Which developed along with world civilization. It was the time of the Great Geographical Discoveries (America was discovered in 1493), the beginning of the era of capitalism in European countries (the first European bourgeois revolution of 1566-1609 began in the Netherlands). But the development of the Russian state took place in rather peculiar conditions. There was a process of development of new territories in Siberia, the Volga region, the Wild Field (on the rivers Dnieper, Don, the Middle and Lower Volga, Yaik), the country had no access to the seas, the economy was in the nature of a subsistence economy based on the dominance of the feudal orders of the boyar patrimony. In the southern outskirts of Russia in the second half of the 16th century, Cossacks (from fugitive peasants) began to appear.
By the end of the 16th century, there were approximately 220. The largest of them was Moscow, and the most important and developed - and, Kazan and, and Tula, Astrakhan and. Production was closely connected with the availability of local raw materials and was of a natural geographical nature, for example, leather production was developed in Yaroslavl and Kazan, a large amount of salt was produced in Vologda, Tula and Novgorod specialized in metal production. Stone construction was carried out in Moscow, the Cannon Yard, the Cloth Yard, the Armory were built.
An outstanding event in the history of Russia in the 16th century was the emergence of Russian printing (in 1564 the book "Apostle" was published). The church had a great influence on the spiritual life of society. In painting, creativity was a model, the architecture of that time was characterized by the construction of tent churches (without pillars, holding only on the foundation) - St. Basil's Cathedral in Moscow, the Church of the Ascension in the village of Kolomenskoye, the Church of John the Baptist in the village of Dyakovo.
The 16th century in the history of Russia is the century of the reign of the "talented villain" Ivan the Terrible.
At the end of the 15th and beginning of the 16th century, he ruled, great-grandson (1462-1505). He called himself the "Sovereign of All Russia" or "Caesar". Took on a double-headed eagle. Two heads of an eagle said that Russia is turned to the East and to the West, and with one powerful paw the eagle stands in Europe, and the second in Asia.
believed that Moscow should become the third Rome, and all the Russian lands that were previously part of it should unite around it.
In 1497, he publishes the first Russian Sudebnik, a set of fundamental laws. The position of the peasantry was fixed in Sudebnik (peasants had the right to change their place of residence on St. George's Day (November 26), but in fact the peasants were attached to the land. For leaving the landowner, one had to pay "old" - a fee for the years lived. It was about a ruble, but t Since a ruble could buy 14 poods of honey in the 15-16th century, it was not easy to collect it. in the 16th century, almost all peasants become serfs.
Ivan III overthrew the Mongol-Tatar rule (1480) and did so as an experienced politician. He stopped civil strife on, creates a professional army. So, a forged army-infantry appears, dressed in metal armor; artillery (Russian guns "Unicorn" were the best for three hundred years); squeakers (they squeaked - a firearm, but it hit not far, a maximum of 100 m).
Ivan III overcame feudal fragmentation. The Novgorod Republic, together with the Moscow Principality, remained an independent entity, but in 1478 its independence was liquidated, in 1485 it was annexed to the Russian state, and in 1489 Vyatka.
In 1510, during the reign of the son of Ivan III, (1505-1533), the republic ceased to exist, and in 1521, the Ryazan principality. The unification of the Russian lands was basically completed. According to the German ambassador, none of the Western European monarchs could compare with the Moscow sovereign in the fullness of power over his subjects. Well, the grandson of Ivan III, more than anyone in the grand ducal family, deserved his nickname, Grozny.
When Ivan was three years old, in 1533 his father, Grand Duke Vasily III, died. Mother, Elena Glinskaya, the second wife of Vasily III, did not pay attention to her son. She decided to eliminate all pretenders to the Russian throne: the brothers Vasily III - Prince Yuri Ivanovich and Andrei Ivanovich, her uncle, Mikhail Glinsky. Prince Ivan Fedorovich Ovchina-Telepnev-Obolensky became the support of Elena. When Ivan was 8 years old, his mother was poisoned (April 3, 1538). Over the next eight years, the boyars (Shuisky, Glinsky, Belsky) ruled instead of him, they fought for influence over Ivan, but did not particularly burden themselves with caring for the child. As a result, Ivan falls ill with paranoia; from the age of 12 he takes part in torture, and at the age of 16 he becomes the best master of torture.
In 1546, Ivan, not satisfied with the grand ducal title, wished to become king. Tsars in Russia before called the emperors of Byzantium and Germany, as well as the khans of the Great Horde. Therefore, becoming king, Ivan rose above numerous princes; showed the independence of Russia from the Horde; stood on the same level with the German emperor.
At the age of 16, they decide to marry Ivan. For this, up to one and a half thousand girls were gathered in the tower. 12 beds were placed in each room, where they lived for about a month, and they reported to the king about their life. After a month, the tsar went around the chambers with gifts and chose Anastasia Romanova as his wife, who smiled at him.
In January 1547 Ivan was crowned king, and in March 1547 married to Anastasia. His wife replaced his parents, and he changed for the better.
In 1549, the tsar brought Alexei Fedorovich Adashev, Sylvester, the archpriest of the Annunciation Cathedral, who entered the so-called. They helped launch the reforms.
In 1556, Ivan IV canceled the feeding of the boyars at the expense of the funds from the management of the lands, which came to their personal disposal after paying taxes to the treasury. Ivan introduces local self-government, the whole state was divided into lips (districts), at the head of the lip was the headman. The labial headman could be elected from the peasants, nobles, he could be influenced.
replaces (duplicates) the boyar duma, orders obey it. The order-"instruction" turns into an order-institution. Military affairs were managed by the Discharge, Pushkarsky, Streltsy Order, the Armory. Foreign affairs were in charge of the Ambassadorial order, state finances - the order of the Great Parish, state lands - the Local Order, serfs - the Kholopy order.
Ivan begins an offensive against the boyars, limits the locality (he himself seated the boyars on the benches around him), creates a new army from the noble cavalry and archers (the nobles serve for a fee). This is almost 100 thousand people - the force on which Ivan IV relied.
In 1550, Ivan IV introduces a new Sudebnik. The nobles receive equal rights with the boyars, it confirmed the right of the peasants to change their place of residence on St. George's Day, but the payment for the "elderly" increased. For the first time, the Code of Law established punishment for bribery.
In 1560, Anastasia dies, the tsar becomes insane and he begins terror against his recent advisers - Adashev and Sylvester, because. it is them that the tsar blames for the sudden death of Anastasia. Sylvester was tonsured and exiled to. Alexei Adashev was sent as governor to (1558-1583), where he died. Repressions fell on other supporters of Adashev. And Ivan IV introduces.
Period - the second half of the reign of Ivan the Terrible. Oprichny terror was announced unexpectedly for both supporters and enemies of Ivan the Terrible.
In 1564, at night, with his retinue, children and treasury, the tsar disappeared from the Kremlin. He went to and declared that he no longer wanted to rule. A month after his disappearance from Moscow, the tsar sends two letters:

