Rise of the Assyrian kingdom

Cities that later formed the core of the Assyrian state (Nineveh, Ashur, Arbela, etc.), until the 15th century. BC, apparently, did not represent a single political or even ethnic whole. Moreover, in the XV century. there was not even the very concept of "Assyria". Therefore, the designation "Old Assyrian" that is sometimes found in relation to the power of Shamshi-Adad I (1813-1783 BC, see below) is erroneous: Shamshi-Adad I never considered himself the king of Ashur, although the later Assyrian royal lists ( I millennium BC) really include him among the Assyrian kings.

Nineveh appears to have originally been a Hurrian city. As for the city of Ashur, its name is obviously Semitic, and the population of this city was mainly Akkadian. In the XVI - XV centuries. BC these city-states depended (sometimes only formally) on the kings of Mitanni and Kassite Babylonia, but already from the end of the 15th century. the rulers of Ashur considered themselves independent. They, like the top of the townspeople in general, were very rich. The source of their wealth was intermediary trade between the south of Mesopotamia and the countries of Zagros, the Armenian Highlands, Asia Minor and Syria. One of the most important items of intermediary trade in the II millennium BC. there were textiles and ores, and its central points were Ashur, Nineveh and Arbela. Here, perhaps, the purification of silver-lead ores took place. Tin also came from Afghanistan through the same centers.

Ashur was the center of a relatively small nome state. In the XX-XIX centuries. BC it was the starting point of one of the ways of international trade, closely connected with another trade center - Kanish in Asia Minor, from where Ashur imported silver. After the conquest of Upper Mesopotamia by Shamshi-Adad I, and the eastern part of Asia Minor by the Hittite kings, trading colonies in Asia Minor ceased to exist, but Ashur continued to retain great economic and political importance. Its ruler bore the title of ishshiakku (an Akkadization of the Sumerian word ensi); his power was practically hereditary. Ishshiakku was a priest, administrator and military leader. Usually he also held the position of ukullu, i.e., apparently, the supreme land surveyor and chairman of the community council. From the composition of the council, annually replaced limmu were nominated - eponyms of the year and, possibly, treasurers. Gradually, seats in the council were increasingly replaced by people close to the ruler. Information about people's assembly Ashur does not. With the strengthening of the power of the ruler, the importance of communal self-government bodies fell.

The territory of the Ashur nome consisted of small settlements - rural communities; at the head of each was a council of elders and an administrator - hazanna. The land was the property of the community and was subject to periodic redistribution between family communities. The center of such a family community was a fortified manor - dunnu. A member of a territorial and family community could sell his allotment, which, as a result of such a sale, was removed from the family-communal land and became the personal property of the buyer. But the rural community controlled such transactions and could replace the sold plot with another from the reserve fund. The deal also had to be approved by the king. All this shows that commodity-money relations in Assur developed faster and went further than, for example, in neighboring Babylonia. Alienation of land here has already become irreversible. It should be noted that sometimes whole household complexes are bought - a farmstead with a field, a house, a threshing floor, a garden and a well, in total from 3 to 30 hectares. The buyers of land were usually usurers, who were also engaged in trade. This last circumstance is confirmed by the fact that, as a rule, not silver, but lead, serves as "money", and in very large quantities (hundreds of kilograms). The wealthy obtained the labor force for their newly acquired lands through debt bondage: the loan was issued against the security of the identity of the debtor or a member of his family, and in case of delay in payment, these people were considered "bought at full price", i.e. slaves, even before that they were full members of the community. There were other means of enslavement, such as "revival in trouble", i.e. help during the famine, for which the "revitalized" fell under the patriarchal authority of the "benefactor", as well as "adoption" along with the field and house, and, finally, "voluntary" giving himself under the protection of a rich and noble person. Therefore, everything was concentrated in the hands of a few wealthy families. more land, and community land funds were dwindling. But communal duties still lay with the heavily impoverished home communities. The owners of the newly formed estates lived in the cities, and dependent residents of the villages bore communal duties for them. Ashur is now called the "city among the communities" or "community among the communities", and the privileged position of its inhabitants is later officially secured by exemption from dues and duties (the exact date of this event is unknown). Residents of rural communities continue to pay numerous dues and carry out duties, among which military service occupies the first place.

So, Ashur was a small but very rich state. Wealth created opportunities for him to strengthen, but for this it was necessary to weaken the main rivals, who could nip Ashur's attempts at expansion in the bud. The ruling circles of Assur have already begun to gradually prepare for it, strengthening central government . Between 1419 and 1411 BC The wall of the "New City" in Ashur, destroyed by the Mitannians, was restored. Mitanni could not prevent this. Although the Mitannian and Kassite kings continue to regard the Assurian rulers as their tributaries, these latter establish direct diplomatic relations with Egypt. From the beginning of the XIV century. the ruler of Ashur called himself "king", although so far only in private documents, but already Ashshutuballit I (1365-1330 BC) for the first time called himself "king of the country of Assyria" in official correspondence and on seals (although still not in the inscriptions), and called the Egyptian pharaoh his "brother", like the kings of Babylonia, Mitanni or the Hittite state. He took part in the military-political events that led to the defeat of Mitanni, and in the division of most of the Mitannian possessions. Ashshuruballit I repeatedly interfered in the affairs of Babylonia, participating in dynastic strife. In the future, in relations with Babylonia, periods of peace were replaced by more or less serious military clashes, in which Assyria was far from always successful. But the Assyrian territory steadily expanded to the west (the upper Tigris) and to the east (the Zagros mountains). The growth of the influence of the king was accompanied by a decline in the role of the city council. The king is actually turning into an autocrat. Adad-Nerari I (1307-1275 BC) added to his previous positions assigned to him as the ruler of Ashur, the position of limmu - treasurer-eponym of the first year of his reign. He, for the first time, appropriates to himself the title "king of the inhabited world" and, thus, is the true founder of the Assyrian (Middle Assyrian) state. He had a strong army at his disposal, the basis of which was the royal people, who received either special land plots or only rations for their service. If necessary, the militia of the communities joined this army. Adad-Nerari I successfully fought with the Kassite Babylonia and pushed the border of Assyria quite far to the south. A poem was even composed about his deeds, but in reality the successes on the "southern front" turned out to be fragile. Adad-Nerari I also made two successful campaigns against Mitanni. The second of them ended with the deposition of the Mitannian king and the annexation of the entire territory of Mitanni (up to the large bend of the Euphrates and the city of Karchemish) to Assyria. However, the son and successor of Adad-Nerari, Shalmaneser I (1274-1245 BC), had to fight here again with the Mitannians and their allies - the Hittites and Arameans. The Assyrian army was surrounded and cut off from water sources, but managed to escape and defeat the enemy. All of Upper Mesopotamia was reattached to Assyria, and Mitanni ceased to exist. Shalmaneser reports in his inscription that he captured 14,400 enemy soldiers and blinded them all. Here, for the first time, we encounter a description of those ferocious massacres that are repeated with terrifying monotony in subsequent centuries in the inscriptions of the Assyrian kings (the Hittites, however, laid the foundation for them). Shalmanasar also fought against the mountain tribes "Uruatri" (the first mention of the Urartians related to the Hurrians). In all cases, the Assyrians destroyed cities, brutally dealt with the population (killed or maimed, robbed and imposed "noble tribute"). The hijacking of captives to Assyria was still rare, and, as a rule, only skilled artisans were hijacked. Sometimes the prisoners were blinded. Obviously, the Assyrian nobility satisfied the need for labor force for agriculture at the expense of "internal resources". The main goal of the Assyrian conquests during this period was to seize international trade routes and enrich themselves from the income from this trade through the collection of duties, but mainly through direct robbery.

Under the next Assyrian king, Tukulti-Ninurta I (1244-1208 BC), Assyria was already a great power, covering all of Upper Mesopotamia. The new king even dared to invade the territory of the Hittite kingdom, from where he took away "8 Saros" (ie 28,800) captured Hittite warriors. Tukulti-Ninurta I also fought against the steppe nomads and highlanders of the north and east, in particular against "43 kings (i.e. tribal leaders) of Nairi" - the Armenian Highlands. Campaigns now take place regularly, every year, but not so much for the purpose of expanding the territory, but simply for the sake of robbery. But in the south, Tukulti-Ninurta carried out a grandiose deed - he conquered the Kassite Babylonian kingdom(c. 1223 BC) and owned it for more than seven years. An epic poem was composed about this feat of his, and the new title of Tukulti-Ninurta now read: "mighty king, king of Assyria, king of Kar-Duniash (i.e. Babylonia), king of Sumer and Akkad, king of Sippar and Babylon, king of Dilmun and Melakhi (i.e. Bahrain and India), king of the Upper and Lower Seas, king of the mountains and wide steppes, king of the Shubaris (i.e. Hurrians), Kuti (i.e. eastern highlanders) and all the countries of Nairi, the king who listens his gods and accepting noble tribute from the four corners of the world in the city of Ashur". The title, apparently, does not quite accurately reflect the real state of affairs, but contains a whole political program. Firstly, Tukulti-Ninurta renounces the traditional title "ishshiakku Ashshura", but calls himself the ancient title "king of Sumer and Akkad" and refers to the "noble tribute to the four countries of the world", like Naram-Suen or Shulgi. He also lays claim to territories that were not yet part of his state, and also specifically mentions the main trading centers - Sippar and Babylon and trade routes to Bahrain and India. In order to completely get rid of any influence from the community council of Ashur, Tukulti-Ninurta I transferred his residence to the city of Kar-Tukulti-Ninurta, specially built not far from Ashur, i.e. "Tukulti-Ninurta Trading Pier", apparently intending to move the center of trade here. A grandiose palace was also built here - the ceremonial residence of the king, where he even received the gods themselves as guests, i.e., of course, their statues. Special decrees in all subtleties determined the most complex palace ceremonial. Only a few especially high-ranking courtiers (usually eunuchs) now had personal access to the king. An extremely strict regulation determined the order in the palace chambers, the rules for performing special magical rituals to prevent evil, etc.

