had approx. 8.3 million Protestants and approx. 2.5 million Catholics. In 1993, approximately 240 "new religions" were spread in the Republic of Korea. A special place in the system of religious beliefs is occupied by Cheondogyo (“Teaching of the Heavenly Way”), the roots of which go back to the Donghak (“Eastern Teaching”) religion, created in 1862 by the religious reformer Choi Jeu. In 1905, Donghak was renamed Cheondogyo. Donghak-Cheongdogyo played a huge role in the national liberation struggle of the Korean people against Japanese colonial rule. The teachings of Cheondogyo contain elements of Buddhism, Confucianism, Taoism and Christianity. In the bosom of Protestantism, a new religious trend, Moonism, was formed, whose leader Sun Myung Moon (or Sun Myung Moon) created in the mid-1950s the “Association of the Holy Spirit for the Unification of Christianity”, known as the “Unification Church” and actively operating in many countries of the world.

THREE-TIER STONE PAGODA dates back to ancient state Silla (668-892), the heyday of Buddhism and art in Korea.

BUDDHISH TEMPLE IN KOREA

In 1995, Seoul had 10.8 million inhabitants, which accounted for over 24% of the total population of South Korea. In addition to the capital, five more cities are “millionaires”: Busan (3.8 million), Daegu (2.3 million), Incheon (Jemulpo, 2.8 million), Gwangju and Daejeon (1.2 million each). . people), and the population of another 30 cities exceeded 100 thousand. Among them are Ulsan (967 thousand), Suwon (755 thousand), Seongnam (869 thousand) and Cheongju (563 thousand people).

Busan on the southeast coast as well as Incheon ( sea ​​gate Seoul), Gunsan and Mokpo on the west coast are among the main South Korean ports. Daegu (Gyeongsangbuk-do), Daejeon (Chungcheongnam-do), Jeonju (Jeolla-buk-do) and Gwangju (Jeolla-namdo) are the administrative centers of the provinces. Onyang, south of Seoul, has become a popular hot spring resort, while Hyoamdong, north of Busan, is famous for its healing waters and sandy beaches. Gyeongju in the province of Gyeongsangbuk-do, the capital of the medieval kingdom of Silla, is known for its historical monuments.

GOVERNMENT

Modern Seoul

proclaimed August 15, 1948, is a parliamentary republic. During the existence of the South Korean state, six constitutions have been replaced (1948, 1960, 1962, 1972, 1980 and 1988).

In accordance with the provisions of the 1948 constitution, a strong executive power was created in the country, headed by a president who was elected for a four-year term by the National Assembly, and since 1952 by popular vote. The highest government post from 1948 to 1960 was held by Lee Syngman. In 1960, a parliamentary system of government was established in South Korea, under which the executive bodies were subordinate to the prime minister, who was responsible to the National Assembly. In 1961, the military came to the leadership of the country, led by Pak Chong-hee, and the post of president was restored. Park Chunghee won the elections of 1963, 1967, 1971, 1972 and 1978. Under the 1972 constitution, presidential powers were expanded. After the assassination of Park Chung Hee in 1979, the country was temporarily under a state of emergency.

The 1980 constitution provided for the election of the president by a special collegium. The unicameral parliament (National Assembly) with legislative functions was to operate for four years.

In 1987, the government drafted the sixth draft constitution. According to the new constitution, under the president, who has the right to hold office for one five-year term, and with his participation, a State Council. It consists of members of the government headed by the prime minister (appointed by the president with the consent of parliamentarians) and the National Assembly, whose deputies are directly elected for a four-year period. Elections are held according to the system of majority and proportional representation.

Judiciary. Under the 1988 constitution, the highest court is the Supreme Court, which consists of a chairman and 13 members appointed for a six-year term by the President of the Republic of South Korea. The Supreme Court receives appeals against decisions in civil and criminal cases from the country's four appellate courts (in Seoul, Daegu, Busan and Gwangju). The judicial system is based on a network of local courts and on the Family Court (located in Seoul).

Local government system. The Republic of Korea is divided into 9 administrative provinces. The capital Seoul has the status of a province, and Busan, Daegu, Incheon, Daejeon and Gwangju are cities of direct subordination. All of them are governed by elected governors and executive councils, while the districts and the bulk of the cities subordinate to the provincial authorities are headed by elected mayors and councils.

Armed forces equipped mainly with American military equipment, include ground forces of approx. 650 thousand people, air force, coast guard ships and a small formation of marines. In addition, there are over 4 million reservists. A group of military advisers from the United States is constantly present in the country and American air bases are located.

Foreign policy The Republic of Korea is based on maintaining close ties with the US. According to the 1963 treaty, the United States guarantees its protection against external aggression. Relations with Japan normalized in 1965.

In 1991, the Republic of Korea became a member of the UN.

One of the cities in South Korea

ECONOMY

The South Korean economy is based on the principles of private enterprise. The state owns railways and communications, and to a large extent energy, coal mining, and ferrous metallurgy. Joint ventures created with the participation of the state and foreign capital are engaged in the production of mineral fertilizers and petroleum products. The state also owned most of the banks until they were massively privatized in the 1980s.

In the 1960s and 1970s, subsidies and various benefits were provided to businessmen in accordance with the goals of the five-year plans, which provided for the stimulation of export industries. The authorities worked closely with major exporters on decisions about new investments, sources of financing, export quotas and prices. A huge role in the economy of South Korea is played by national financial and industrial groups (chaebol). Many of them today are among the largest companies in the world - Samsung, Hyundai, Daewoo, LG.

national product. In 1997, South Korea's gross domestic product (GDP) was over $10,000 per capita. For a number of years, the country's economy developed at an exceptionally fast pace (GDP growth often exceeded 10% per year).

Agriculture, fishing and forestry gradually lose their former importance: their share in GDP decreased from 45% in 1963 to 8% in 1991. On the contrary, the same indicator for the mining and manufacturing industries rose during this time from 12 to 28%.

The share of investment in relation to total output increased from about 15% in the early 1960s to almost 40% in the early 1990s, as a result of the growth of domestic savings and a significant inflow of financial resources from abroad. In the 1950s and 1960s, foreign aid, predominantly from the United States, served as the main factor in South Korea's capital formation, but with the rapid expansion of exports, domestic sources of accumulation began to predominate. By the end of the 1990s, external debt increased, which threatened to exceed the size of exports and became one of the factors of the economic crisis in December 1997. Financial injections from the International Monetary Fund were able to improve the situation.

Employment. In 1991 agriculture 16% of the economically active population, whose number in the country was 19 million people, was concentrated in fishing and forestry, and 26% in the mining and manufacturing industries. Unemployment and underemployment remained a serious problem until the mid-1960s, but industrialization and the development of the service sector led to a decrease in unemployment from about 4.5% in the 1970s to 3.5% in the 1980s and 2.5% in the middle 1990s.

mining industry. The largest and most economically significant coal reserves. Mines are located mainly in the northeast (Prov. Gangwon-do), as well as on the west coast. Anthracite mining is gradually expanding, although the country's energy sector is increasingly oriented towards imported oil. Almost all production is spent within the country; brown coal deposits are not exploited.

Iron ore deposits are being developed in the Republic of Kazakhstan, located mainly in the north-eastern and south-eastern regions. The country is a major producer of tungsten. Copper, gold and silver are also mined. Zinc and lead concentrates are produced from polymetallic ores. Among other types of minerals, limestone, graphite, talc and kaolin clay are important, used in the manufacture of porcelain products.

Energy. Until 1945, the energy needs in the south of the Korean Peninsula were met by hydropower plants located in the north. After the division of Korea in the southern regions, difficulties arose in the supply of electricity, which were overcome thanks to the construction of thermal power plants operating on anthracite coals, and since the early 1970s also on oil. The industry's capacities increased from 770,000 kW in 1966 to 31.6 million kW in 1995. The first nuclear power plant went into operation in 1977, and a decade later, nuclear energy took a leading position in the country's energy supply. In the 1990s, electricity production was concentrated almost 50% in nine nuclear power plants and about 45% in thermal plants; 5% accounted for HPPs.

Manufacturing industry. Prior to the partition of Korea, manufacturing in the South was limited to light industries, which had declined after severing ties with North Korea and Japan. Some improvement in the situation came by 1949, but then fighting during the Korean War led to the widespread destruction of industrial facilities. In the future, old enterprises were restored, new ones were built, but the food, cotton, rubber and leather industries, which produced consumer goods, still dominated.

By 1960, the growth of industrial production had practically ceased due to the reduction foreign aid, which was largely used to import raw materials, and due to the saturation of the domestic market with consumer goods. Therefore, the government decided to look for additional markets for products of the South Korean industry, vigorously encouraging similar activity of domestic entrepreneurs. From the early 1960s, the country embarked on a growth strategy focused on export industries. Initially, the main export items were fabrics, clothing, shoes, wigs, plywood, then electrical equipment, microelectronics, ferrous metallurgy products, cars, and ships came to the fore.