One Boyar Duma, Metropolitan, in which he accuses them of betrayal, unwillingness to serve him;
- the second to the townspeople, in which he announced that the boyars offend him, but he has no offense against ordinary people, and the boyars are to blame for everything.
Thus, he wants to show the people who is to blame for all their troubles.
By his sudden departure, he succeeded in making his opponents afraid of uncertainty, and the people went crying to ask the king to return. Ivan the Terrible agreed, but with conditions:
1) division of the country into two parts - zemshchina and oprichnina;
2) at the head of the zemshchina, Tsar Ivan the Terrible, and at the head of the oprichnina, Grand Duke Ivan the Terrible.
In the oprichnina lands, he singled out the most developed regions and boyar lands. Those nobles who were part of the oprichnina army settled on these lands. The population of the zemshchina was supposed to support this army. armed the army and for 7 years with this army destroys the boyars.
The meaning of the oprichnina was as follows:
- the establishment of autocracy through the destruction of the opposition (boyars);
- elimination of the remnants of feudal fragmentation (finally conquers Novgorod);
- forms a new social base of the autocracy - the nobility, i.e. these were people who were completely dependent on the king.
The destruction of the boyars was a means to achieve all these goals of Ivan the Terrible.
As a result of the oprichnina, Moscow weakened, the Crimean Khan burned the Moscow settlement in 1571, which showed the inability of the oprichnina army to fight external enemies. As a result, the tsar abolished the oprichnina, forbade even mentioning this word, and in 1572 transformed it into the "Tsar's Court". Before his death, he tried to re-introduce the oprichnina, but his guardsmen were dissatisfied with the tsar's policy and wanted stability. Ivan the Terrible exterminates his army, and dies at the age of 54, in 1584.
During the reign of Ivan IV, there were also merits. So, the red-brick Kremlin was built, but the builders were killed so that they could not build such beautiful buildings and temples anywhere else.
Results.
1. During the reign of Ivan IV, the country was destroyed, he actually staged a civil war. The central regions were depopulated, because. people were dying (about 7 million people died unnatural deaths).
2. Russia's loss of foreign policy influence, it has become vulnerable. Ivan IV lost the Livonian War, and Poland and Sweden launched extensive activities to seize Russian territories.
3. Ivan the Terrible condemned to death not only six wives, but also destroyed his children. He killed the heir, Ivan's son, in a fit of rage in 1581. After the death of the prince, Ivan the Terrible thought of abdicating the throne and entering a monastery. He had something to whine about. The weak-minded Fyodor, the son of Anastasia Romanova, the first wife of the tsar, became the heir to the throne. In addition to him, there was still Tsarevich Dmitry, the son of the last, sixth wife, Maria Nagoya, who in 1584 was two years old.
Thus, after half a century of the reign of a tyrant, albeit a talented, but still a villain, power, unlimited by anyone and nothing, had to pass to a miserable person who was not capable of governing the state. After Ivan IV, a frightened, tormented, devastated country remained. Activity brought the country to the edge of the abyss, whose name is.