However, the time for the implementation of "imperial" claims has not yet come. The traditional Assurian nobility turned out to be powerful enough to declare Tukulti-Ninurta I insane, depose him, and then kill him. The new royal residence was abandoned.

Babylonia skillfully took advantage of internal unrest in Assyria, and all subsequent Assyrian kings (except one) were, apparently, simply Babylonian proteges. One of them was forced to return to Babylon the statue of Marduk, taken away by Tukulti-Ninurta.

However, Assyria retained all of Upper Mesopotamia under its rule, and by the time Tiglath-Pileser I (1115-1077 BC) came to the throne, a political situation exceptionally favorable for Assyria had developed in Western Asia. The Hittite kingdom fell, Egypt was in decline. Babylonia was invaded by South Aramaic nomads - the Chaldeans. In this political environment, Assyria actually remained the only great power. It was only necessary to survive in the midst of the general chaos, and then again proceed to the conquests. Both, however, turned out to be much more difficult than one might have imagined. The tribes that appeared in Asia Minor as a result of ethnic movements at the end of the 2nd millennium BC - the proto-Armenian tribes, the Abeshlays (possibly Abkhazians), Arameans, Chaldeans, etc. - were numerous and warlike. They even invaded the borders of Assyria, so first they had to think about defense. But Tiglath-Pileser I was, apparently, a good commander. He very quickly managed to go on the offensive, moving further and further north. He managed to win over a number of tribes to his side without a fight, and they were "ranked among the people of Assyria." In 1112, Tiglath-Pileser set off on a campaign from Mesopotamia up the left bank of the Euphrates. The exact route of this campaign is unknown, but, apparently, it passed along an ancient trade route. The annals report the victory over dozens of "kings", i.e. actually leaders. In particular, it can be assumed that, pursuing the "60 kings of Nairi", the Assyrian army reached the Black Sea - approximately in the area of ​​\u200b\u200bnow Batumi. The vanquished were robbed, moreover, tribute was imposed on them, and hostages were taken to ensure its regular payment. Campaigns to the north continued in the future. One of them is reminiscent of an inscription on a rock to the north of the lake. Van.

Twice Tiglathpalasar made campaigns against Babylonia. In the second campaign, the Assyrians captured and ravaged a number of important cities, including Dur-Kurigalza and Babylon. But around 1089, the Assyrians were again driven back by the Babylonians to their native territory. However, the main attention since 1111 had to be given to the Aramaeans, who became an extremely serious threat. Slowly but steadily they seeped into Northern Mesopotamia. Tiglath-pileser more than once undertook campaigns against them, even to the west of the Euphrates. He smashed the nomads in the oasis of Tadmor (Palmyra), crossed the mountains of Lebanon and passed Phenicia to Sidon itself. He even took a boat trip here and hunted dolphins. All these deeds brought him great fame, but their practical results were negligible. The Assyrians not only failed to gain a foothold west of the Euphrates, but they also failed to defend the territories east of it.

Although Assyrian garrisons still sat in the cities and fortresses of Upper Mesopotamia, the steppe was overrun by nomads who cut all communications with native Assyria. The attempts of subsequent Assyrian kings to conclude an alliance with the kings of Babylonia against the ubiquitous Aramaeans also did not bring any benefit. Assyria was thrown back to its indigenous lands, and its economic and political life fell into complete decline. From the end of the XI to the end of the X century. BC almost no documents or inscriptions have come down to us from Assyria. A new period in the history of Assyria began only after she managed to recover from the Aramaic invasion.

In the field of literature, science and art, the Assyrians in the II millennium BC. did not create almost anything original, completely adopting the Babylonian and partially Hurri-Hittite achievements. In the Assyrian pantheon, in contrast to the Babylonian, the place of the supreme god was occupied by Ashur ("father of the gods" and "Ellil of the gods"). But Marduk and other gods of the common Mesopotamian pantheon were also highly revered in Assyria. A particularly important place among them was occupied by the formidable goddess of war, carnal love and fertility Ishtar in her two guises - Ishtar of Nineveh and Ishtar of Arbel. In Assyria, Ishtar also played the specific role of the patroness of the king. It was borrowed from the Hittites and, probably, the Mitannians literary genre royal annals, but it received the greatest development in the 1st millennium BC.

A very interesting cultural, historical and everyday monument of the era are the so-called "Middle Assyrian Laws" (abbreviated SAZ), which are, most likely, not the laws of the state, but a kind of "scientific" compilation - a set of various legislative acts and norms of customary law of the Ashur community , compiled for training and for practical needs. In total, 14 tablets and fragments have been preserved, which are usually denoted in capital Latin letters from A to O. Their preservation is different - from almost complete to very poor. Some fragments were originally parts of one tablet. They date from the 14th-13th centuries. BC, although the text itself is apparently somewhat older.

The peculiarity of SAZ is manifested in the fact that they combine both very archaic features and serious innovations.

The latter include, for example, the method of systematizing norms. They are grouped in accordance with the subject of regulation into very large "blocks", each of which is dedicated to a special plate, because the "subject" is understood in the SAZ extremely broadly. Yes, Tab. A (fifty-nine paragraphs) is devoted to various aspects legal status a free woman - "daughter of a man", "wife of a man", widows, etc., as well as harlots and slaves. This also includes various offenses committed by a woman or against her, marriage, property relations of spouses, rights to children, etc. In other words, the woman acts here both as a subject of law, and as its object, and as a criminal, and as a victim. "At the same time" this also includes actions committed by "a woman or a man" (murder in a strange house; sorcery), as well as cases of sodomy. Such a grouping, of course, is much more convenient, but its shortcomings are also obvious: theft, for example, ends up in two different tablets, false accusations and false denunciations also fall into different tablets; the same fate befell the rules concerning inheritance. However, these shortcomings are obvious only from our modern point of view. New, in comparison with the Laws of Hammurabi, is also the extremely wide use of public punishments - flogging and "royal work", i.e. a kind of hard labor (in addition to monetary compensation to the victim). Such a phenomenon is unique for such early antiquity and can be explained both by the unusually high development of legal thought, and by the preservation of communal solidarity, which considered many offenses, especially in the field of land relations or against the honor and dignity of free citizens, as affecting the interests of the entire community. On the other hand, SAZ, as already noted, also contain archaic features. These include laws according to which the murderer is handed over to the "owner of the house", i.e. the head of the family of the deceased. The "owner of the house" can do with him at his own discretion: kill him or let him go, taking a ransom from him (in more developed legal systems, a ransom for murder is not allowed). Such a mixture of archaic features with features of a relatively high development is also characteristic of the Middle Assyrian society itself, as reflected in the SAZ.

Ashur was a rich trading city. Significant development of commodity-money relations allowed legislators to widely apply monetary compensation in the form of tens of kilograms of metal (it is not clear whether it is lead or tin). However, at the same time, there was debt bondage on very strict conditions: after a certain period of time, the hostages were considered "bought for the full price." They could be treated like slaves, subjected to corporal punishment and even sold "to another country". The land serves as an object of sale and purchase, although under the control of the authorities. Business documents show that the community can replace the sold piece of land with another, i.e. private ownership of land is combined with the preservation of certain rights of the community.

The patriarchal nature of family relations, already evident from the above order of punishing murderers, becomes even clearer when looking at those legal provisions that regulate family law. There is also a "big family", and the power of the householder is extremely wide. He may pledge his children and wife, subject his wife to corporal punishment, and even mutilate her. "As he pleases" he can do with his "sinned" unmarried daughter. Adultery is punishable by death for both of its participants: having caught them at the scene of the crime, the offended husband can kill them both. According to the court, the adulterer was imposed the same punishment as the husband wished to inflict on his wife. A woman could become legally independent only if she was widowed and had neither sons (even if they were minors), nor a father-in-law, nor other male relatives of her husband. Otherwise, it remains under their patriarchal authority. SAZ establish a very simple procedure for turning a slave concubine into a legal wife and legitimizing the children born to her, but in all other cases the attitude towards slaves and slaves is extremely severe. Slaves and harlots, under pain of severe punishment, were forbidden to wear a veil - a mandatory accessory for a free woman's costume. However, heavy punishments are imposed on the slave according to the law, and not according to the arbitrariness of the masters.