In the 1960s and early 1970s, the output of manufactured goods expanded rapidly. New industries have emerged in the country focused on the export of semi-finished products: steel products, synthetic fibers, and plastics. In the early 1970s, the government came to the conclusion that the need to expand the production of export goods required the construction of large oil refineries and steel plants.

This decision, which coincided with a surge in world prices for liquid fuels, led to a slowdown in South Korea's economic development in the second half of the 1970s. In order to occupy the capacities of metallurgical enterprises, the state had to encourage the creation of such metal-intensive industries as shipbuilding and the automotive industry. The increased price of "intermediate" products adversely affected the international positions of South Korean industrial goods, reducing income from their sale abroad. The recession in the world economy at the end of the decade exacerbated the difficulties and led to a decline in the national industry for the first time in 20 years. Growth resumed only in the 1980s, when there was again an increase in purchases of industrial products in the domestic and foreign markets.

Transport. The railways built under the Japanese were supplemented with new lines at the end of the hostilities of 1950-1953. In the 1960s, a railway modernization program was adopted. In the mid-1990s, the length of railways in South Korea was 6520 km. A modern subway has been built in large cities: 8 lines operate in Seoul, and one line in Busan.

Until the early 1960s, the network of paved and dirt roads was in poor condition. In the 1960s and 1970s, motor roads were reconstructed, in 1996 their length reached 83 thousand km, of which approx. 1900 km are freeways. The Seoul-Busan expressway was the first to be introduced in 1970; the same freeways subsequently connected the capital with the eastern and southern coasts of the country. Initially, the fleet consisted mainly of military trucks and jeeps converted for civilian needs. The fleet of cars, trucks and buses increased from 39.5 thousand in 1965 to 10 million units in 1998.

The South Korean merchant fleet has grown significantly thanks to the construction of giant shipyards in Ulsan and Geoje and reached a displacement of 11,985 thousand gross register tons in 1997. Among the ships, 474 have a displacement of more than 1000 tons and 273 are smaller. The merchant fleet includes 72 oil supertankers, 70 container ships, 28 chemical tankers, 22 refrigerated ships, 131 large ships for the delivery of other cargoes and many types of other vessels of various capacities.

In the 1960s-1990s, the volume of air transportation of passengers and cargo increased rapidly. Korean Airlines (KAL) operates direct flights from Seoul to Southeast Asia, Japan, the USA, Europe and the Middle East. The airlines Seoul - Moscow, Seoul - Khabarovsk were opened. Asiana Air, founded in the mid-1980s, competes with KAL on domestic routes, which also serves foreign routes, primarily within Asia.

Port in Busan

International trade. The development of "export" industries, which began in the 1960s, contributed to the overall economic recovery of South Korea. Export earnings reached 129 billion dollars in 1996 (in 1966 - 250 million dollars), although at the same time there was a need for additional imports of raw materials and semi-finished products. Imports of foodstuffs, crude oil and heavy engineering products increased. The expansion of imports was dictated by the growth of capital investments and the volume of industrial production. Purchases abroad of chemical industry products and finished products have become more massive, but their relative value in South Korean imports was declining, since the country itself was rapidly establishing the production of mineral fertilizers and consumer goods. In 1993, imports amounted to 83.8 billion dollars, of which 18% accounted for fuel, 34% for machinery and transport equipment. Foreign deliveries of manufactured goods, primarily clothing, footwear, components for electronic equipment, cast iron, cars and motorcycles, brought South Korea $63.3 billion, or 88% of all export earnings. In 1996, imports increased to $150 billion, which was combined with an increase in the country's external financial debt to about $154 billion in 1998 (in 1992 - $43 billion).

South Korea's main partners are Japan and the United States. Until the mid-1960s, the United States was the leading importer, and Japan was the main market for commodities such as minerals and fishery products. With the expansion of South Korean exports of approx. 50% of it went to the US, and about 40% of its imports originated in Japan. In the 1970s, the US share of both imports and exports dropped to 1/4, while Japan accounted for 1/4 of imports and 1/6 of exports. Korea's important trading partners in the early 1990s included countries in Southeast Asia, the Middle East and Europe, as well as Russia.

SOCIETY

Traditionally, Korean society was divided into four main classes. The yangbans (nobles), who formed the ruling stratum, occupied all key positions in the state. Chunin - "middle class", belonged to the minor aristocracy and had hereditary rights to high clerical and administrative positions in the central administrative apparatus and the rights to leading positions in the field. The next group was formed by sanmin - "common people", who made up the bulk of the population: peasants, fishermen, artisans, merchants, lower-ranking officials and other small employees. At the last rung of the social ladder were the chongmins (the class of "mean people"): slaves belonging to the state and feudal lords, kisaengs (professional actresses), butchers, weavers. The legal foundations for such a division were abolished in 1894, but the relations based on it persisted for a long time. During the period of Japanese colonial rule, the traditional social structure of Korean society actually ceased to exist.

Quiet rural Korean street

In more recent times, the elite in almost every sphere of Korean life consisted mainly of the descendants of yangbans (nobles). Marriages, as a rule, are class-based. Spouses are usually selected from the same social group. At present, men of low birth, who have achieved a high official position or wealth, aspire and can intermarry through their children with families of more noble origin.

Each member of the elite, regardless of where he happened to be born, is associated with a certain clan, which has long associated itself with a particular geographical area (the so-called pon system). An important element of social life is meetings, contacts, mutual assistance along school, clan and family lines.

Traditionally in Korea, a woman occupied a subordinate position. In her youth, she implicitly obeyed her parents, then her husband, and after his death, her sons.

Under the 1948 constitution, women in South Korea were given equal rights with men. Since the 1960s, the proportion of women in socially useful work, in industry, has increased, and the number of women who have received higher education has increased. All this contributed to the growth of their social identity. In the 1980s, government organizations were created in South Korea to address issues related to the status of women. However, at the everyday level, traditional Confucian ideas about the position of women in the family and society are still strong.

Education. In the early 1990s, in primary school there were more than 5.3 million students in schools, and 4.6 million in senior schools. Primary education is compulsory, free of charge and is under state control. Parents bear significant expenses, supplementing the insufficient budgetary allocations in the field of education, because subsequently education is conducted on a paid basis. Most graduates primary school goes to junior high school. Only 70% of its graduates continue their education for three years in a complete secondary school. Less than 40% of the contingent of both levels of secondary school are girls who study separately from boys. The secondary school focuses on the humanities, while technical and vocational training takes place predominantly in small private institutions.

In the country in 1998, approx. 560 colleges and universities, including part-time (two-year) colleges, teacher training colleges and graduate school. They taught approx. 1.5 million students. Among the largest universities are Seoul State University, Busan (in Busan), Chungnam (in Daejeon), Gyeongbuk (in Daegu), Jeonbuk (in Jeonju), Jeonnam (in Gwangju), Andong and Gangwon (in Chuncheon). Among the private universities, Korea, Chunan, Dongguk, Hanyang, Konguk, Myeongji, Sejong, Seogang, Sungkyunkwan and Yonsei (all in Seoul), Joseon (in Gwangju), Tona (in Busan) and Keimyeon (in Daegu) stand out.

Bridge in Sokcho

The science. The Academy of Sciences of the Republic of Kazakhstan was established in 1954. At first it consisted of 80 members and had two departments: humanitarian and natural-technical. Then the National Academy was formed natural sciences and National Academy humanities. Privately (including with the participation of American foundations), the Scientific historical society"Chindan", which is a leading organization dedicated to the study of the history and culture of Korea. One of the urgent tasks is the development of librarianship. In South Korea in 1992, the book stock of the National, Public and University Libraries totaled 25 million items. Almost half of them are classical Chinese works on history, literature, social thought and other humanities and works in Japanese and Western European languages. The National Library holds 1.8 million printed publications. Seoul State University has a library fund of 1.3 million volumes.

Press, television, radio, cinema. More than 70 daily newspapers are published in the Republic of Korea (about half in Seoul). The most influential newspapers are Tona Ilbo, Joseon Ilbo, Hanguk Ilbo, and Gyeonghyang Sinmun (the first two were founded in 1920) in Korean, and Koria Herald and Corea Times in Korean. English language. The country has news agencies Renhap (founded in 1980) and Nevu-Press.

In the mid-1990s, Korea was dominated by the state-owned "Korea Broadcasting System" with three main radio stations and 26 local affiliates. In addition, there are 29 private radio stations. In 1992, 43 television channels were registered in the country (24 state and 19 commercial). Almost every family has a TV (more than 8 million in total). Round-the-clock radio and television broadcasts for its military contingent are conducted by a special service of the American armed forces in South Korea.