Cities of Russia in the XV-XVI centuries. "Guest" and craftsman

The Kievan Rus, which, according to the interested opinion of the Vikings-Varangians, "the country of cities", has gone into the distant past. At the beginning of the 16th century, according to one of the estimates (most likely somewhat overestimated), about 130 urban-type settlements were scattered over the vast territory of the emerging centralized state. This is very sparse for such spaces. This is quite a bit, based on the needs of agricultural and handicraft production. This is very small, given the length of the borders and the need for defense. This is clearly not enough from the point of view of the administrative management of the country.

How were cities grouped until the middle of the 16th century? The Russian state inherited the naturally formed in the XIII-XV centuries. their location is influenced by the mighty Horde factor (the ebb of citizens from the south and southeast, the desolation of a number of cities), sovereign ambitions and internal strife, economic needs (the emergence of cities in colonization zones, on the most important river trade routes), and finally, defense needs. So, in the Novgorod and Pskov lands, quite numerous stone fortress cities were concentrated along the northwestern, western and southern borders. The planned arrangement of the eastern, southern, western borders began in the Russian state in the second quarter of the 16th century. and continued, as its territory grew, for centuries. It is not difficult to notice the condensation in the location of urban centers. They concentrated along the upper and middle reaches of the Volga, in the interfluve of the Oka and Volga, especially along the rivers Moscow, Klyazma, Oka, along the main roads.

The share of the urban population was small and much less than in the developed countries of Western and Central Europe. True, in the Novgorod land, townspeople accounted for about 9% of the total population, and both Novgorod itself and Staraya Russa, even by European standards, should be classified as large and medium-sized cities: in Veliky Novgorod there were more than 32 thousand citizens, in Russa - more than 10 thousand Such a “decent” percentage of citizens should be explained by the positions of Novgorod in trade between Russia and Europe: it largely monopolized the role of an intermediary in it and itself exposed the wealth of its northern possessions for export. Large volumes of trade (the city was a slipway point of the Hansa) required developed crafts and many people to service trade. Ties with Livonia and Lithuania fueled prosperity and demographic growth in Pskov. In Russia as a whole, the proportion of the urban population was noticeably lower. In the 70s of the XVII century. it was believed that, minus the feudal lords and clerics, unprivileged townspeople made up just over 7% of the country's working population. For the first half of the previous century, this figure should be reduced by at least one and a half times.

So, there were few cities, their distribution turned out to be uneven, the proportion of the urban population was small. But this is not enough - urban settlements turned out to be extremely unequal in terms of numbers. In Novgorod land, for two "normal" cities there were up to a dozen fortresses-cities, in which the population numbered in a few hundred. The same was the case in other regions. A very modest number of the largest (Moscow was rightly ranked among the largest cities in Europe) and large cities (Tver, Yaroslavl, Vologda, Kostroma, Nizhny Novgorod, Smolensk, Kolomna, Ryazan and some others) absorbed the vast majority of citizens. This had important economic, social and partly political consequences.