SAZ also mention certain categories of dependent people, but the exact meaning of the corresponding terms is not yet entirely clear (from business documents it can be seen that the “voluntary” entry of free people under the patronage of noble persons was also practiced, i.e. turning free people into clients). In Assyrian legal proceedings, the ordeal (ordeal by water) and the oath were widely used. Refusal of the ordeal and oath was tantamount to an admission of guilt. The punishments imposed under the SAZ are usually extremely severe and proceed, although not as consistently as the Laws of Hammurabi, from the principle of talion (retribution to equal for equal), which is expressed in wide application self-harmful punishments.

As you know, the country in the north of which the Assyrian state arose is Mesopotamia, also called Mesopotamia. It received this name due to its location in the valley of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. Being the cradle of such powerful states of the ancient world as Babylonia, Sumer and Akkad, it played an important role in the formation and development of world civilization. As for his most warlike offspring, Assyria, it is she who is considered the first empire in the history of mankind.

Geographical and natural features of Mesopotamia

In my own way geographic location Ancient Mesopotamia had two significant advantages. First, unlike the arid regions surrounding it, it was located in the zone of the so-called Fertile Crescent, where a significant amount of precipitation fell in winter, which was very favorable for agriculture. Secondly, the soil in this region abounded with deposits of iron ore and copper, highly valued since the people learned to work them.

Today the territory of Mesopotamia - ancient country, in the north of which the Assyrian state arose - is divided between Iraq and Northeast Syria. In addition, some of its areas belong to Iran and Turkey. Both in antiquity and in the period modern history this Central Asian region is a zone of frequent armed conflicts, sometimes creating tension in all international politics.

Warlike daughter of Mesopotamia

According to researchers, the history of Assyria goes back almost 2 thousand years. Formed in the XXIV century BC. e, the state existed until the beginning of the 7th century, after which, in 609 BC. e., fell under the onslaught of the armies of Babylon and Media. The Assyrian power is rightfully considered one of the most warlike and aggressive in the ancient world.

Having begun its aggressive campaigns in the first half of the 9th century, it soon managed to conquer a vast territory. Under the rule of its kings was not only all of Mesopotamia, but also Palestine, Cyprus and Egypt, which, however, after a short time managed to regain independence.

In addition, the Assyrian state controlled parts of present-day Turkey and Syria for many centuries. That is why it is considered to be an empire, that is, a state that relies on military force in its foreign policy and expands its own borders at the expense of the territories of the peoples it has captured.

Colonial policy of Assyria

Since the country, in the north of which the Assyrian state arose, was already completely conquered by it at the beginning of the 9th century, the next 3 centuries are nothing more than a period of their common history, replete with many dramatic pages. It is known that the Assyrians imposed tribute on all the conquered peoples, for the collection of which they periodically sent armed detachments.

In addition, all skilled artisans were driven to the territory of Assyria, thanks to which it was possible to raise the level of production to an unprecedented height at that time, and to influence all the surrounding peoples with the achievements of culture. This order was maintained for centuries by the most cruel punitive measures. All those who were dissatisfied were inevitably doomed to death or, at best, to immediate deportation.

Outstanding politician and warrior

The peak of the development of the state of Assyria is considered to be the period from 745 to 727 BC. e., when it was headed by the greatest ruler of antiquity - King Tiglath-Pileser III, who went down in history not only as an outstanding commander of his time, but also as a very far-sighted and cunning politician.

It is known, for example, that in 745 BC. e. he responded to the call of the Babylonian king Nabonasar, who asked for help in the fight against the Chaldean and Elamite tribes that occupied the country. Having sent his troops into Babylonia and expelled the invaders from it, the wise king managed to win such warm sympathy from the locals that he became the de facto ruler of the country, pushing their unlucky king into the background.

Under Sargon II

After the death of Tiglathpalasar, the throne was inherited by his son, who went down in history under the name of Sargon II. He continued to expand the borders of the state, but, unlike his father, he resorted not so much to skillful diplomacy as to brute military force. For example, when in 689 BC. e. an uprising broke out in Babylon subject to him, he razed it to the ground, sparing neither women nor children.

City returned from oblivion

During his reign, the capital of Assyria, and in fact of the entire Ancient Mesopotamia, was the city of Nineveh, mentioned in the Bible, but for a long time considered fictional. Only excavations by French archaeologists, carried out in the 40s of the XIX century, made it possible to prove its historicity. This was a sensational discovery, since until then even the very location of Assyria was not known exactly.

Thanks to the work of researchers, many artifacts were discovered that testify to the extraordinary luxury with which Sargon II equipped Nineveh, which replaced the former capital of the state - the city of Ashur. It became known about the palace he built and the powerful defensive structures that surrounded the city. One of the technical achievements of that era was the aqueduct, raised to a height of 10 meters and supplying water to the royal gardens.

Among other finds of French archaeologists were clay tablets containing inscriptions in one of the Semitic languages. Having deciphered them, scientists learned about the campaign of the Assyrian king Sargon II in the southwestern part of Asia, where he conquered the state of Urartu, as well as about the capture of the North Israeli kingdom, which is also mentioned in the Bible, but was doubted by historians.

Structure of Assyrian society

From the first centuries after the formation of the state, the Assyrian kings concentrated in their hands the entirety of military, civil and religious power. They were at the same time supreme rulers, military leaders, high priests and treasurers. The next step in the vertical of power was occupied by governors of the provinces, who were appointed from among the military.

They were responsible not only for the loyalty of the peoples living in the conquered territories, but also for the timely and complete receipt of the established tribute from them. The bulk of the population was made up of farmers and artisans, who were either slaves or workers who were dependent on their masters.

The death of an empire

By the beginning of the 7th century BC. e. the history of Assyria reached the highest point of its development, followed by its unexpected collapse. As mentioned above, in 609 BC. e. the territory of the empire was invaded by the combined troops of two neighboring states - Babylonia, which was once under the control of Assyria, but managed to gain independence, and Media. The forces were too unequal, and, despite the desperate resistance of the enemy, the empire, which for a long time kept all of Mesopotamia and the lands adjacent to it in its obedience, ceased to exist.

Under the control of the conquerors

However, Mesopotamia - the country in the north of which the Assyrian state arose - did not retain the status of a politically independent region for long after its fall. After 7 decades, it was completely captured by the Persians, after which it was no longer able to revive its former sovereignty. From the end of the VI to the middle of the IV century BC. e. this vast region was part of the Achaemenid state - the Persian empire, which subjugated the whole of Asia Minor and a significant part of Northeast Africa. It got its name from the name of its first ruler - King Achaemen, who became the founder of a dynasty that ruled for almost 3 centuries.

In the middle of the IV century BC. e. Alexander the Great expelled the Persians from the territory of Mesopotamia, incorporating it into his empire. After its collapse, the homeland of the once formidable Assyrians fell under the rule of the Hellenistic Seleucid monarchy, who built a new Greek state on the ruins of the former state. These were truly worthy heirs of the former glory of Tsar Alexander. They managed to extend their power not only to the territory of the once sovereign Mesopotamia, but also to subjugate all of Asia Minor, Phoenicia, Syria, Iran, as well as a significant part of Central Asia and the Middle East.

However, these warriors were also destined to leave the historical stage. In the III century BC. e. Mesopotamia is in the power of the Parthian kingdom, located on the southern shores of the Caspian Sea, and two centuries later it is captured by the Armenian emperor Tigran Osroene. During the period of Roman rule, Mesopotamia broke up into several small states that had different rulers. This last stage of its history, referring to the period of Late Antiquity, is remarkable only in that the largest and most famous city of Mesopotamia was Edessa, repeatedly mentioned in the Bible and associated with the names of many prominent figures of Christianity.

Statue of Ashurnasirpal. London. British museum

The activities of Ashshurnasirpal were continued by Shalmaneser III, who reigned in the second half of the 9th century. BC e. During his 35-year reign, he made 32 campaigns. Like all Assyrian kings, Shalmaneser III had to fight on all the borders of his state. In the west, Shalmaneser conquered Bit-Adin with the goal of complete subjugation of the entire Euphrates valley up to Babylon. Moving further north, Shalmaneser met the stubborn resistance of Damascus, which managed to rally around itself quite significant forces of the Syrian principalities. In the battle of Karkara in 854, Shalmaneser won a major victory over the Syrian troops, but could not realize the fruits of his victory, since the Assyrians themselves suffered great losses during this battle. A little later, Shalmaneser again came out against Damascus with a huge, 120,000-strong army, but still could not achieve a decisive victory over Damascus. However, Assyria succeeded in largely weakening Damascus and splitting the forces of the Syrian coalition. Israel, Tire and Sidon submitted to the Assyrian king and sent him tribute. Even Egyptian pharaoh recognized the power of Assyria, sending him a gift of two camels, a hippopotamus and other outlandish animals. Greater successes fell to the lot of Assyria in its struggle with Babylon. Shalmaneser III made a devastating campaign in Babylonia and even reached the swampy regions of the Maritime country off the coast of the Persian Gulf, conquering all of Babylonia. Assyria had to wage a stubborn struggle with the northern tribes of Urartu. Here the Assyrian king and his commanders had to fight in difficult mountainous conditions with the strong troops of the Urartian king Sardur. Although the Assyrian troops invaded Urartu, they still could not defeat this state, and Assyria itself was forced to restrain the onslaught of the Urartians. The external expression of the increased military power of the Assyrian state and its desire to carry out an aggressive policy is the famous black obelisk of Shalmaneser III, which depicts ambassadors of foreign countries from all four corners of the world, bringing tribute to the Assyrian king. The remains of a temple built by Shalmaneser III in the ancient capital of Ashur, as well as the remains of the fortifications of this city, testify to a significant increase in fortification technology in the era of the rise of Assyria, which claimed the leading role in Asia Minor. However, Assyria did not retain its dominant position for long. The strengthened Urartian state became a formidable rival of Assyria. The Assyrian kings failed to conquer Urartu. Moreover, Urartian kings sometimes won victories over the Assyrians. Thanks to their victorious campaigns, the Urartian kings managed to cut off Assyria from Transcaucasia, Asia Minor and Northern Syria, which dealt a heavy blow and damage to Assyrian trade with these countries and had a heavy impact on the economic life of the country. All this led to the decline of the Assyrian state, which lasted for almost a whole century. Assyria was forced to cede its dominant position in the northern part of Western Asia to the state of Urartu.