Cinematography in South Korea began to develop especially intensively after 1945. In the 1950s, the government freed domestic cinematography from the tax burden. This contributed to the annual release of up to 100 films in the late 1950s and ca. 200 - in the 1960s. There are currently approximately 100 Korean films released annually. Many of them have won recognition at international film festivals.

Lifestyle. A typical village house, consisting of two to four rooms, has adobe or sifted earth walls and a thatched or tiled roof. Translucent paper is still often inserted into small windows instead of glass. Outbuildings are located on the plot. The source of water supply is an individual or public well. Most village dwellings are not electrified. Houses of middle-class citizens and wealthy villagers are increasingly being built on stone foundations; it is customary to apply a pattern on plastered walls with red or blue paint. The windows are glazed and sometimes decorated with elegant wooden bars; roofs are tiled. As a rule, there is no running water in the dwelling itself, and a drain is arranged in the yard to drain the used water. The traditional heating system - ondol ("warm floor") is preserved. Pipes are laid under the floor of the living rooms, through which warm air circulates from the hearth in the kitchen. In the southern regions, portable braziers are widely used; an open hearth is common on Jeju Island.

The basis of the Korean meal is steamed rice without salt. In Korean, the word "dad", i.e. boiled rice, also means "food" or "meal". Typically, rice is consumed along with various spicy seasonings (from soy) and additional dishes (panchan), of which kimchi is especially important - a salad of salted and pickled vegetables, primarily from white radish (mu) and Chinese cabbage (baechu). Seaweed soups with meat or fish are widespread. Spices are usually added to Korean dishes, especially pepper and salt. Pork and beef are common in the diet of the local population, chicken is considered a delicacy.

After a three-year war that ended in 1953, South Korea was rebuilt hastily and did not involve the slightest architectural frills in the construction. Now, the Han River area, known as the Dream Center, covering about 140 acres, will be built with all the latest architectural trends and will be conducive to business and cooperation with Western countries. The Samsung Corporation, the main investor of the project, represented by Vice President Gyeongtaek Lee, has no doubts about the viability of the project. “The project is one of the cost items with a low risk factor of investment irreversibility. We plan to create a global business center starting with a mixed-use skyscraper and 12 commercial buildings.” Estimated date of completion of construction - 2011.

Kontsevich L. R.

In memory of a teacher and a friend Viktor Antonovich Hwang Yundyun

In various historical periods in Korea and beyond, there were the most diverse and curious names of the country, which reflected complex, often far from clear ethnogenetic processes, and the turbulent history of the Korean Peninsula, and certain aspects of the life of the tribes living here (their worldview, customs, crafts, etc.).

Not all names of Korea - and there are more than a hundred of them [Kwon Sanno, 405] - are comparable with each other. They differ in time, in content, in structure, in the nature of use and stylistic motivation, in the ratio of general and particular (contamination of the names of individual tribes - individual state formations – the peninsula as a whole - or the transfer of the names of individual geographical objects, such as seas, rivers, etc., to the country).

It is naturally impossible to characterize the whole mass of Korean names in three dimensions - linguistic, geographical and historical within the framework of one article. If the official names of the states that have historically changed on the Korean Peninsula are commonly used, then the figurative and metaphorical names of the country turn out to be mostly occasional, and often individual. Let's consider the first group of names in more detail.

First of all, it should be noted that any proper Korean names of the country, written in the phonetic alphabet (invented in the middle of the 15th century) and differing from the recorded Chinese characters, has not been preserved. A modern researcher deals only with the hieroglyphic form of names, which can convey: 1) their semantics (when the source uses the real value of the hieroglyphs that make up the name); 2) their Chinese or Korean reading (if the name is written in fanze*), hiding the words of the languages ​​of ancient Korean and other tribes; 3) them

1 Fanze(QED), or “dissection method”, is the transmission of the sound of a hieroglyph through two other hieroglyphs, of which the first indicates initial sound(initial), the second - the ending of the syllable, rhyme.

proper Korean correspondence, i.e. translation into ancient and middle Korean(if the name is transferred by means I go 2). It can be very difficult to determine in which of these ways one's own name is recorded. It is here that the stumbling block of all disputes about this or that object of Korean onomastics.

It is almost impossible to distinguish between the Chinese names of Korea and the Korean self-names of the country in their hieroglyphic rendering, also because in the past, Koreans, having adopted the Chinese names of their country, often used them as their own.

The connection between toponymy and ethnonymy is inseparable. A number of names of ancient states on the Korean peninsula date back to more ancient names of tribes and tribal unions. However, to say something more or less definite about the ethnonyms of Korea, as well as about most of the names of non-Chinese peoples who settled in the “four outskirts” of the Middle State and have been known since the Zhou era (end of the 2nd millennium - 3rd century BC) in as group associations i, di, jong And man, hardly anyone is able to because of the lack of information in the surviving sources (moreover, later sources, as a rule, repeat the data of earlier works) and because of the contradictory nature, and sometimes falsification of historical and geographical descriptions and records of their own names. Therefore, all existing etymologies of Korean onomastic vocabulary based on Chinese written monuments are largely hypothetical.

The illusory nature of some etymologies of ethnonyms and ancient names of the country is aggravated by the fact that when they are disclosed, they usually proceed from modern Chinese and Koreanized readings and meanings of hieroglyphs alone. Such an approach cannot be considered scientific. Historicism in the study of ethnonyms, as well as toponyms, must be observed with particular care. But nevertheless, at the current level of development of Korean onomastics, one has to confine oneself to a set of proposed etymologies with a corresponding critical analysis of them 3 .

Now the most common names for the country located on the Korean Peninsula and its adjacent islands are the following: Korea, Chosbn And Hanguk. These three names go back to ancient ethnonyms transferred to early state formations or the names of dynasties.

Since ancient times, numerous non-Han tribes have lived on the Korean Peninsula and in Northeast China, some of which disappeared without a trace, while others gave their names to the tribal states founded by them. The Joseon tribes belonged to the relatively advanced tribes.

Name SHSH modern box Chosbn, modern whale. Chaoxian first mentioned in Chinese written sources of the 5th-3rd centuries. BC. ("Guan zi", juan 23;

I'm going- the general name for the ways of writing Korean words and grammatical formants in Chinese characters starting from the 5th-6th centuries.

3 In the numerous works published after the publication of this article on the reconstruction of the Old Korean language and its connections with the Altaic family of languages, of course, material on native Korean onomastics was used, but the main array of toponyms has not yet been subjected to a comprehensive comparative historical study.

"Shan hai jing", juan 12 and 18, etc.). But more or less reliable information about him is contained in the early Chinese dynastic histories, and above all in "Shi chi" Sima Qian (I century BC). The Narrative of Chaoxian, included in this work, formed the basis of sections about Korea in all subsequent historical chronicles [for an analysis of these sources, see, for example: Li Jirin, 11-44; Vorobyov, 36, 59-60; Kontsevich, 56-58, 60-61]. In the first Korean historical writings - "Samguk Sagi" Kim Busika (XII century), "Samguk Yusa" Iryon (XIII century) and "Th- van ungy" Lee Seung-hyu (XIV century) material about Joseon, which is borrowed from Chinese sources and old Korean chronicles that have not survived to this day, is abundantly mixed with myths about the founding of the state. Fragmentation, inconsistency, and sometimes even distortion of the facts about Joseon contained in these sources caused various interpretations of the name itself, as well as discussions about the time and location of Ancient Joseon, its social structure ["Collection of discussion articles ..."; "History of Korea", 9-10, 45-49; Ryu Hakku]. So far, it is difficult to come to any unambiguous solution to this issue. Therefore, our statements should be regarded as purely preliminary.

From the sources and the vast commentary literature, only one thing is clear that the name Joseon existed until the end of the second century. BC. as the name of a tribe (or a tribal state?), Which in different historical periods occupied a larger or smaller territory east of the river. Liaohe on Liaodong, covering the northwestern part of the Korean Peninsula. In 108 BC The Han emperor U-di overthrew the Joseon ruler Hugo and established four Han districts on the occupied lands of the Joseon and other tribes of this region. In the submission of one of them - Lolan (was abolished in 313) was the Chaoxian county, which, as it were, acted as a silent witness to the recent past [“Munkhon pigo”, 364; Vorobyov, 81].

Disappeared at the beginning of the 1st century. BC. title Joseon resurrected at the end of the 14th century. simultaneously as the name of the ruling dynasty and as the name of the country (i.e., already common to the entire peninsula). Only in 1897 was it replaced by taehan(see below). Now ancient name Joseon included in the name of the state 3 b .- Q 41^^-SCH 9141 “5”5}-^ Joseon minjuju inmin conghwaguk"Democratic People's Republic of Korea" and is also used to refer to the entire Korean Peninsula in North Korean. Toponym Joseon from the middle of the 19th century entered the Russian and Western European languages ​​in a literal translation "Country of morning freshness (coolness, tranquility, etc.)". Such a translation sounds poetic, but has nothing to do with the existing etymol fires.