What was the status of Russian cities and their working population? The question is very difficult (primarily because of the extremely limited sources), but the answers to it are very different. The first thing to note is the heavy legacy of Horde dependence. The point is not only in the mass and repeated pogrom and ruin of Russian cities, not only in the mass removal of artisans and merchants, but also in the fact that the city initially became the main object of exploitation by the khan's authorities. The great and appanage princes in Russia one way or another inherited these rights. This largely explains the fact that the urban land of taxable citizens was state property - similar to black rural volosts.

Naturally, not only craftsmen and merchants were concentrated in the city. Since the birth of class societies, urban settlements have organically concentrated the functions of political and economic domination over the countryside; accordingly, the political and social elite of society has been concentrated in them. The first settlement of the Novgorod boyars was a city estate, and not a rural residence. Similar phenomena took place in the cities of North-Eastern Russia. But from the XIII-XIV centuries. the historical paths of the northwest and northeast of Russia diverged at this point. In Novgorod and Pskov, a peculiar type of boyar corporate-city state finally took shape (princely power until the middle of the 15th century was of minimal importance). In the principalities of the northeast, on the contrary, by the end of the 14th century, the political institutions of the feudal elite in the city, autonomous in relation to the princely power (the institute of thousands, etc.), came to naught. This does not mean that the feudal lords abandoned their yards in the cities, moving to rural estates. Not at all. City, "siege" courtyards of the feudal lords are an important component in the social topography of the Russian city. The point is different: this elite turned out to be politically disconnected from the burdensome urban population. The princely governor was in charge of the city, judged the black townspeople, monitored the fortifications, the correct collection of trade duties and drinking income, expressing the political will and economic interests of his overlord (not forgetting about his own pocket and status), but not the local feudal elite. The logic of the struggle in the XIV-XV centuries, by the way, often assumed the appointment of a non-local person to the newly conquered center.

Does the above mean that there were no institutions of self-government in the city? Not at all. It is known for certain about the city militias, namely the townspeople, and not the county corporations of the service feudal lords. The chronicles mention city granaries and some other buildings of a public nature. All this required organization and management. They are well known according to information from the end of the 14th-mid-16th centuries. forms of class grouping of townspeople according to their occupation. Small merchants, artisans, gardeners, persons engaged in servicing trade and transport, united in the 16th century. on a territorial basis in hundreds and fifty. It is possible that this was the case in the past as well. At least centurions and tenths are known in many cities. In any case, however, such formations were based on a territorial and not a professional principle. At that time, Russia did not know craft workshops in its pure form.

On the other hand, Russian society was well acquainted with the professional organizations of large merchants. They traded throughout the country, often abroad, uniting in special corporations of guests and clothiers. These persons enjoyed great privileges, and in a number of respects their status approached that of the boyars. No wonder the transition from one group to another happened in the 15th and 16th centuries. Here are the representatives of the guests and headed the institutions of self-government of taxable citizens. We probably know about this for the first half of the 16th century, but, judging by indirect indications, this practice arose no later than the middle of the 15th century. It is possible to outline the functions of such institutions. From the point of view of the state, the most important was the regular payment of taxes and the serving of duties (construction, city, etc.). Special representatives of the princely government oversaw this, but the apportionment between the hundreds and within them was given into the hands of the self-government. The management of public buildings and insurance stocks, the improvement of streets and roads, control over the participation of citizens in hostilities during a siege or in a princely campaign, and finally, control over the fact that township land does not drop out of the tax - such is the probable circle of concerns of city government.

In purely political terms, taxable citizens did not have legal ways to influence princely power. This does not mean at all that they did not have political positions and did not influence the course of the political struggle. Influenced and, moreover, sometimes very significantly. We only recall a few episodes. In the 30-40s of the XV century. the position of the Muscovites more than once influenced the outcome of the clashes of the rival princes. The indignation of the townspeople prompted Ivan III to continue the decisive struggle for the elimination of dependence on the Horde in the autumn of 1480. Finally, the Moscow uprising of 1547 gave impetus to the beginning of reforms in the middle of the 16th century. In moments of crisis in the course of political life, the townspeople exerted a noticeable influence on the outcome of clashes. Including because the cities were the main arena of the political struggle of princes and principalities.