In the middle of the VIII century. BC. Assyria is getting stronger again. Tiglath-Pileser III (745-727) again resumes the traditional conquest policy of his predecessors during the period of the first and second rise of Assyria. The new strengthening of Assyria led to the formation of the great Assyrian power, which claims to unite the entire ancient Eastern world within the framework of a single world despotism. This new flowering of Assyrian military power is explained by the development of the country's productive forces, which required the development of foreign trade, the capture of sources of raw materials, markets, the protection of trade routes, the capture of booty, and mainly the main labor force - slaves.

During this period, the economic life of the Assyrians is still great importance has cattle breeding. The camel is added to those types of domestic animals that were tamed in the previous period. Bactrian camels appear in Assyria already under Tiglath-Pileser I and Shalmaneser III. But in large numbers, camels, in particular one-humped ones, appear only from the time of Tiglath-Pileser IV. Assyrian kings bring camels in large numbers from Arabia. Ashurbanipal captured such a large number of camels during his campaign in Arabia that their price fell in Assyria from 1 2/3 mina to 1/2 shekel (4 grams of silver). Camels in Assyria were widely used as pack animals during military campaigns and trading expeditions, especially when crossing waterless dry steppes and deserts. From Assyria, domestic camels spread to Iran and Central Asia.

Along with grain farming, gardening has been widely developed. The presence of large gardens, which were apparently under the jurisdiction of the royal palace, is indicated by the surviving images and inscriptions. So, near one royal palace, “a large garden was laid out, similar to the gardens of the Aman mountains, in which various varieties of vegetables and fruit trees grow, plants originating from the mountains and from Chaldea.” In these gardens, not only local fruit trees were cultivated, but also rare varieties of imported plants, such as olives. Around Nineveh, gardens were laid out in which they tried to acclimatize foreign plants, in particular the myrrh tree. Valuable species of useful plants and trees were grown in special nurseries. We know that the Assyrians tried to acclimatize the "wool-bearing tree", apparently cotton, which was taken from the south, maybe from India. Along with this, attempts were made to artificially acclimatize various valuable grape varieties from mountainous regions. Excavations discovered in the city of Ashur the remains of a large garden, laid out by order of Sennacherib. The garden was laid out on the territory of 16 thousand square meters. m. covered with artificial earth embankment. Holes were punched in the rock, which were connected by artificial channels. Images of smaller privately owned gardens, usually surrounded by a clay wall, have also been preserved.

Artificial irrigation did not have such an effect in Assyria. of great importance, as in Egypt or in the southern Mesopotamia. However, in Assyria, artificial irrigation was also used. Images of water scoops (shaduf) have been preserved, which were especially widespread under Sennacherib. Sennacherib and Esarhaddon built a number of large canals in order "to widely provide the country with grain and sesame."

Along with agriculture, handicrafts also achieved significant development. The production of opaque glass paste, vitreous faience and tiles, or tiles covered with colorful, multicolored enamel, has become widespread. Walls and gates of large buildings, palaces and temples were usually decorated with these tiles. With the help of these tiles in Assyria they created a beautiful multi-colored ornamentation of buildings, the technique of which was subsequently borrowed by the Persians, and from Persia passed into Central Asia< где и сохранилась до настоящего времени. Ворота дворца Саргона II роскошно украшены изображениями «гениев плодородия» и розеточным орнаментом, а стены - не менее роскошными изображениями символического характера: изображениями льва, ворона, быка, смоковницы и плуга. Наряду с техникой изготовления стеклянной пасты ассирийцам было известно прозрачное выдувное стекло, на что указывает найденная стеклянная ваза с именем Саргона II.

The presence of stone contributed to the development of stone-cutting and stone-cutting. Near Nineveh, limestone was mined in large quantities, which served to make monolithic statues depicting geniuses - the patrons of the king and the royal palace. Other types of stone needed for buildings, as well as various precious stones, were brought by the Assyrians from neighboring countries.

Metallurgy reached especially wide development and technical perfection in Assyria. Excavations in Nineveh showed that in the ninth century. BC e. iron was already used on a par with copper. In the palace of Sargon II in Dur-Sharrukin (modern Khorsabad) a huge warehouse was found with a large number of iron products: hammers, hoes, shovels, plowshares, plows, chains, bits, hooks, rings, etc. Obviously, in this era in technique, there was a transition from bronze to iron. Finely crafted lion-shaped weights, bronze pieces of artistic furniture and candelabra, as well as luxurious gold jewelry, indicate high technical perfection.

The growth of productive forces caused the further development of foreign and domestic trade. A wide variety of goods were brought to Assyria from a number of foreign countries. Tiglath-Pileser III received incense from Damascus. Under Sennacherib, from the seaside Chaldea, they received reeds necessary for buildings; lapis lazuli, which was highly valued in those days, was brought from Media; various precious stones were brought from Arabia, and from Egypt products from Ivory and other goods. In the palace of Sennacherib, pieces of clay with impressions of Egyptian and Hittite seals were found, with the help of which parcels were sealed.

In Assyria, the most important trade routes crossed, connecting various countries and regions of Western Asia. The Tigris was a major trade route, along which goods were transported from Asia Minor and Armenia to the Mesopotamia valley and further to the country of Elam. Caravan routes went from Assyria to the region of Armenia, to the region of large lakes - Van and Urmia. In particular, an important trade route to Lake Urmia went along the valley of the upper Zab, through the Kelishinsky passage. To the west of the Tigris, another caravan route led through Nassibin and Harran to Karchemish and across the Euphrates to the Cilician Gates, which opened a further path to Asia Minor, inhabited by the Hittites. Finally, from Assyria there was a high road through the desert, leading to Palmyra and further to Damascus. Both this path and other paths led from Assyria to the west, to the large ports located on the Syrian coast. The most important was the trade route that went from the western bend of the Euphrates to Syria, from where the sea route to the islands of the Mediterranean Sea and to Egypt was opened.

Statue of a winged bull, a genius - the patron of the royal palace

In Assyria, for the first time, good, artificially made, stone-paved roads appeared. One inscription says that when Esarhaddon rebuilt Babylon, "he opened its roads on all four sides, so that the Babylonians, using them, could communicate with all countries." These roads were of great strategic importance. So, Tiglathpalasar I built in the country of Kummukh "a road for his carts and troops." The remains of these roads have survived to this day. Such is the plot high road, connecting the fortress of King Sargon with the Euphrates valley. The technique of road construction, which reached a high development in ancient Assyria, was subsequently borrowed and improved by the Persians, and from them, in turn, passed to the Romans. Assyrian roads were well maintained. Markers were usually placed at certain distances. Every hour, guards passed along these roads, using fire signals to convey important messages. The roads passing through the desert were guarded by special fortifications and supplied with wells. The Assyrians knew how to build strong bridges, most often wooden, but sometimes stone. Sennacherib built against the city gates, in the middle of the city, a bridge of limestone slabs, in order to pass over it in his royal chariot. The Greek historian Herodotus reports that the bridge in Babylon was built of unhewn stones, held together with iron and lead. In spite of the careful guarding of the roads, in distant regions, where Assyrian influence was comparatively weak, Assyrian caravans were at great risk. They were sometimes attacked by nomads and robbers. However, Assyrian officials carefully monitored the regular dispatch of caravans. One official in a special message reported to the king that one caravan that left the country of the Nabataeans was robbed and that the only surviving caravan driver was sent to the king to make a personal report to him.

The presence of a whole network of roads made it possible to organize a public communications service. Special royal messengers carried the royal messages throughout the country. In the largest settlements there were special officials who were in charge of the delivery of royal letters. If these officials did not send letters and ambassadors for three or four days, then they immediately received complaints to the capital of Assyria, Nineveh.