It remains unclear whether the name Joseon given to the ancient non-Korean tribes by the Chinese, or so the natives themselves called themselves and their country. Regarding the origin of the name Joseon there are various hypotheses. Some of them are listed in the reference and historical-geographical literature [see, for example: “Picturesque Review…”, vol. 3, 422; Shunhong pigo", v. 1, 357; "Big Korean encyclopedic Dictionary", v. 5, 546; Kwon Sanno, 258-259; Lee Jirin, 32-44; "Introduction to the study of ancient Korean historical geography", 10-17; Kwon Deokkyu, 14-15]. Hypotheses

differ from each other both in time and in sources (Chinese or Korean). Familiarization with them will undoubtedly be useful for further searches for what is hidden behind the name. Chosbn.

1. One of the oldest versions is the hydronymic origin of the ethnonym joseon. Wei commentator "Shi chi" Zhang Yan (3rd century) believed that the source for the name Joseon. the names of the rivers served: “Chaoxian has three rivers: ( box Sipsu), Lyeshui ( box Yolsu) And Xianshui(kor. Sonsu). The rivers join to form Lyeshui. As if Lelan and Chaoxian borrowed names from here" ["Collection of information about the peoples who lived in various
historical epochs”, vol. 1, 90; Russian Transl.: Kyuner, 1961, 331]. Tang commentator "Shi chi" Sima Zhen (7th century) saw the origins of the name Joseon in two hydronyms Chao [shui] And Xian [shui][“Collection of information ...”, vol. 1, 90-91].

In our time, this hypothesis was developed by the North Korean historian Li Jirin [Li Jirin, 35-39], to whom it seemed the most appropriate. historical facts. Although he did not find such rivers in the area of ​​​​the alleged settlement of the Chosbn, nevertheless, in his book, evidence is provided, according to which the r. Yolsu is an abbreviated name for R. Muribles(Y^UtK-, identified with the modern Lanhe River), r. Sipsu- short for r. Seubyosu ( where the first character was close in sound to the first character in spelling Joseon), R. Sonsu- short for r. Yongsdnsu. This hypothesis cannot be considered completely convincing due to insufficiently reliable linguistic argumentation, but on the whole it deserves attention.

2. In "Dongguk Yoji Seungnam"(1st half of the 16th century) it was suggested that the country is called Joseon because it is located on “the land where the east turns red and the day comes” [“Picturesque Review ...”, vol. 3, 322]. IN "Kukcho pogam"(XVII century) and especially in the works of representatives of the ideological movement sirhak(“real sciences”), for example, Kim Hakpon (XVIII-early XIX century), the following idea is developed: since the ancient Koreans reached the coast of the East (Japan) Sea, the name Joseon and was the Chinese rendering of the meaning ‘sun’, ‘day’, in figurative meaning‘east’ (through cho) +
‘light’ (through dream), those. that which first shines in the east,
where these tribes live [Kwon Sanno, 259; Lee Jirin, 32]. The most important drawback of this etymology lies in the fact that the ancient Koreans could hardly use a purely Chinese transcription method of writing proper names.

Therefore, Korean scientists took a different path - the interpretation of the phrase given in "Dongguk Yoji Seungnam" in Korean. For example, Choi Namseong conveyed the meaning of this Chinese phrase with a Korean phrase - nari cheeum saeungda‘dawn’ (lit."the day first appears"), which in abbreviated form gives chbsende -> chbsaeng -> Chosbn[Kwon Deokkyu, 14].

3. A similar hypothesis was expressed by Yang Judon, but it also does not go beyond the scope of feudal historiography. He thinks that the name Chosbn, like many other proper nouns, it was written in one of the ways going: the first character in this name conveyed the Korean word 11 palk'light', and the second - ce‘time’, ‘east’, ‘new’, i.e. Joseon = pa [l] kse. Ian's version

Judon substantiated by the fact that the cult of the sun was widespread among the ancient Korean tribes and that they, moving from north to east, and then south, took this phrase as a self-name [Yang Judon, 39]. It is also hardly possible to agree with this opinion, for the name Joseon appeared in Chinese sources long before the use I'm going In Korea.

4. The hypothesis put forward by Korean scientists of the 19th century also deserves attention. - representatives of the current sirhak("real sciences"). Ahn jongbok in "T o n ca kanmok" wrote: “The country that Kija founded was located east of sonbi (xianbi- the name of one of the northern non-Chinese peoples.- OK.), hence its name Joseon"[cm. Lee Jirin, 32-33]. Lee Ik in "Sonho saesol" offered the following explanation Chosbn: cho means 'east' and dream is short for sonbi(whale. xianbi), which in general gives the name of the country lying to the east of Mount Seonbisan ”(see Kwon Sanno, 259; Big Korean Encyclopedic Dictionary, vol. 5, 546). This hypothesis does not accurately locate Ancient Joseon; besides the name xianbi first appeared in Chinese sources after the beginning of a new era.

5. Supporters of the current sirhak Han Baek Kum, Jung Ya Kyung, and some others thought Joseon not own name, but a common additional element that was added to specific ethnonyms and toponyms and simply denoted “territory” [for example, Annan-joseon 'area Annana (Chinese Lolan)’, Yemeek-joseon ‘land(tribe) emek’, etc. (“Introduction to the Study of Ancient Korean Historical Geography”, 11]. Although such combinations are found in some ancient Chinese writings, it is impossible to agree with such an interpretation because the name Joseon much more often used independently, denoting an ethnonym.

6. In Korean science since the 18th century. versions of the patronymic origin of the name have become widespread Joseon. In the myths about the founding of the state among the ancient Koreans, the founder of the first "dynasty" (2333-1122 BC) is Tangun. For eight centuries there have been endless disputes regarding its genealogy, time and place of origin [Hon Gimun, 129-206; Dzharylgasinova, 25, etc.]. A number of Korean scientists are trying to find the threads connecting his name with Chosdn.

At the beginning of the XX century. Xing Cheho supported this hypothesis: in his opinion, the name of the country and the name of its first ruler have the same origin - from the spirit of the sun, whose name was respectively rendered in Chinese characters [Sin Cheho, 215].

In the 50s and 60s, Hong Gi-moon and Lee Sang-ho tried to link the name in different ways. Tangun with name Chosdn. Hong Gimun, comprehensively analyzing the myth of Tangun, cited a whole chain of arguments that would confirm the phonetic identity of the sign tan(in name) through dream(as a symbol of a celestial) with dream(in the name of the ethnic group) [Hon Gimun, 144-164].

Lee Sang Ho tends to see in the name tangun hieroglyphic rendering of the Korean word paktal / pedal, signifier in modern language the name of the tree is ‘Betulaceae Schmidtii Regel’. At first, this word, apparently, was used

was used as the name of a mountain (cf. the word hoist‘mountain’, ‘high’ in the geographical names of the state of Koguryeo, as well as modern words yandal And ymdal, meaning respectively the southern and northern slopes of the mountain). Lee Sang Ho Identifies Korean pactal with the Chinese name of the mountain taibo shan, where, judging by the myth, Tangun was born. In this name, the first hieroglyph allegedly conveyed the ancient Korean khan'big', second - pa [l] k-'light', and the third - hoist‘mountain’, hence paktal -* puldal‘fire mountain’. This oronym was transferred to the name of the tribal association Joseon. According to Lee Sangho, all these words were just different spellings of the same name ["Collection of discussion articles ...", 173-287].

In essence, this hypothesis resembles the second and third hypotheses, differing from them only in a slightly different argumentation.

7. Based on a detailed phonetic and etymological analysis, the Swedish scholar Cho Seungbok tried to reconstruct the ancient Korean readings of the following toponyms and compare them. Han District Annan, according to his assumption, in ancient Korean it was read as it meant ‘east’, and the first hieroglyph in Joseon- like ~ [*aya] ‘morning’ (cf. Japanese), in the same row Cho Seungbok included and Khan, as if pronounced like [aua] [Cho Seungbok, 534-562]. But, in my opinion, this attempt looks somewhat artificial.

8. Finally, there is a hypothesis according to which the ethnonym Chos j n identified with the ethnonym suxin(modern. whale. susheng). It was first put forward more than half a century ago by Korean scientists Sin Chaeho and Chon Inbo. Shin Chaeho, for example, wrote that Chos j n And suxin until the middle of the III century. BC. were the same name of the tribe, written in different Chinese characters [Kwon Sanno, 33]. This opinion was shared in the 1950s by North Korean scholars Chon Yol-mo [Jong Yol-mo, 23-24], partly Lee Ji-rin [Lee Ji-rin, 33-34, 39, 211-213], Lee Sanho [“Collection of discussion articles…”, 269 -273], etc. It also seems to us more likely than all other versions. Let's present our arguments.