Even before the reforms of the middle of the XVI century. changes are planned in the management of urban life. Certain affairs connected with military-defense and financial functions are withdrawn from the grand ducal governors in a number of cities. They were handed over to city clerks appointed by the Grand Duke, usually from among the local feudal lords.

Did the available cities provide a sufficient level of handicraft production? Yes and no. The affirmative answer rests on the fact that the gradual formation and development of local and regional markets took place in the 15th-mid-16th centuries. and, of course, did not end at all at this time. Interregional and especially foreign trade was of great importance. The number and specialization of urban crafts as a whole provided the villagers with the necessary set of items for industrial and household purposes. But the network of cities was so rare (in Western Europe, the average distances between medium and small cities were measured at 15-20 km) that the peasants had to overcome many tens, and sometimes hundreds of miles, to buy and sell in the city. In part, this was made up for by an increase in extra-urban rows, settlements, and settlements with a weekly or less frequent marketplace, and in part, by the development of village crafts in a peasant family.

There were several dozen professions in the cities. The production of foodstuffs, leather processing and tailoring of shoes, everything related to horse life, blacksmith and jewelry crafts, coinage, production of high-quality and mass-produced utensils, building materials, carpentry, construction, etc. were well represented. Of particular note is the production of weapons. Protective armor, chopping, piercing, throwing weapons, longbows, various arrowheads (including armor-piercing), crossbows - all this, made by skilled Russian artisans, was in great demand both inside and outside the country. No wonder these products belonged to the "reserved goods", which were forbidden to sell to the southern and eastern neighbors. At the end of the XV century. in Moscow, a state manufactory arose for the manufacture of cannons, squeakers and other firearms. In general, the country covered its needs for weapons and military equipment with its own production. However, the experience of the first half of the XVI century. revealed a lot of bottlenecks here. Some concerned the organization of the army in general and, in particular, infantry armed with firearms (see below). Others directly followed from the limited possibilities of crafts and crafts in the country, implying the importance of improving professional skills, increasing the import of necessary materials, tools, etc. Hence the strong need not just to preserve, but to expand economic ties with the countries of Western and Central Europe. Just one example. Russia of that era did not have deposits of non-ferrous and noble metals, sulfur, iron was mined only from poor swampy ores. Various types of weapons, silver coins, mass-produced, inexpensive varieties of cloth - all of the above were very important Russian imports in maritime and land trade. The dependence of the country at this point was of strategic importance and was recognized even by Ivan III. But decisive steps in this direction were yet to come. The government will still involve Russian merchants and artisans in discussing the acute problems of trade, war and peace. In the meantime, according to the perceptive imperial ambassador, Baron S. Herberstein, who twice visited Russia under Vasily III, “the common people and servants for the most part work, saying that it is the master’s business to celebrate and refrain from work ...”

3.1. General characteristics. At the beginning of the XVI century. On the vast territory of the Russian state, there were about 130 urban-type settlements. Of these, only Moscow (130 thousand) and Novgorod (32 thousand) can be attributed to fairly large cities, Tver, Yaroslavl, Vologda, Kostroma, Nizhny Novgorod and a number of others were significant urban centers, while the majority retained their rural appearance. The total urban population did not exceed 300 thousand people.

3.2. Economic development. Cities became centers of crafts and trade. Potters and tanners, shoemakers and jewelers, etc., produced their products for the market. The number and specialization of urban crafts as a whole met the needs of rural residents. Local markets are forming around the cities, but since the bulk of the peasants were too far and inconvenient to get to them, then they produced a significant part of the handicraft products themselves.

Thus, the subsistence nature of the peasant economy, the general economic backwardness of the country stood in the way of the formation of market relations.

At the end of the XV century. in Moscow, a state manufactory for the manufacture of cannons and other firearms arose. But it could not fully cover the needs of the army in modern weapons. In addition, Russia did not have explored deposits of non-ferrous and noble metals, sulfur, iron was mined only from poor swampy ores. All this made necessary both the development of our own production and the expansion of economic ties with the countries of Western Europe. The volume of foreign trade of that era was directly dependent on the success of maritime trade.

3.3. Urban population. The population of cities ("townspeople") was quite diverse in composition and differentiated by occupation.

3.3.1. Craftsmen, small merchants, gardeners united on a territorial basis in hundreds and fifty. Russia did not know craft workshops in their pure form.