An interesting document that vividly illustrates the widespread use of roads are the remains of ancient guidebooks, preserved among the inscriptions of this time. These guides usually indicate the distance between individual settlements in hours and days of travel.

Despite the extensive development of trade, the entire economic system as a whole retained a primitive natural character. So, taxes and tribute were usually collected in kind. At the royal palaces there were large warehouses where a wide variety of goods were stored.

The social system of Assyria still retained the features of the ancient tribal and communal system. So, for example, until the era of Ashurbanipal (7th century BC), remnants of blood feuds persisted. In one document of this time, it is said that instead of "blood" a slave should be given in order to "wash away the blood." If a person refused to give compensation for the murder, he should have been killed on the grave of the murdered. In another document, the murderer undertakes to give in compensation for the murdered his wife, his brother or his son.

Along with this, ancient forms of the patriarchal family and domestic slavery also survived. The documents of this time record the facts of the sale of a girl who is given in marriage, and the sale of a slave and a free girl who is given in marriage were formalized in exactly the same way. Just as in previous times, a father could sell his child into slavery. The eldest son still retained his privileged position in the family, receiving the largest and best part of the inheritance. The development of trade also contributed to the class stratification of Assyrian society. Often the poor lost their land allotments and went bankrupt, falling into economic dependence on the rich. Unable to pay the loan on time, they had to work off their debt by personal labor in the creditor's house as indentured slaves.

The number of slaves especially increased as a result of the large campaigns of conquest that the Assyrian kings made. The captives, who were brought to Assyria in great numbers, were usually enslaved. Many documents have been preserved that record the sale of slaves and female slaves. Sometimes whole families were sold, consisting of 10, 13, 18 and even 27 people. Many slaves worked in agriculture. Sometimes plots of land were sold along with those slaves who worked on this land. Significant development of slavery leads to the fact that slaves get the right to have some property and even a family, but the slave owner always retained full power over the slave and over his property.

A sharp stratification of property led not only to the division of society into two antagonistic classes, slave owners and slaves, but also caused the stratification of the free population into poor and rich. Wealthy slave owners owned large quantities of cattle, land, and slaves. In ancient Assyria, as in other countries of the East, the largest owner and landowner was the state represented by the king, who was considered the supreme owner of all the land. However, the private landed property. Sargon, buying land for the construction of his capital Dur-Sharrukin, pays the land owners the cost of the land alienated from them. Along with the king, temples owned large estates. These estates had a number of privileges and, along with the possessions of the nobility, were sometimes exempted from paying taxes. A lot of land was in the hands of private owners, and along with small landowners there were also large ones who had land forty times more than the poor. A number of documents have been preserved that talk about the sale of fields, gardens, wells, houses and even entire land areas.

Long wars and cruel forms of exploitation of the laboring masses eventually led to a decrease in the free population of Assyria. But the Assyrian state needed a constant influx of soldiers to replenish the ranks of the army and therefore was forced to take a number of measures to preserve and strengthen the financial situation of this bulk of the population. The Assyrian kings, continuing the policy of the Babylonian kings, distributed plots of land to free people, placing on them the obligation to serve the royal troops. So, we know that Shalmaneser I settled the northern border of the state with colonists. 400 years later, the Assyrian king Ashurnazirpal used the descendants of these colonists to populate the new province of Tushkhana. Warrior colonists, who received land allotments from the king, settled in the border regions, so that in case of a military danger or a military campaign it would be possible to quickly gather troops in the border regions. As can be seen from the documents, the colonist warriors, like the Babylonian red and bair, were under the auspices of the king. Their land plots were inalienable. In the event that local officials forcibly seized from them land plots granted to them by the king, the colonists had the right to file a complaint directly with the king. This is confirmed by the following document: “The father of my lord-king granted me 10 arable land in the country of Halakh. For 14 years I have used this site, and no one challenged this character from me. Now the ruler of the Barhaltsi region has come, used force against me, plundered my house and took away my field from me. My lord-king knows that I am only a poor man who is guarding my lord and who is loyal to the palace. Since my field has now been taken from me, I ask the king for justice. May my king repay me according to my right, so that I do not die of hunger. Of course, the colonists were small landowners. From the documents it can be seen that the only source of their income was the land granted to them by the king, which they cultivated with their own hands.

Long wars; which for centuries the Assyrian kings fought with neighboring peoples in order to capture slaves and booty, led to a high development of military affairs. In the second half of the 8th century, under Tiglath-pileser III and Sargon II, who began a series of brilliant campaigns of conquest, various reforms were carried out that led to the reorganization and flourishing of military affairs in the Assyrian state. The Assyrian kings created a numerous, well-armed and a strong army, placing the entire apparatus of state power at the service of military needs. The numerous Assyrian army consisted of military colonists, and also replenished thanks to military sets that were produced among the broad sections of the free population. The head of each region gathered troops on the territory under his jurisdiction and himself commanded these troops. The army also included contingents of allies, that is, those tribes that were conquered and annexed to Assyria. Thus, we know that Sennacherib, the son of Sargon (the end of the 8th century BC), included in the army 10 thousand archers and 10 thousand shield-bearers from the captives of the “Western Country”, and Ashurbanipal (7th century BC) e.) replenished his army with archers, shield-bearers, artisans and blacksmiths from the conquered regions of Elam. In Assyria, a permanent army is being created, which was called the "Knot of the Kingdom" and served to suppress the rebels. Finally, there was the tsar's life guard, which was supposed to protect the "sacred" person of the tsar. The development of military affairs required the establishment of certain combat formations. The inscriptions most often mention small formations consisting of 50 people (kisru). However, obviously, there were smaller and larger military formations. Ordinary military units included foot soldiers, horsemen and warriors who fought on chariots, and sometimes a proportional relationship was established between individual types of weapons. For every 200 foot soldiers, there were 10 horsemen and one chariot. The presence of chariots and cavalry, which first appeared under Ashurnazirpal (IX century BC), sharply increased the mobility of the Assyrian army and gave it the opportunity to make swift attacks and just as quickly pursue the retreating enemy. But still, the bulk of the troops remained infantry, consisting of archers, shield-bearers, spearmen and javelin throwers. Assyrian troops were distinguished by their good weapons. They were armed with armor, shields and helmets. The most common weapons were the bow, short sword and spear.

The Assyrian kings paid special attention to the good armament of their troops. Many weapons were found in the palace of Sargon II, and Sennacherib and Esarhaddon (7th century BC) built a real arsenal in Nineveh, “a palace in which everything is preserved” for “armament of the black-headed, for receiving horses, mules, donkeys, camels, chariots, freight carts, carts, quivers, bows, arrows, all kinds of utensils and harnesses for horses and mules.

In Assyria, for the first time, “engineering” military units appeared, which were used to lay roads in the mountains, to build simple and pontoon bridges, as well as camps. The surviving images indicate a high development of fortification art in ancient Assyria for that time. The Assyrians knew how to build large and well-protected by walls and towers, permanent fortress-type camps, to which they gave a rectangular or oval shape. The fortification technique was borrowed from the Assyrians by the Persians, and from them passed to the ancient Romans. The ruins of fortresses that have survived to this day, found in a number of places, such as, for example, in Zendshirli, speak of the high technology of fortification in ancient Assyria. The presence of well-defended fortresses required the use of siege weapons. Therefore, in Assyria, in connection with the development of fortification, the beginnings of the most ancient “artillery” business also appear. On the walls of the Assyrian palaces, images of the siege and storming of fortresses have been preserved. The besieged fortresses were usually surrounded by an earthen rampart and a moat. Plank pavements and scaffolds were built near their walls for the installation of siege weapons. The Assyrians used siege battering rams, a kind of rams on wheels. The shock part of these tools was a large log, upholstered in metal and suspended on chains. People who were under a canopy shook this log and broke the walls of fortresses with it. It is very possible that these first Assyrian siege weapons were borrowed from them by the Persians and subsequently formed the basis of more advanced weapons used by the ancient Romans.

The broad policy of conquest caused a significant growth in the art of war. The Assyrian commanders knew how to use frontal and flank attacks and the combination of these types of attacks when attacking with a wide front. Often the Assyrians used various "military tricks", such as a night attack on the enemy. Along with the tactics of crushing, the tactics of starvation were also used. To this end, military detachments occupied all mountain passes, water sources, wells, river crossings, in order to cut off all enemy communications, deprive him of water, supplies and the opportunity to receive reinforcements. However, the main strength of the Assyrian army was the rapid speed of the attack, the ability to deliver a lightning strike to the enemy before he gathered his forces. Ashurbanipal (VII century BC) conquered the entire mountainous and rugged country of Elam within one month. The unsurpassed masters of the military art of their time - the Assyrians were well aware of the importance of the complete destruction of the enemy's combat force. Therefore, the Assyrian troops especially swiftly and stubbornly pursued and destroyed the defeated enemy, using chariots and cavalry for this purpose.

home military power Assyria consisted of a large, well-armed and combat-ready land army. Assyria had almost no fleet of its own and was forced to rely on the fleets of the conquered countries, mainly Phoenicia, as was the case, for example, during Sargon's campaign against Cyprus. Therefore, it is not surprising that the Assyrians depicted every sea expedition as a major event. Thus, the dispatch of a fleet to the Persian Gulf under King Sennacherib is described in great detail in Assyrian inscriptions. Ships for this purpose were built by Phoenician craftsmen at Nineveh, sailors from Tyre, Sidon and Ionia were put on them, then the ships were sent down the Tigris to Opis. After that, they were dragged overland to the Arakhtu canal. On the Euphrates, Assyrian soldiers were loaded onto them, after which this fleet was finally sent to the Persian Gulf.