The question of the origin of the Sushen people still remains open. Some researchers believe that Sushen is a Tungus tribe [Bichurin, vol. 1, 375; Vasilevich, 14-20]; others consider them to be a Paleo-Asiatic people who originally lived in Northeast China [Küner, 1961, 218]. But it is also quite possible that susheng was the name of some ethnic community that arose as a result of the mixing of the Tungus, who came at the beginning of the Zhou period (XI-III centuries BC) from Transbaikalia to Northeast China and the northern part of the Korean Peninsula, with Paleoasian natives.

This ethnonym has been recorded in ancient Chinese historical writings since the 3rd century BC. BC. in transcription using various hieroglyphs. The earliest was the writing of modern. whale. xishen, modern box sik- xing ("Shi ji", "Zhu shu jinyan" etc.), then, apparently, shsh jishen, box chiksin ".Ji Zhou shu") and finally- sushen, box suksin ("Kongzi jia yu", "Hou Han shu" and etc.). In a Chinese essay of the 17th century. "Manzhou yuanliu kao" says that susheng is a corruption of the Chinese rendering of the Manchu word $sf zhushen, box chusin(the name of the ancestors of the Manchus), meaning ‘acquired (trust) land’ [Palladius, vol. 1; Küner, 1961, 258].

None of these spellings was found in sources earlier than the 3rd century BC. BC, although some commentators are inclined to hypothetically attribute the ancestors of the Sushen to no later than the 12th century. BC, believing that they are hiding under one of the names of "eastern foreigners" - . nyao and‘bird’ + ‘foreigner’.

What is the connection between these facts about the ethnonym susheng and title Joseon 1? Their interdependence is hypothetically admissible:

a) chronological and territorial coincidence of the habitat of the ancient Joseon and Sushen tribes;

b) their belonging to the "eastern foreigners", possibly as two branches of the same tribal association;

c) the similarity of the ethnogenetic process (the main component in the warehouses
ancestry of the Korean ethnos were those who came from the north and north-west of the Tungus-
Manchu and Paleo-Asiatic tribes, towards whom from the south of the Korean
the peninsula was moved by ethnic elements of the more southern island race);

d) the commonality of totem representations among the ancient Joseon and Sushen (in the form of a bird);

e) recognition of the location of the ancestral home in Korean and Manchu myths in the area of ​​modern Mount Paektusan (Baitoushan), compare, for example, the myth of Tangun;

f) finally, the usual practice of rendering the same foreign name by different hieroglyphs, similar only in sound, in ancient Chinese texts. And indeed, if we restore the ancient phonetic appearance of words transmitted in Chinese transcription by the method fanze, it turns out that the first hieroglyphs in the names Joseon And susheng in their reading fall into the same rhyme group , and the latter, although they belong to different rhyme groups, are nevertheless similar in sound (for a reconstruction of the ancient readings of hieroglyphs, see:).

In addition, archaeological and historical materials indicate that by the Chunqiu-Lego period (VIII-V centuries BC), the Tungus tribes, which formed a substrate with local Paleo-Asian tribes, were divided into two large groups: northern, Manchu, and southern, Korean (according to our assumption); cf. linguistic motivation of belonging of the Korean language to the Altaic family in the work of S. A. Starostin [Starostin]

Ethnonym susheng in the north, in Manchuria, has undergone a complex evolution. So, in the I-III centuries. AD Sushen tribes are mentioned under the name ilou(kor. yumu), during the northern dynasties in China (end of the 4th - the end of the 6th century) - (Kor. mulkil), during the Sui Dynasty (589-619), their country is known as mohe(kor. malgal), at the end of the 9th - beginning of the 10th century. their name appeared: £: Ш nuzhen, or ^ssh nuzhi(kor. idjin, idjik)[Küner, 1961, 258-275; Gorsky; Grebenshchikov].

The evolution of the ethnonym could be completely different susheng southeast of the Manchus. There, apparently, an ethnic group stood out, which the Chinese began to convey in writing in hieroglyphs chaoxian, close in ancient reading to sushen. Thus, the original name Joseon, although it was recorded in "Shan Hai Jing"(presumably IV-III centuries BC; juan 18), hardly

Li meant ‘land of morning freshness’. Most likely, this name could only be a transcriptional (possibly distorted) transfer by Chinese characters of some ethnonym, the meaning of which is still hidden from modern researchers.

Korea names with component khan have the same cementing significance in the history of Korean civilization as Chosn.

The modern name of South Korea is Hanguk(this is the name, like Joseon, extends to the entire Korean Peninsula) comes from = Samhan‘Three khan’, the collective name of the union of three tribes (mahan, chin-khan and penhan), who inhabited the southern and central parts of the peninsula in the last centuries BC. Most Korean scientists tend to consider the component khan a pronominal word meaning in ancient times 'big', 'long', 'far', 'straight'. Since a stronger migration process was in the direction from north to south, the first tribal associations that developed in the southern half of the Korean Peninsula apparently included the word khan('long' in time or 'distant', 'large' in space) as a common component in their names. This component has come down to our time in writing with various hieroglyphs, which were used phonetically to convey the word with the above meanings: the oldest spelling khan(in "Shu Ching" 5th-4th centuries BC) denoted one of the "eastern foreigners", which included Korean tribes; writing khan(in comments to "wei shu" 6th century AD) some researchers [Li Jirin, 274] identify with the sign sh khan(the latter is found in almost all Chinese dynastic histories and early Korean historical chronicles).

The initial components of the names of three khan, most likely of totemic origin: ( Mari)‘head’ (in Mahan)[Kwon Sanno, 118], pyon-‘snake’ (in Byeonghan)[Kwon Sanno, 142] and rank-‘dragon’ (in Chinhan)[Kwon Sanno, 267]. At the end of the 1st century BC. on the lands of mahan (southwest of the peninsula), the state of Paekche arose, and the possessions of jinhan and penhan (southeast of the peninsula) became part of Silla. These states, together with Goguryeo, existed until the middle of the 7th century, when they were united under the auspices of Silla. In Chinese, and then Korean historiography, they received the general name NShch modern. whale. sango, modern box samguk‘Three states’.

Component khan also included in the name taehan- the official name of the country after it declared independence in 1897 and until 1910. If the word khan here "taken from the ancient names of the three possessions of South Korea as national in the strict sense of the word, i.e., non-Chinese", then the definition te‘big’, ‘great’ is added “in contrast to them and in imitation of Chinese Dacingo, those. Great Qing state, or Japanese Dainipponkoku– to the Great State of Nippon” [Küner, 1912, 10]. Some also believe that the first hieroglyph indicates the expansion of the territory of the former possessions of Korea [Kwon Sanno, 86]. taehan included in the official name of the Republic of Korea - Taehan minguk.

FROM Ancient Korean ethnonymy is also associated with several other names of states that once existed on the Korean Peninsula and in the Northeast

Mr. China. These include the names of the three states mentioned above - Koguryeo, Silla and Baekche 4, as well as Chindan.

Whale name. Zhengdan, box chindan appeared at the end of the seventh century. After the conquest of Goguryeo, the Tang Empire resettled hundreds of thousands of inhabitants of this country in the Yingzhou region (now Zhaoyang in the province of Rehe), where they, together with the Mohe tribes (Kor. malgal) created a state under this name, which, apparently, was the self-name Mohe. In 713 this name was changed to Bohai(kor. Parhe). Name chindan episodically used in relation to Korea since the 11th century. and to this day [Kwon Sanno, 272-273; "Dictionary of the Korean language", vol. 4, 515].

A number of historical names of Korea are of patronymic origin, that is, they include the names of mythical figures who are considered the ancestors of the Koreans. The founder of the state in Korea, as already mentioned, was the legendary Tangun. His name is included in the names of the country - Tanguk And tanban‘Country of Tangu-na’. This may also include the popular name of Pedal [nara], which is an artificial translation into Korean of the name Tanguk.

The second ancestor of the early Chinese, and after them the Korean sources consider the semi-legendary chi tzu(modern cor. Kija > Heji‘son of the sun’), who allegedly fled in 1122 BC. from Zhou China to the lands of Joseon and founded a state there. Some modern Korean historians generally deny the fact that Ji-tzu belonged to the Ancient Joseon, considering it the fruit of feudal historiography. They motivate this by the fact that in the legends about Ji-tzu, which apparently appeared in pre-Qin literature, that is, until the middle of the 3rd century. BC, his name is nowhere associated with Joseon. But whatever doubts there may be about the identity of Chizi himself, his name also appears in the names of the country: Kiban And Kiydk‘Country Ki[ja]’, Kibon And Kijajibon‘Kij’s domain’. The name is also a tribute to the ancestors Tangijiban‘Country of Tan[guna] and Ki[ja]’.