3.3.2. Merchants united in corporations of "guests", "cloth workers", etc., who had great privileges, and in a number of ways their status approached that of the boyars - they did not pay taxes, members of some of these corporations could own land with peasants. It was from them that the leaders of the city self-government were elected, in charge of collecting taxes and organizing the serving of various duties.

3.4. However, the general management of the cities was in the hands of the grand duke's power and was carried out through its governors. City land was considered the property of the state. On the whole, in Russian cities, an "urban system" similar to that in Western Europe did not take shape, and the urban population increasingly became dependent on the state.

By the end of the XVI century. There were about 220 cities in Russia. The largest city was Moscow, whose population was about 100 thousand people (in Paris and Naples at the end of the 16th century 200 thousand people lived, in London, Venice, Amsterdam, Rome - 100 thousand). The rest of the cities of Russia, as a rule, had 3-8 thousand people each. In Europe, the average size of the city of the XVI century. numbered 20-30 thousand inhabitants.

In the XVI century. the development of handicraft production in Russian cities continued. The specialization of production, closely connected with the availability of local raw materials, still had an exclusively natural-geographic character. The Tula-Serpukhov, Ustyuzhno-Zhelezopolsky, Novgorod-Tikhvinsky regions specialized in the production of metal, the Novgorod-Pskov land and the Smolensk region were the largest centers for the production of linen and canvas. Leather production was developed in Yaroslavl and Kazan. The Vologda Territory produced a huge amount of salt, etc. Throughout the country, large-scale stone construction was carried out at that time. The first large state-owned enterprises appeared in Moscow - the Armory Chamber, the Cannon Yard. Cloth yard.

A significant part of the territory of the cities was occupied by courtyards, gardens, vegetable gardens, meadows of boyars, churches and monasteries. In their hands were concentrated monetary wealth, which was given at interest, went to the purchase and accumulation of treasures, and was not invested in production.

Peasants in the 16th century

1.2. Peasant economy. First half of the sixteenth century can be described as the "golden age" of the Russian farmer.

Thanks to the development of forests for arable land (that is, "internal colonization"), the allocation of land to the peasant household increased (from 10 to 15 acres of land in 3 fields). The size of the peasant family also increased (up to 10 souls of both sexes on average), which provided the economy with the necessary labor force. True, there was a shortage of hayfields and a relative shortage of livestock. The peasants continued to engage in various kinds of crafts, home crafts were developed.

At this time, the traditional rates of taxes and fees were still preserved, which were not very burdensome. On average, the peasant economy gave up to 30% of the total output to the state and its feudal lord, which still could not restrain its economic initiative. Thus, the state and the service class, on the one hand, provided external security and internal political stability for the economic activity of the peasantry, and on the other hand, they were not yet strong enough to withdraw a significant share of the produced product and thereby deprive producers of material interest in the results of labor.

All this created conditions for the growth of production and the accumulation of resources by peasant farms. However, the main goal of the peasants was not to expand production, and even more so not to generate income, but to satisfy the needs of the family for food, clothing, warmth and housing, as well as to provide conditions for the continuation of simple production. Thus, the peasant economy in its essence remained a consumer economy, while accumulation was condemned by both communal and Christian morality, which also prevented the expansion of production. In addition, natural factors that limited the possibilities of the peasant economy also stood in the way of expanded reproduction. As a result, all this made him extremely vulnerable to various kinds of accidents, "external factors", and especially - from the policy of the state.

1.3. Social and legal status of the peasantry. In addition to the economic at this time, there is an improvement in the social and legal status of farmers. This is evidenced by the very fact of the spread of the term "peasants" and the exclusion of the class-deficient concepts of "smerdy", "orphans", reflecting the unequal position of farmers. The peasants' right to a free "exit" on St. George's Day was legally confirmed.

The peasant was a subject of law - he could sue his feudal lord, testify against him in court. Moreover, according to the Sudebnik of 1497, the "best peasants" were present at the court of the feeding boyars as "judgmental men." The peasant was not yet responsible with his property for the failure of his feudal lord. From the 30s. XVI century black-mowed and landowning peasants take part in the activities of local self-government bodies.

1.4. Peculiarities of the situation of the black-mossed peasants. Along with various forms of feudal landownership in Russia, free peasant possessions were also preserved on the so-called. "black-moss lands" (a plow was a measure of the area of ​​cultivated land, "black", in contrast to "whitewashed" - those who paid taxes to the state). The black-eared peasants, unlike the "owner" ones, remained completely free and paid taxes to the Grand Duke.