The siege of the fortress by the Assyrian army. Relief on stone. London. British museum

The Assyrians fought their wars with neighboring peoples mainly to conquer neighboring countries, seize the most important trade routes, and also seize booty, primarily captives, who were usually enslaved. This is indicated by numerous inscriptions, in particular chronicles, which describe in detail the campaigns of the Assyrian kings. Thus, Sennacherib brought from Babylon 208,000 captives, 720 horses and mules, 11,073 donkeys, 5,230 camels, 80,100 bulls, etc. cows, 800 600 heads of small cattle. All booty captured during the war was usually divided by the king between temples, cities, city rulers, nobles and troops. Of course, the king kept the lion's share of the spoils for himself. The capture of prey often turned into an undisguised robbery of a conquered country. This is clearly indicated by the following inscription: “War chariots, wagons, horses, mules that served as pack animals, weapons, everything related to the battle, everything that the king’s hands took between Susa and the Ulai River, was joyfully ordered by Ashur and the great gods. taken out of Elam and distributed as gifts among all the troops.

Whole system government controlled was put at the service of military affairs and the aggressive policy of the Assyrian kings. The positions of Assyrian officials are closely intertwined with military posts. All the threads of the country's government converge to the royal palace, where the most important state officials who are in charge of individual branches of government are permanently located.

The vast territory of the state, which was larger than all previous state associations, required a very complex and cumbersome apparatus of state administration. The surviving list of officials from the era of Esarhaddon (7th century BC) contains a list of 150 positions. Along with the military department, there was also a financial department that was in charge of collecting taxes from the population. The provinces annexed to the Assyrian state had to pay a certain tribute. The areas inhabited by nomads usually paid tribute in kind in the amount of one head from 20 heads of cattle. Cities and regions with a settled population paid tribute in gold and silver, as can be seen from the surviving tax lists. Taxes were collected from the peasants in kind. As a rule, one tenth of the crop, a fourth of the fodder, and a certain number of livestock were taken as a tax. A special duty was taken from arriving ships. The same duties were levied at the city gates on imported goods.

Only representatives of the aristocracy and some cities were exempted from such taxes, in which large priestly colleges enjoyed great influence. Thus, we know that Babylon, Borsshsha, Sippar, Nippur, Ashur, and Haran were exempt from tax in favor of the king. Usually, the Assyrian kings, after their accession to the throne, confirmed the rights of the largest cities to self-government by special decrees. So it was under Sargon and Esarhaddon. Therefore, after the accession of Ashurbanipal, the inhabitants of Babylon turned to him with a special petition, in which they reminded him that "only as soon as our sovereign kings ascended the throne, they immediately took measures to confirm our right to self-government and ensure our well-being." Deeds of gift given to aristocrats often contain annotations that freed this aristocrat from duties. These postscripts were usually formulated as follows: “You should not take taxes in grain. He does not carry duties in his city. If a land plot is mentioned, then it is usually written: “A free plot, freed from the supply of fodder and grain.” Taxes and duties were collected from the population on the basis of statistical lists that were compiled during periodic population and property censuses. The lists that have survived from the regions of Haran indicate the names of people, their family relationships, their property, in particular the amount of land they owned, and, finally, the name of the official to whom they were obliged to pay taxes.

A surviving code of laws dating back to the 14th century. BC e., speaks of the codification of ancient customary law, which has preserved a number of remnants of ancient times, such as the remnants of blood feuds or the trial of a person’s guilt with water (a kind of “ordeal”). However, the ancient forms of customary law and communal court were increasingly giving way to regular royal jurisdiction, in the hands of judicial officials who decided cases on the basis of one-man command. The development of the court case is further indicated by the legal procedure established by law. The legal proceedings consisted of establishing the fact and corpus delicti, interrogating witnesses, whose testimony had to be supported by a special oath "divine bull, son of the solar god", trials and sentencing. There were also special judicial bodies, and the highest court usually sat in the royal palace. As can be seen from the surviving documents, the Assyrian courts, whose activity was aimed at strengthening the existing class system, usually imposed various punishments on the guilty, and in some cases these punishments were very cruel. Along with fines, forced labor, corporal punishment brutal mutilation of the guilty was also used. Guilty cut off lips, nose, ears, fingers. In some cases, the convict was impaled or poured over his head with hot asphalt. There were also prisons, which are described in documents that have survived to our time.

As the Assyrian state grew, the need arose for more careful management of both the Assyrian regions proper and the conquered countries. The mixing of the Subarean, Assyrian and Aramaic tribes into one Assyrian people led to the rupture of old tribal and tribal ties, which required a new administrative division countries. In distant countries, conquered by the power of Assyrian weapons, rebellions often arose. Therefore, under Tiglath-pileser III, the old large regions were replaced by new, smaller districts, headed by special officials (bel-pakhati). The name of these officials was borrowed from Babylonia. It is quite possible that the whole new system of small administrative districts was also borrowed from Babylonia, where population density always required the organization of small districts. Trade cities, which enjoyed privileges, were ruled by special mayors. However, the entire management system as a whole was largely centralized. To manage the vast state, the king used special "officials for assignments" (bel-pikitti), with the help of which all the threads of managing the vast state were concentrated in the hands of the despot, who was in the royal palace.

In the neo-Assyrian era, when the vast Assyrian state was finally formed, the management of the vast state required strict centralization. The conduct of constant wars of conquest, the suppression of uprisings among the conquered peoples and among the broad masses of cruelly exploited slaves and the poor required the concentration of supreme power in the hands of the despot and the consecration of his authority with the help of religion. The king was considered the supreme high priest and performed religious rites himself. Even noble persons admitted to the reception of the king had to fall at the feet of the king and "kiss the ground in front of him" or his feet. However, the principle of despotism did not receive such a clear expression in Assyria as in Egypt during the heyday of the Egyptian statehood, when the doctrine of the pharaoh's divinity was formulated. The Assyrian king, even in the era of the highest development of the state, sometimes had to resort to the advice of the priests. Before the start of a major campaign or when a high official was appointed to a responsible position, the Assyrian kings asked the will of the gods (oracle), which the priests conveyed to them, which made it possible ruling class slave-owning aristocracy to exert significant influence on government policy.

The true founder of the Assyrian state was Tiglath-pileser III (745–727 BC), who laid the foundation of Assyrian military power with his military campaigns. The first task that confronted the Assyrian king was the need to deliver a decisive blow to Urartu, Assyria's longtime rival in Asia Minor. Tiglath-Pileser III managed to make a successful trip to Urartu and inflict a number of defeats on the Urartians. Although Tiglathpalasar did not conquer the Urartian kingdom, he significantly weakened it, restoring the former "power of Assyria in the northwestern part of Asia Minor. We proudly inform the Assyrian king about his campaigns to the northwest and west, which made it possible to finally conquer the Aramaean tribes and restore Assyrian domination in Syria, Phenicia and Palestine.Tiglatdalacap, conquers Carchemish, Samal, Hamat, the regions of Lebanon and reaches the Mediterranean Sea.Hiram, the king of Tyre, the prince of Byblos and the king of Israel (Samaria) is brought to him.Even Judea, Edom and the Philistines Gaza recognize the power of the Assyrian conqueror. Hanno, the ruler of Gaza, flees to Egypt. However, the formidable Assyrian troops are approaching the borders of Egypt. Having dealt a strong blow to the Sabaean tribes of Arabia, Tiglath-Pileser established contacts with Egypt, sending a special official there. Especially the great success of the Assyrians during these western campaigns was the capture of Damascus in 732, which opened to the Assyrians the most important commercial and military way to Syria and Palestine.

An equally great success of Tiglath-Pileser was the complete subjugation of all of southern Mesopotamia up to the Persian Gulf. Tiglathpalasar writes about this in the chronicle in particular detail:

“I subjugated the vast country of Karduniash (Kassite Babylon) to the farthest border and began to dominate it ... Merodakh-Baladan, the son of Yakina, the king of Primorye, who did not appear before the kings, my ancestors and did not kiss their feet, was seized by horror before the formidable by the power of Ashur my lord, and he came to the city of Sapia and, standing before me, kissed my feet. Gold, mountain dust in large quantities, gold products, gold necklaces, precious stones ... colored clothes, various herbs, cattle and sheep I took as tribute.

Having captured Babylon in 729, Tiglathpalasar annexed Babylonia to his vast state, enlisting the support of the Babylonian priesthood. The king “brought pure sacrifices to Bel ... to the great gods, my lords ... and they loved (recognized. - V.A.) my priestly dignity.