More reliable and detailed in the Chinese historical chronicles is information about a native of the kingdom of Yan- Wei Mane(kor. Vimanyo), who in 194 BC. overthrew the last descendant of the Kija dynasty and seized the lands of Joseon. The reign of the Wei Mang house did not last long, until 108 BC. But his name is also

We omit the analysis of the names Koguryd, Silla and Baekje, since they (with the exception of Silla after VII c.) did not apply to Korea as a whole and, in addition, were partially covered us in domestic Korean studies (for example, about the name Silla, see: Kim Busik, vol. I , from. 298- 302; about the ethnonym Koguryd, see the article by R. Sh. Dzharylgasinova in the collection "Ethnonyms" (M, 1970)]. Let us add only one hypothesis of the origin of kogurids, which deserves attention. According to ancient Chinese sources, the totem of the "eastern foreigners", to whom there was also an influential Kuryo tribe, there was a snake [Fan Wenlan, 23]. Perhaps this totem was taken by the tribe as its name. In Goguryeo, "snake" was conveyed by the word -7 g)] kure The second sign of these combinations, acting as a phonetic, is apparently associated with the name of Tangun.

included in one of the names of the country - Wiman Joseon‘Joseon [period] Wimana’.

In almost all the cases analyzed, there is a transition of eponyms to toponyms.

Sometimes eponyms are combined with ethnonyms. For example, in a geographic application "Chiri ji"(compiled in 1432) to the annals "Sejong Sillok" the collective name of the country is fixed = Sam-Joseon'Three Joseon-na', which stands for 'Joseon of [period] Tang-gun (or Early Joseon)', 'In our time, this hypothesis was developed by the North Korean historian Lee Jirin [Li Jirin, 35-39], to whom it seemed to be the most consistent with historical facts. Although he did not find such rivers in the area of ​​​​the alleged settlement of the Chosbn, nevertheless, in his book, evidence is provided, according to which the r. /i/pJoseon [period] Kija (or Late Joseon)’ and the mentioned Wiman Joseon["Chronicle of the reign of King Se-jong", 280].

Chinese and Korean written monuments are replete with figurative names of Korea, which cannot be fully taken into account. Apparently, it is possible to systematize such names on the basis of two criteria: their common use and the semantics of their structural components.

The most common figurative and metaphorical names of the country are the names with the following components (names are given mainly in modern Korean sound):

1. W whale. dun, box tone'East'. In ancient Chinese sources, Korea was considered a country that, by its geographical position, was located in the east of China. Hence its numerous names, which have long been actively used in Korea itself (see also hypotheses of the origin Joseon, associated with the East).

Among them, a number of names with a second component, meaning ‘country’, ‘territory’, ‘locality’, should be noted: Dongguk‘Eastern State’, or simply ‘Eastern Country’ is one of the most ancient Chinese figurative names, very common in Korean literature of the 13th-19th centuries. [Küner, 1912: 10; “Korean Dictionary”, vol. 2, 166]; less common names: dongbang And Dongpyo‘East side; East', dongbang‘Eastern country’, Tonyibk‘Eastern possessions’, Donnyuk‘Eastern Hills’ and about a dozen more names [see. Kwon Sanno, 405].

As a second component, this character is found in two well-known names of Korea - Daedong‘Large country in the east’ (first mentioned in "Shi jing"; been used in Korea since the 15th century. until 1897) [Dictionary of the Korean Language, vol. 2, 255; Palladium, part 1, 193] and haedong‘Country located east of the sea’ (meaning the Yellow Sea). The latter combination is found in the most ancient Chinese monuments, but as the name of Korea began to be used from VI-VIIbb., Especially intensively in the period of Koryo (from the XII to XIV centuries) and in the XIX century. (Kwon Sanno, 320; Dictionary of the Korean Language, vol. 5, 534).

2. In whale. zhi, box or‘sun’, ‘day’. Names with this component are directly adjacent to the group just described, that is, they are associated with the east (it is not without reason that hieroglyphic dictionaries give an interpretation of the sign tone'east' as the places from where the sun rises). Moreover, the hieroglyphs with the meaning ‘sun’ are not at all the property of only the names of Japan, as many mistakenly believe. Titles Irydk, Ilban, Ilbyon‘Land of the Sun’ Ilthek'House of Sun' Ilchulchho‘The place where it rises

Sun', Ilchkhuljiban‘The country where the sun rises’ and a number of others were in circulation in Korea in the 8th-12th centuries. [Kwon Sanno, 36].

3. whale. qing, box chhbn'green; blue '(in Chinese color scale means 'east'). Here the most common name is Chkhdngu‘Land of green hills’. In Chinese sources, it was used in relation to the Korean Peninsula from the first centuries of the new era, later it entered medieval Korean literature as a poetic name for the country (cf., for example, the title of the Korean anthology of the XVIII century. "Cheonggu Yeonon"- "The unfading words of the country of the Green Mountains", etc.). By analogy, there were other names with this component, though less popular: Chkhdnyuk‘Green Hills’, chbnyeo‘Green frontiers’, chbntho‘Green Lands’, Shchsh Chkhbnyibk‘Green country’, etc. [Kwon Sanno, 280-281].

4. whale. hi, box heh'sea'. It is the second most used (after tone) component in the historical names of Korea. It is also indirectly connected with the east. Hieroglyph heh can stand either in the initial or in the final position in the name, without changing, however, its inherent meaning.

As an initial component, it occurs in the following names of Korea: He[yan]guk‘Sea Country’ [“Dictionary of the Korean Language”, vol. 5, 532, 548], Hejwa‘The country located to the left (i.e. to the east) of the sea’ [Kwon Sanno, 322], as well as in the above-mentioned haedong(cm. tone) and a number of others.

This component occupies the final position in one of the oldest Chinese names for the Korean Peninsula - Changhae‘Land of the blue sea’ [Kwon Sanno, 277]. Now this name is attributed to the Sea of ​​​​Japan. Other names with the same structure, such as Shsh Chbphe, Chehe etc., see below, when describing the names reflecting the sea fishing of the Koreans.

5. whale. Yes, box te‘big, great’. This component is used as a definition in the names discussed above. taehan(see ethnonym khan) And Daedong(cm. tone).

Other figurative names of Korea have occasional usage. They can be grouped thematically.

1. One of the ancient names of Korea, found in Korean epigraphic monuments of the 7th-11th centuries, is associated with the east. and in "Samguk Yusa" – Busan, letters,"the place where the sun rises", which denotes a country to the east of China [Kwon Sanno, 148]. Some sources refer this name to Japan as well [Küner, 1961, 348]. The Buddhist names of Korea during the Koryo period can also be included in the same group: Sandong‘The country where the sun rises (Gandharva, Maraja)’, IZH^IA sanmokjigu And Sanibk‘Land of mulberry trees’ [Kwon Sanno, 163]. In the name Gongsan‘Remote wild country in the east’ [Palladius, vol. 1. 499] the Chinese, apparently, meant the area of ​​settlement of ancient Korean tribes.

2. In Confucian literature, the figurative names of Korea were conveyed by hieroglyphs denoting nobility, philanthropy and other virtues, for example: Kunjaguk‘Country of noble people’, SI Inban‘Land of humanity, Yeuijiban‘A country known for high morality’, etc. [Kwon Sanno, 53-55]. Taoists saw Korea as a "country of celestials"

(Soninguk). During the reign of the Song (960-1279) and Qing (1644-1911) dynasties, Korea was even called "little China" [jun] hwa).

3. Numerical designations are not uncommon in the historical names of Korea. ABOUT Myself- khan(see ethnonym khan) And samguk(see ibid.) has already been discussed. Let's take a few more. During the Joseon Dynasty (1392-1910), the Koreans called their country ADC Phaltto or Pharibk‘Eight provinces’. Korea has long been called "The Land of Three Thousand li 6 "(Samchkhdl-li).

4. A number of individual poetic titles recall the beauty of Korea's nature. These include country names in which their authors express their admiration for the colors of kenaf: Geunhwakhyan‘Homeland of kenaf’, SHR Geunban And Shsh Kynydk‘Land of kenaf’ [Kwon Sanno, 57], as well as Mugunhwa dongsan‘Eastern mountains covered with kenaf’ [Dictionary of the Korean Language, vol. 2, 639]. An outstanding Korean poet of the IX-X centuries. Choi Chhiwon called his country "a place over which birds circle" [Kwon Sanno, 214], etc.

5. Finally, we can single out a group of figurative names of the country, which reflected the sea fishing of the Koreans. Korea has long been famous for its rich catch of flounder and sea catfish. Hence its name: "Country of the flounder" (Chbpkuk),"Sea of ​​flounder" (Chbpe),"Sea of ​​​​large catfish" ( Chemybn And Chekhe)[Kwon Sanno, 250-251, 257-258].