At the beginning of the XVI century. they were quite numerous even in the central counties. Gradually, the state began to transfer black-soil lands to estates, which meant for the peasants a change in their status - turning into "ownerships". But since at first the landowner acted only as their patron, did not take the communal lands into his immediate disposal (the growth of the lordly plowing began later - not earlier than the middle of the 16th century), and protected the peasants from external encroachments, then, while maintaining the general standard of living, but in fact - the social and legal status, the peasants put up with a change in their position.

1.5. rural communities. Peasants united in a community whose norms and traditions regulated economic and spiritual life. It influenced peasant land use, controlled hayfields and fishing areas, served as an intermediary in relation to peasants with their feudal lord and state. In general, the community provided economic, social, legal and spiritual conditions for the life of its members.

Serfdom in the 16th century

Moscow period.

During the Muscovite period, the institution of servility underwent a number of significant changes. First of all, along with the old type of servility, a new form of bonded servitude appears, gradually replacing the first. Then the general mass of the unfree population of different types, first in fact, and then legally, begins to draw closer to the peasants, who are gradually losing their civil freedom, and finally completely merges with them. To all this, we must add more and more strict registration of the rights to serfs.

Changing the Sources of Subservience

The sources of private servility in this period are gradually narrowing down. For example, captivity no longer plays its former role, both in view of the gradual unification of the Muscovite state, and because captives were usually redeemed and even mutually handed over without ransom. Only prisoners from international wars on the western, southern and eastern borders remained. But a decree of 1556 also took place regarding them, according to which the captive remained a serf until the death of the master, "and his child is not a serf." Thus, captivity became a source of only temporary servility. Although the Code did not keep this rule, it introduced some restrictions regarding the servility of captives (XX, 61 and 69).

Slavery out of crime does not exist at all under Moscow law, since criminal penalties are introduced for all important crimes.

The rule on the consequences of commercial insolvency was borrowed entirely from Russkaya Pravda in Sudebnik 1: merchants who were indebted through their own fault were given to creditors "head for sale", that is, into complete slavery. But since the beginning of the XVI century. in this practice, there is a mitigation, enshrined in Sudebnik 2: insolvent debtors were given to creditors not for sale, but “head to redemption”, that is, until the debt was worked off. The Code (X, 266) also defines the rate of offsetting work in payment of a debt given by the head to the redemption of debtors: the work of an adult man was valued at 5 rubles per year, women - half.

In full force throughout the entire period, the birth from serfs retained the significance of the source of complete servility.

As for the emergence of servility of good will of applicants, then: the sale of oneself and the parents of children is recognized entirely by Sudebnik 2; it says that a serf cannot sell his free son, who was born to him before serfdom, but “he will sell himself to whomever he wants”; a similar rule was established with respect to the blacks. Further, the Sudebnik provides the peasant to be sold from arable land to full slaves without observing the transition period and without paying the elderly. But there is already a restriction regarding people who served: both themselves and their children who had not yet served were forbidden to be accepted as slaves, except for those who had been retired from service. After Sudebnik, new restrictions took place. So, according to the decree of 1560, insolvent debtors could not be sold to their creditors as full and reporting slaves, and they were ordered to give their heads to creditors before redemption; by decree of 1597, it was prescribed that bonded people, who would begin to issue full and memorandum on themselves, be sent to the bed-keepers. In the Code, in all cases of admission to serfs, not complete, but bonded serfdom is implied; on one particular occasion, there is even a reference to the sovereign's decree, according to which "baptized people are not ordered to be sold to anyone" (XX, 97).

Adrianople is an ancient city in Thrace or Paphlagonia (here, in 368, local residents Slavs, Antes and Goths rebelled against Rome), in modern Turkey - the city of Edirne on the Maritsa River.
Aquileia is a historical region on the Adriatic Sea. The local Slavs were among the first to adopt Christianity, because the department here was headed by the patriarch. After the destruction of Aquileia by Attila in 452, the bishop moved to Grado.
Andalusia (Andarusia, Vandalusia) - a historical region in Spain, was founded by the Goths in the 5th century; on it ready called vandals.
Arkona - a fortified city of the Baltic Slavs in Pomerania, on the island of Ruyan (modern - Rügen) with the temple of St. Destroyed by the Danish king Valdemar 1 in 1168.
Artaxata - an ancient city near modern Yerevan, founded by "blond beasts", the predecessors of the Armenians.