Having reached the mountains of Aman in the north-west and penetrating in the east into the regions of the "powerful Medes", Tiglath-Pileser III created a huge and powerful military state. In order to saturate the inner regions with a sufficient amount of labor, the king brought in a large number of slaves from the conquered countries. Along with this, the Assyrian king moved entire tribes from one part of his state to another, which, at the same time, should have weakened the resistance of the conquered peoples and completely subordinated them to the power of the Assyrian king. This system of mass migrations of conquered tribes (nasahu) has since become one of the ways to suppress the conquered countries.

Tiglath-Pileser III was succeeded by his son Shalmaneser V. During his five-year reign (727-722 BC), Shalmaneser made a number of military campaigns and carried out an important reform. Babylon and Phoenicia and Palestine, located in the west, attracted Shalmaneser's special attention. In order to emphasize the presence, as it were, of a personal union with Babylon, the Assyrian king adopted the special name Ululai, by which he was called in Babylon. In order to suppress the uprising, which was being prepared by the ruler of the Phoenician city of Tire, Shalmaneser made two campaigns to the west against Tyre and his ally, the Israeli king O this. Assyrian troops defeated the Israelites and laid siege to the island fortress of Tire and the capital of Israel, Samaria. But the reform carried out by Shalmaneser was of particular importance. In an effort to somewhat mitigate the excessively aggravated class contradictions, Shalmaneser V canceled the financial and economic benefits and privileges of the ancient cities of Assyria and Babylonia - Ashur, Nippur, Sippar and Babylon. With this, he dealt a strong blow to the slave-owning aristocracy, rich merchants, priests and landowners, who enjoyed especially great economic influence in Babylonia. The reform of Shalmanasar, which sharply affected the interests of this segment of the population, aroused his dissatisfaction with the policy of the king. As a result, a conspiracy was organized and an uprising was raised. Shalmaneser V was overthrown, and his brother Sargon II was elevated to the throne.

The aggressive policy of Tiglath-Pileser III was continued with great brilliance by Sargon II (722–705 BC), whose name (“sharru kenu” - “legal king”) suggests that he seized power by force, overthrowing his predecessor. Sargon II had to again make a campaign in Syria in order to suppress the uprising of the Syrian kings and princes, who, obviously, relied on the support of Egypt. As a result of this war, Sargon II defeated Israel, took Samaria and took over 25 thousand Israelis captive, resettling them in the interior and on the distant borders of Assyria. After a difficult siege of Tyre, Sargon II managed to get the king of Tyre to submit to him and pay tribute. Finally, at the battle of Raphia, Sargon inflicted a complete defeat on Hanno, the prince of Gaza, and the Egyptian troops that the pharaoh had sent to help Gaza. In his chronicle, Sargon II reports that he "seized Hanno, king of Gaza, with his own hand" and accepted tribute from the pharaoh, "king of Egypt", and the queen of the Sabaean tribes of Arabia. Having finally conquered Carchemish, Sargon II took possession of all of Syria from the borders of Asia Minor to the borders of Arabia and Egypt.

Sargon II and his vizier. Relief on stone. 8th century BC e.

No less major victories were won by Sargon II over the Urartians in the 7th and 8th years of his reign. Having penetrated deep into the country of Urartu, Sargon defeated the Urartian troops, occupied and plundered Musasir. In this rich city, Sargon captured a huge amount of booty. “The treasures of the palace, everything that was in it, 20,170 people with their property, Khalda and Bagbartum, their gods with their rich attire, I counted as booty.” The defeat was so great that the Urartian king Rusa, having learned about the destruction of Musasir and the capture of the statues of the gods by the enemies, "with his own hand committed suicide with his dagger."

For Sargon II, the struggle with Babylon, which supported Elam, presented great difficulties. However, in this war, Sargon also defeated the enemies, using the dissatisfaction of the Chaldean cities and the priesthood with the policy of the Babylonian king Merodah-Baladan (Marduk-apal-iddin), whose stubborn but futile resistance to the Assyrian troops brought a loss to the trade operations of the Babylonian cities and the Babylonian priesthood. Having defeated the Babylonian troops, Sargon, in his own words, "entered Babylon in the midst of jubilation." People; led by priests, solemnly invited the Assyrian king to enter the ancient capital of Mesopotamia (710 BC). The victory over the Urartians made it possible for Sargon to strengthen his influence in the border regions inhabited by the Medes and Persians. The Assyrian kingdom reached a high power. The king built himself a new luxurious capital Dur-Sharrukin, the ruins of which give a vivid idea of ​​the Assyrian culture and the flourishing of Assyria at that time. Even distant Cyprus recognized the power of the Assyrian king and sent him tribute.

However, the power of the huge Assyrian state was largely internally fragile. After the death of a powerful conqueror, the conquered tribes rebelled. New coalitions were formed that threatened the Assyrian king Sina-herib. The small kingdoms and principalities of Syria, Phoenicia and Palestine were united again. Tire and Judea, feeling the support of Egypt behind them, revolted against Assyria. Despite the large military forces, Sennacherib failed to quickly suppress the uprising. The Assyrian king was forced to use not only weapons, but also diplomacy, using the constant enmity between the two large cities of Phoenicia - Sidon and Tyre. Having besieged Jerusalem, Sennacherib ensured that the Jewish king paid off him with rich gifts. Egypt, ruled by the Ethiopian king Shabaka, could not provide sufficient support to Palestine and Syria. The Egyptian-Ethiopian troops were defeated by Sennacherib.

Great difficulties were created for Assyria and in southern Mesopotamia. The Babylonian king Merodach-Baladan was still supported by the Elamite king. In order to deliver a decisive blow to his enemies in the southern and southeastern countries, Sennacherib equipped a large expedition to the seaside Chaldea and Elam, sending his army by land and at the same time by ship to the shores of the Persian Gulf. However, Sennacherib failed to immediately put an end to his enemies. After a stubborn struggle with the Elamites and the Babylonians, Sennacherib only in 689 occupied and devastated Babylon, inflicting decisive defeats on his opponents. The Elamite king, who previously helped Babylon, was no longer able to provide him with sufficient support.

Esarhaddon (681-668 BC) came to the throne after a palace coup, during which his father Sennacherib was killed. Feeling some fragility of his position, Esarhaddon at the beginning of his reign tried to rely on the Babylonian priesthood. He forced the head of the Babylonian rebels to flee, so that he "fled to Elam like a fox." Using mainly diplomatic methods of struggle, Esarhaddon ensured that his opponent "was killed by the sword of Elam" because he violated the oaths to the gods. As a subtle politician, Esarhaddon managed to win over his brother, entrusting him with the management of the Maritime country and completely subordinating him to his power. Esarhaddon set the task of defeating the main enemy of Assyria, the Ethiopian pharaoh Taharka, who supported the princes and kings of Palestine and Syria and the cities of Phenicia, who constantly rebelled against Assyria. In an effort to strengthen his dominance on the Syrian coast of the Mediterranean Sea, the Assyrian king had to deal a decisive blow to Egypt. Preparing a campaign against distant Egypt, Esarhaddon first strikes one of his stubborn enemies, Abdi-Milkutti, the king of Sidon, "who, according to Esarhaddon, fled from my weapons into the middle of the sea." But the king "caught him out of the sea like a fish." Sidon was taken and destroyed by the Assyrian troops. The Assyrians captured rich booty in this city. Obviously, Sidon was at the head of a coalition of Syrian principalities. Having captured Sidon, the king conquered all of Syria and resettled the rebellious population in a new, purpose-built city. Having consolidated his power over the Arabian tribes, Esarhaddon conquered Egypt, inflicting several defeats on the Egyptian-Ethiopian troops of Taharqa. In his inscription, Esarhaddon describes how he captured Memphis within half a day, destroying, devastating and sacking the ancient capital of the great Egyptian kingdom, "pulling the root of Ethiopia from Egypt." It is quite possible that Esarhaddon tried to rely on the support of the Egyptian population, portraying his campaign of conquest as the liberation of Egypt from the Ethiopian yoke. In the north and east, Esarhaddon continued to fight with the neighboring tribes of Transcaucasia and Iran. The inscriptions of Esarhaddon already mention the tribes of the Cimmerians, Scythians and Medes, who are gradually becoming a threat to Assyria.

Ashurbanipal, the last significant king of the Assyrian state, during his reign with great difficulty maintained the unity and military and political power of a vast state that absorbed almost all the countries of the ancient Eastern world from the western borders of Iran in the east to the Mediterranean Sea in the west, from Transcaucasia in the north to Ethiopia in south. The peoples conquered by the Assyrians not only continued to fight against their enslavers, but already organized alliances to fight against Assyria. The distant and hard-to-reach areas of the seaside Chaldea, with its impenetrable swamps, were an excellent refuge for the Babylonian rebels, who were always supported by the Elamite kings. In an effort to strengthen his power in Babylon, Ashurbanipal installed his brother Shamashshumukin as the Babylonian king. However, his protege joined his enemies. The "treacherous brother" of the Assyrian king "did not keep his oath" and raised an uprising against Assyria in Akkad, Chaldea, among the Arameans, in the Maritime country, in Elam, in Gutium and in other countries. Thus, a powerful coalition was formed against Assyria, to which Egypt joined. Taking advantage of the famine in Babylonia and internal unrest in Elam, Ashurbashshal defeated the Babylonians and Elamites and in 647 took Babylon. In order to finally defeat the Elamite troops, Ashur-banipal made two trips to this distant mountainous country and dealt a heavy blow to the Elamites. "14 royal cities and countless small cities and twelve districts of Elam - all this I conquered, destroyed, devastated, set on fire and burned." Assyrian troops captured and plundered the capital of Elam - Susa. Ashurbanipal proudly lists the names of all the Elamite gods whose statues he captured and brought to Assyria.