The list of such names could be continued, but what has been said is enough to see the huge range of means that were used in the invention of the names of Korea, mainly for the purpose of expressive and stylistic coloring.

As for the name Korea, then the history of its appearance and distribution in Europe in various spellings is no less curious than all the names considered. This issue is covered in the literature in Russian and Western European languages ​​["Description of Korea", part 1, 60-62; Zaichikov, 87; Griffis, 1-2, 84-86], but not enough.

The earliest mention of the Korean state of Silla (in Arabic transmission - Strength) in the Western world belongs to the Arab traveler Ibn Khordadbeh (846). If we talk about Europeans, then the first of them brought information about the existence (in the form of an island) of the country Caule Franciscan monk Guillaume de Rubruk, who traveled to the eastern countries in 1253-1256. [Rubruk]. The Venetian merchant Marco Polo, who compiled his "Book" in 1298, also mentions the country Sam//', which lay behind Chorcha (that is, Manchuria). In various versions of this "Book" variants are identified with Korea: Zanli, Cauli, Caoli, Causi, Scholi, Carli["Book of Marco Polo", 280]. It is highly probable that all these names were a corruption of Chinese Gaoli(kor. Koryb- the name of the ruling dynasty and the country in the X-XIV centuries, which inherited it from the name of the ancient state Koguryo). From Kore comes the modern name "Korea" in European languages.

Lee - Korean measure of length, equal to 0.393 km.

Further, for a century and a half, there was no information about Korea. Only in the message of the Portuguese king to the pope of 1513, merchants are mentioned who traveled from the country "Lequea" (Ryukyu?) to the South Seas and received the name Gores. Perhaps it was given to merchants who transported the inhabitants of Koryo on Ryukyuan merchant ships. On European maps and in general geographical descriptions mid-sixteenth in. there are names Gor And Ghor , which some scholars identify with Japan, and others with Korea.

Only in the era of the great geographical discoveries, when the penetration of Europeans to the East began, more real information about the location of Korea appeared. On geographical maps compiled in Europe in the second half of the 16th century, apparently, according to reports from Portuguese expeditions in 1540-1546. to the shores of Japan, the region corresponding to Korea was depicted as a peninsula or an oblong island. The Portuguese were the first to bring the name to Europe Coria , where did the modern spelling come from. The map of the world by F. Vas Dourado (1571) in the northern part of China shows a ledge called "Coste Courai ». This was the beginning of the designation of Korea on European maps. True, for a relatively long time Korea was depicted either as an island or as a peninsula. In 1593, the Dutchman P. Planzio placed the name on the map of the Asian continent Sogau(apparently from Japanese reading Koray). The same name is found in the messages and letters of the Spanish Jesuit missionaries who settled in Japan at the end of the 16th century. Gregorio Cespedes, for example, is considered the first European to set foot on Korean soil. He participated in one of the aggressive operations of Hideyoshi's troops during the Imjin War (1592-1598). In the letters of another Jesuit missionary, Louis Froys (or Froe) 1590-1594. the name Chosen is mentioned.

On the map of the Dutch hydrographer J. van Linshosten, attached to the records of a sea voyage to the East, Korea is depicted as a round island and named “Hbade Corea » "about. Korea". Since then, this form of writing has become stronger in Korea.

The Dutch navigator Hendrik Hamel, who traveled in 1653-1666, reached about. Jeju and left a row geographical names kingdoms Soegee, which is otherwise called Tyocen -koeck .

In 1709, the Jesuits Regis, Jartou and Friedel compiled a map of Korea, in which the outlines of the Korean Peninsula were for the first time more or less correctly defined. It was based almost until the end of the 19th century. European cartographic representations of the country ["Description of Korea", part 1, 62].

In the descriptions of travelers of the 18th - first half of the 19th centuries who visited the country during its period of foreign policy isolation, such as La Perouse (1785-1788), William Broughton (1795-1798), John MacLeod (1816), Basil Hall (1816), Carl Gützlaf (1832), Eduard Belcher (1843-1846), the modern European name of Korea, which differs depending on the language, is already in stable use (eng. Sogea, French Sogye, German Korea etc.). Sometimes it occurs in conjunction with Tchosen or Tchao Sian . How an echo of the past looks like a name Koorai F. Siebold.

Name in Russian Korea appears in the middle of the 19th century. Before that, the country was called in Chinese Chaoxian And Gaoli[Bichurin].

In the second half of the XIX century. figurative names of Korea appear in the literature in European languages. For example, due to the isolation policy, the country received the names: Secluded State. Hermit State, Forbidden Country, Forgotten Nation etc. And at the same time, for the purpose of exotic coloring, names begin to appear in various languages, which are tracing papers Joseon: Land of the Morning Chill(or freshness). Land of Morning Calm etc. It seems to us that the American historian of Korea, William Griffis, laid the foundation for this. These names are still widely used today.

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Korea has many names. Despite the fact that in almost all languages ​​​​of the world this country is called approximately the same - "Korea", "Coria", "Korea", etc., only foreigners show such unity. The Koreans themselves and, at the same time, their closest neighbors have used a variety of names for their country for centuries.

Even now, the names of North and South Korea are not the same. I do not mean the official names of these states at all, the term "Korea" itself sounds differently, which, of course, is included in the name of the North and the name of the South. In Germany, at one time both East and West Germany included the word Deutchland in their official name. In Korea, things are different: North Korea is called "Joseon" (officially - the Democratic People's Republic of Joseon, traditionally translated into Russian as "Democratic People's Republic of Korea"), and South - "Hanguk" (officially - the Republic of Hankuk, Russian translation - "Republic of Korea"). Indeed, these names even by ear have nothing in common with each other. How did it happen?

The origins of this situation lie in the affairs of bygone days. Once upon a time, about three thousand years ago, some tribes lived near the northeastern borders of China, the distant ancestors of modern Koreans. Of course, they did not know how to read and write, because in those days few inhabitants of a few countries owned this art, but somehow they called themselves. Over time, these tribes began to unite in unions and gradually a principality arose there, in terms of its level more or less reminiscent of Kievan Rus in the 9th century, before the arrival of the Rurikovichs. This happened about two and a half millennia ago (although many nationalist Korean historians claim that this happened much earlier, but they do not provide any serious evidence, so we'd better stick to the facts).

Around the 5th century BC learned about this principality and the Chinese. They found out - and wrote down its name in those Chinese characters that sounded more or less similar to this name. Two hieroglyphs were chosen for this. In modern Chinese, in its northern dialect, these characters are pronounced as "chao" and "xian", and in modern Korean, respectively, these same characters sound like "cho" (meaning, among other things, "morning") and " sleep" (it also has several meanings, one of them is "freshness"). And so it happened - "Land of the Morning Calm", the poetic name of Korea, which is known, probably, by any person who has been here at least once. It sounds really quite good, but the trouble is - this remarkably beautiful phrase has nothing to do with the original name of the ancient Korean tribes. The fact is that Chinese characters, which (along with their writing) are also used by Koreans and Japanese, convey not only the sound of the word, but also its meaning, therefore, unlike the letter of the alphabet, absolutely any character necessarily has at least some meaning. . Since there are no cases (and, strictly speaking, no parts of speech) in Chinese, this means that any arbitrary combination of hieroglyphs, including any transcription of a foreign name written in Chinese hieroglyphs, can always be "translated" based on these meanings. For example, the Chinese call Moscow “Mosyke”, which means something like “calm cutting of cereals”, but it is clear that neither with cereals (“ke”, another, more common, meaning is “science”), nor with cutting ( "sy"), the Chinese name of the Russian capital has nothing to do with "calm" ("mo"). Quite simply, in modern Chinese, these hieroglyphs sound similar to the name of the capital, so they were used - according to the rebus principle. According to the same principle of the rebus, Chinese scribes wrote down some name unknown to us three thousand years ago in two similar-sounding hieroglyphs.

In addition, it must be taken into account that the pronunciation of hieroglyphs did not remain constant: over the centuries it changed, and quite significantly. After the Koreans borrowed Chinese characters, their pronunciation also began to evolve in Korean, and eventually the Korean pronunciation became very distant from both the ancient Chinese original and the modern Chinese reading of the same characters. True, modern techniques allow us to roughly reconstruct the ancient Chinese pronunciations, so that by rather complex calculations, linguists have established that three thousand years ago, the two characters in question were read as "*trjaw" and "*senx". As you can see - a little in common with their modern readings! Thus, the name unknown to us, once written in these hieroglyphs, must have sounded somehow remotely similar to "Tryausenkh". However, it is now almost impossible to understand what it actually meant.