Significantly greater difficulties arose for Assyria in Egypt. Leading the fight against Ethiopia, Ashurbanipal made an attempt to rely on the Egyptian aristocracy, in particular on the semi-independent ruler of Sais named Necho. Despite the fact that Ashurbanipal supported his diplomatic game in Egypt with the help of weapons, sending troops to Egypt and making devastating campaigns there, Psamtik, the son of Necho, taking advantage of the internal difficulties of Assyria, fell away from Assyria and formed an independent Egyptian state. With great difficulty, Ashurbanipal managed to maintain his control over Phoenicia and Syria. A large number of letters of Assyrian officials, residents and intelligence officers, addressed directly to the king, in which a wide variety of political and economic information is reported, also testifies to the unrest and uprisings that took place in Syria. But with particular attention the Assyrian government looked closely at what was happening in Urartu and Elam. Obviously, Assyria could no longer rely only on the strength of its weapons. With the help of subtle diplomacy, constantly maneuvering between various hostile forces, Assyria had to maintain its vast possessions, break hostile coalitions and defend its borders from the invasion of dangerous opponents. These were the emerging symptoms of the gradual weakening of the Assyrian state. A constant danger to Assyria was the numerous nomadic tribes living to the north and east of Assyria, in particular the Cimmerians, Scythians (Asgusai), Medes and Persians, whose names are mentioned in the Assyrian inscriptions of the 7th century. The Assyrian kings failed to completely subjugate Urartu and completely crush Elam. Finally, Babylon always hid the dream of restoring its independence and its ancient, not only commercial and cultural, but also political power. Thus, the Assyrian kings, who aspired to world domination and formed a huge power, conquered a number of countries, but could not completely suppress the resistance of all the conquered peoples. A finely developed system of espionage contributed to the fact that a variety of information about what was happening on the borders of the great state and in neighboring countries was constantly delivered to the capital of Assyria. It is known that the Assyrian king was informed about preparations for war, about the movements of troops, about the conclusion of secret alliances, about receiving and sending ambassadors, about conspiracies and uprisings, about building fortresses, about defectors, about cattle rustling, about harvest and other affairs of neighboring states .

The Assyrian empire, despite its vast size, was a colossus with feet of clay. Separate parts of this vast state were not firmly interconnected economically. Therefore, this whole huge building, built with the help of bloody conquests, constant suppression of the conquered peoples and exploitation of the broad masses of the population, could not be durable and soon collapsed. Shortly after the death of Ashurbanipal (626 BC), the combined forces of Media and Babylon attacked Babylon and defeated the Assyrian army. In 612, Nineveh fell. In 605 BC. e. the entire Assyrian state collapsed under the blows of its enemies. At the Battle of Carchemish, the last Assyrian detachments were defeated by the Babylonian troops.

Historical meaning Assyria is the organization of the first major state, claiming to unite the entire then known world. In connection with this task, which was set by the Assyrian kings, there is the organization of a large and strong standing army and the high development of military technology. Assyrian culture, which reached a fairly significant development, was largely based on the cultural heritage of Babylon and ancient Sumer. The Assyrians borrowed from the ancient peoples of Mesopotamia a system of cuneiform writing, typical features of religion, literary works, characteristic elements of art and a number of scientific knowledge. From ancient Sumer, the Assyrians borrowed some of the names and cults of the gods, the architectural form of the temple, and even the typical Sumerian building material - brick. The cultural influence of Babylon on Assyria intensified especially in the 13th century. BC e., after the capture of Babylon by the Assyrian king Tukulti-Ninurta I, the Assyrians borrowed widespread works of religious literature from the Babylonians, in particular the epic poem about the creation of the world and hymns to the ancient gods Ellil and Marduk. From Babylon, the Assyrians borrowed the measuring and monetary system, some features in the organization of state administration and many elements of the law so developed in the era of Hammurabi.

Assyrian deity near a date palm

The famous library of the Assyrian king Ashurbanipal, found in the ruins of his palace, testifies to the high development of Assyrian culture. In this library, a huge variety of religious inscriptions, literary works and scientific texts were found, among which inscriptions containing astronomical observations, medical texts, and finally, grammar and lexical reference books, as well as prototypes of later dictionaries or encyclopedias. Carefully collecting and writing off according to special royal instructions, sometimes subjecting to some alterations the most diverse works of more ancient writing, Assyrian scribes collected in this library a huge treasury of the cultural achievements of the peoples of the ancient East. Some literary works, such as, for example, penitential psalms or "mournful songs to calm the heart", testify to the high development of Assyrian literature. In these songs, the ancient poet with great artistic skill conveys the feeling of deep personal grief of a person who has experienced great grief, conscious of his guilt and his loneliness. The original and highly artistic works of Assyrian literature include the chronicles of the Assyrian kings, which mainly describe the campaigns of conquest, as well as the internal activities of the Assyrian kings.

The ruins of the palaces of Ashshurnazirpal in Kalah and of King Sargon II in Dur-Sharrukin (modern Khorsabad) give an excellent idea of ​​the Assyrian architecture of its heyday. Sargon's palace was built, like the Sumerian buildings, on a large, artificially erected terrace. The huge palace consisted of 210 halls and 30 courtyards arranged asymmetrically. This palace, like other Assyrian palaces, is a typical example of Assyrian architecture combining architecture with monumental sculpture, artistic reliefs and decorative ornamentation. At the majestic entrance to the palace, there were huge statues of “lamassu”, guarding geniuses of the royal palace, depicted as fantastic monsters, winged bulls or lions with a human head. The walls of the front halls of the Assyrian palace were usually decorated with relief images of various scenes of court life, war and hunting. All this luxurious and monumental architectural ornamentation was supposed to serve to exalt the king, who headed the huge military state, and testify to the power of the Assyrian weapons. These reliefs, especially the images of animals in hunting scenes, are the highest achievements of Assyrian art. Assyrian sculptors were able to depict wild animals with great truthfulness and with great power of expression, which the Assyrian kings loved to hunt so much.

Thanks to the development of trade and the conquest of a number of neighboring countries, the Assyrians spread Sumero-Babylonian writing, religion, literature and the first rudiments of objective knowledge throughout all countries of the ancient Eastern world, thus making cultural heritage ancient Babylon is the property of most peoples of the ancient East.

Tiglath-Pileser III on his chariot

Notes:

F. Engels, Anti-Dühring, Gospolitizdat, 1948, p. 151.

Some of these reliefs are kept in Leningrad, in the State Hermitage.

Assyria is one of the first empires in the world, a civilization that originated on the territory of Mesopotamia. Assyria dates back to the 24th century and has existed for almost two millennia.

Assyria in antiquity

Assyria was one of the most powerful empires in the 1st millennium BC. e., its heyday and golden age fall precisely on this period. Until that time, it was a simple state in the north

Mesopotamia, which was mainly engaged in trade, since it was located on important trade routes.

Assyria was then subjected to attacks by nomads, such as the Arameans, who led to the decline of the state in the 11th century BC. e.

In total, historians conditionally divide into three periods:

• Old Assyrian;
• Middle Assyrian;
• Neo-Assyrian.

In the latter, Assyria becomes the first empire in the world. In the VIII century, the golden age of the empire begins, then it is ruled by King Tiglath-Pileser III. Assyria crushes the state of Urartu. At the end of the 8th century, she subjugates Israel, and in the 7th century she also captures Egypt. When Ashurbanipal becomes king, Assyria subdues Media, Thebes, Lydia.
After the death of Ashurbanipal, Assyria could not resist the onslaught of Babylon and Media, the end of the empire comes.

Where is ancient Assyria now

Now Assyria as a state does not exist, in the XXI century on the territory former empire located countries: Iraq, Iran and others. The peoples of the Semitic group live on its territory: Arabs, Jews and some others. The dominant religion in the territory of the former Assyria is Islam. The largest territory belonging to Assyria is now occupied by Iraq. Now Iraq is on the brink of civil war. On the territory of Iraq there is a diaspora of those ancient Assyrians who founded the world's first empire that conquered almost the entire Arabian Peninsula (Mesopotamia).

What does Assyria look like today?

Now the world, according to some data that is not confirmed, is inhabited by about a million Assyrians. AT modern world they do not have their own state, they inhabit Iran, Iraq, the USA, Syria, there are also small diasporas in Russia and Ukraine. Modern Assyrians mainly speak Arabic and Turkish. And their ancient, native language is on the verge of extinction.
Modern Assyria is not a state, but only one million descendants of the ancient Assyrians, who carry a unique Assyrian culture and folklore.