I spoke about the problems with the "Land of the Morning Calm" in such detail because all the other names of Korea, which will be discussed later, arose according to approximately the same pattern: a certain (exactly unknown) self-name of some ancient Korean tribe

> its approximate transcription in those Chinese characters that were then pronounced more or less like this name

> the evolution of the pronunciation of these hieroglyphs (its own in each of the three "hieroglyphic" languages ​​- Korean, Chinese, Japanese).

So, back to our story. The ancient Korean state of Joseon (in fact, as we remember, its name sounded more like Tryausenkh) was captured by the Chinese at the end of the 1st century BC. BC, but the memory of him remained in Korea for a long time. At about the same time, other ancient Korean tribes lived on the territory of the Korean Peninsula and in the adjacent part of Manchuria (however, among them there could be representatives of other nationalities, who later disappeared among the Koreans). The names of those tribes that lived in the north were written in three hieroglyphs. The modern Korean pronunciation of these characters is Kogur. Soon these tribes formed a powerful and warlike principality, which occupied the entire North of the peninsula and the adjacent territory of Manchuria. Meanwhile, many tribes lived in the south of the peninsula. The Han tribes (again, the modern Korean reading) lived on the coast of the Korea Strait, while the principality of Silla quickly grew stronger in the southeast.

Of course, all these tribes and principalities were constantly at war with each other. In the end, the victory went to Silla, which at the end of the 7th century united the Korean Peninsula under its rule. Thus, the first unified Korean state arose, which was called Silla. What does it mean? The question is difficult. If you "translate" by hieroglyphs, you get ... "new network". I think that it is now clear to the reader: this name had exactly the same relation to the "networks" as Moscow had to the "calm cutting of cereals." These hieroglyphs simply transcribed some ancient Korean (was it ancient Korean?) word. Which? There are many hypotheses on this subject, but none of them is generally accepted.

However, "the times of monarchies and kings are not eternal"... At the beginning of the 10th century, after a short period of civil wars, a new dynasty came to power in the country. Its founder, Wang Gon, came from the lands where the Kogur principality once flourished. He - himself a military general - was very proud of his ancestral ties with the most warlike of all ancient Korean principalities, which is why he decided to call his dynasty Kor (short for Kogur). In those days, in East Asia, the country was often called by the name of the dynasty that ruled in it, so that Korea itself began to be called Kor. It was at that time that rumors about the existence of this country reached Europe (the ubiquitous Marco Polo seems to have brought them first), so all European names for Korea sound very similar to "Kor"

However, time passed, and the distant descendants of Wang Gon also lost power. Another general, Yi Song Ge, made a coup, and in 1392 founded a new dynasty. He decided to take the most ancient name for it - "Joseon" (in other countries it was often called by the name of the ruling family - "Li dynasty"). As you remember, these characters were used for the Chinese record of the name of the very first of the Korean states, which existed two millennia earlier. This name remained until the end of the last century. After Korea became a Japanese colony in 1910, the Japanese continued to call it that (of course, the Japanese themselves read the hieroglyphs in their own way - "Tsen"). After 1945, the new communist government, which, with the help of the Soviet Army, came to power in the North of the country, decided not to abandon the name that had become customary for more than five centuries, and retained it. Therefore, North Korea is called "Joseon", but if you use the full name - "Democratic People's Republic of Joseon". It is clear that "Joseon" is translated into Russian as "Korea", and the whole name is translated as "Democratic People's Republic of Korea".

But what about South Korea, the Republic of Korea? At the end of the 19th century, an attempt was made in Korea to change the official name of the country. It became known as the "Khan Empire". As you probably already guessed, this name comes from the name of one of the ancient Korean tribes that lived in the very south of the Korean Peninsula two millennia ago. In 1910, the colonialists returned the old name "Joseon", but many leaders of the national liberation movement did not recognize this renaming and, in defiance of the Japanese rulers, continued to call their country "Hanguk", that is, the "Country of Han". When in 1919 the leaders of the anti-colonial movement set up a Korean government-in-exile, they named it the Provisional Government of the Republic of Khan. Over time, many of the leaders of this government established ties with the United States, and in 1945, with the help of the American military administration, they ended up in South Korea. It was these people who became the founders of the current South Korean state, which also inherited this name - the "Republic of Khan". Again, this word is translated into Russian as "Korea".

If you are new to the world of K-pop, then there is no doubt that you may not know a few Korean terms that are used by people around you. And if you're already a longtime K-poper, you're probably already familiar with most of the "special" words we've included on our list.

Aegyo

Aegyo is synonymous with Sunny! "Aegyo" means super cute when someone makes a cute face like puppy dog ​​eyes. Aegyo is enjoyed by a lot of idols! Also, many idols do "Kiyomi" - this is how they show a funny rhyme using their cute facial expressions.

sasaeng

Yes... it's a popular word, meaning "sasaeng amateur" or a super obsessive fan who has an excessive love for an idol. He can follow the idol in the taxi all day, also follow the idol in the bathroom to take pictures. In some cases, a sasaeng fan has broken into dorms to steal underwear...

daebak

What does "Wow". Type “Like, this is it! He donated so much money!” or “He donated so much money! Daebak…”. It can also mean sarcasm. For example: "Wow.. did she really do that to you?" or “Did she really do this to you? Daebak..". If someone says "It's Daebak" which means "It's the best".

Hol ~

Koreans use this sound very often, you must have heard it before. Can express embarrassment, depict emotions when talking about something outrageous, funny, embarrassing or unpleasant.

Oppa / Unnie / Hyung / Noona

You may hear these words after the pronunciation of the name, or you may have heard how idols call their bandmates these terms. A girl calls her older boyfriend "Oppa" and her older girl "Unnie". The guy calls the older guy "Hyung", and the girl - "Nuna". Of course, provided that they know each other enough, and the age between them is not so big.

sunbae / hoobae

This item is similar to the previous one. "Sunbae" basically means "senior", this term should be used for people who are in high school if you're in school, or for people who have more experience than you. Hoobae is the opposite of sunbae and is intended for beginners and youth. "Sunbae-hoobae relationship" means the relationship between seniors and juniors.

maknae

All groups have a maknae, i.e. the youngest member. Kyuhyun - "evil maknae" from Super Junior as he is known for being a bit mischievous. If you are the youngest in the family, then you are the maknae!

omo

It is an abbreviation for the word "Omona" and means "Oh my". So when you're surprised, you can say "Omomomomomo" many times if you like. If you hear something shocking, do it like Sohee!

Oljan / Momjan

The word "Oljan" is a combination of the words "Face" ("Ol") and "Jan", which means "The Best". As a result, it means "Best face" and is used to describe people who have a very beautiful face. Many idols were originally known all over the internet as Uljan before becoming artists. "Momjang" is the same word as "Oljang", except "mom" (pronounced Mom) means "big people". You can just use the word "Jan" if you want to tell people that they are the Best!

Of course they are all beautiful, but can you recognize them?

Dongan / No-an

"Dongan" means "Baby Face" and describes people who look younger than their actual age. Can you believe Jang Na Ra is 33 but looks 20, or look at Dara who is 29. "No-an" is not the opposite of "Dongan", although it is not used often.

I went to the Korean language course of the cultural center at the South Korean Embassy in Moscow, and our sonsaengim (the teacher, that is) explained why South Korea is called the land of morning freshness. In a nutshell, this is simply the most beautiful meaning of the two hieroglyphs that are included in the name of the country.

Numerous names of South Korea

Korean writing appeared only in the 15th century and then was practically not used until the 19th and 20th centuries. There was an oral Korean language, but for writing, the Koreans used the hieroglyphs of their global neighbor. The name "Korea", which is used by foreigners, comes from the ancient state that existed on the territory of the Korean Peninsula, Goryeo. However, the Koreans themselves called their country Joseon. Now this name remains with North Korea, and South Korea began to call itself Hanguk. However, until the 20th century, the name "Joseon" was used, which once in ancient times the Chinese wrote down with their hieroglyphs, so to speak, by ear, as they heard from the ancient tribes of the Korean Peninsula. So it turned out that the word, the name of the country exists, but what it means is not clear.

Choosing a good name

The name "Joseon" consists of 2 hieroglyphs: "cho" and "son". I don’t know if the Koreans or the Chinese themselves picked up beautiful and matching words (in general, the inhabitants of that region like to give beautiful values everything), but it was it that came into general use. In general, one of the meanings of "cho" is morning, and "sleep" is freshness.

Other meanings of the hieroglyph "cho":

• ruling dynasty, reign,
• face,
• travel and others.

Other meanings of the hieroglyph "sleep":

• painting,
• emergence,
• reciprocity and others.

In general, it was not easy to find another suitable combination. So they began to call South Korea the country of morning freshness. But, what is most interesting, the Koreans also call their country “the country with four seasons”, quite seriously believing that all four seasons are pronounced in their country. But they still do not believe that they have the freshest morning.