Asgard (Tana, Adzak, Cossack, Kazava, Asgard on Tanakvis) - the ancient names of the city of Azov on the Don.
Baghdad - (God-given, City of Peace, Irinopol) an ancient city in Mesopotamia, the capital of Iraq. In 762 it became the capital of the Caliphate, since 1534 it belonged to the Turks.
Barcelona (Barcelagne) - a city in the northeast of Spain; founded in the 3rd c. BC.
White Mountain is a historical place near Prague, here the Czechs were defeated by the Germans and submitted to the power of the Catholics.
Belaya Krinitsa is a historical region in Bukovina, the center of the schismatic land of fugitives from Russia from the terror of Christians with the cities of Klimoutsy, Sokolniki, Mehidra.
Belgrade - 1) see Akkerman; 2) ancient Singidun or Singidon, the capital of Serbia on the Danube.
The White Sea is the former Slavic name for the Mediterranean Sea.
Beresty (Brest-Litovsk) - the former name of the ancient Russian city, now - Brest in Belarus.
Berles is the former Slavic name for Berlin.
Bern is the capital of Switzerland.
Bessarabia is a historical region (it got its name from the people of Bessy, Waxes, Satras, Thracians after the conquest by Rome in 168) between the Dniester and Prut rivers (now the main part of Moldova and the Odessa region). In the 10-11 centuries. in Kievan Rus, then in the Galicia-Volyn principality, from the 14th century. in the Moldavian principality, from the beginning of the 16th century. as part of Turkey, since 1812 as part of Russia, in 1918-40 as part of Romania.
Befsan is one of the names of the ancient city of Scythopolis in Palestine.
The Blaten principality is a Slavic principality of the Ruthenians around Blaten Lake (Lake Balaton, Hungary).
Bologna - (Bologna,) the modern name of the former Etruscan capital city of Volsinia (Folsina), after the capture by the Roman Greeks in 189 BC. became known as Bononia.
Bornholm - (Berholm, Bear Hill), an island in the Baltic Sea, the territory of Denmark.
Bohuslan - (Boguslan - Divine Land - translated from the ancient local dialect) is an area in the south-west of Sweden, known for rock carvings of the Bronze and Iron Ages with solar signs.
Braga - the ancient capital of the people who lived on the territory of Portugal before the conquest by Rome; ruins of the Roman garrison settlement of Bracara Augusta.
Branibor - the former Slavic name of the city of Brandenburg before its capture by the Catholic Germans.
Bratislava is the capital of Slovakia; an ancient Celtic settlement captured by the Romans (Pison, Pizon, Pressburg).
Bremen is an ancient Slavic city on the territory of the Federal Republic of Germany, in 778 it was captured by the Germans and became the center of the Christian metropolis.
Bremen - the former name of the ancient Russian city on the territory of modern Germany.
Brittany - a historical region in the west of France, on the peninsula of the same name; was captured by the Normans and renamed after them.
Brunswick is the former name of the modern city of Braunschweig.
Brusa (Prusa) - an ancient city in Bithynia, at the foot of Mount Olympus, was the residence of the Ottoman Turks before they took Tsaregrad.
Budyshyn is the Slavic name of the city of Bautzen in Germany.
Boulogne (Boulagne) is a city and historical region in France.
Burgundy is a historical province of France, the center is the city of Dijon. The name was given by the fair-haired Huns or Burgundians, who came in the 5th century. to Gaul from the banks of the Vistula and Oder, after the adoption of Christianity, they submitted to the Franks.
Burdigala - the former name of the Galic (Celtic) city; now Bordeaux in France.
Var - the oldest name of the city in the Czech Republic, famous for the extraction of salt from natural thermal (up to 73 degrees) springs, the Germans changed it to Karlsbad, the Czechs to Karlovy Vary.
Varnow - the name of the city of Waren (Müritz).
Varangian Sea - Baltic Sea.
Vedegoshch (Vedegast) - the name of the city of Volgast (Wolgast Germany).
Velehrad - (Devin), capital of Moravia in antiquity.
Velegrad - the former name of the city of Didrichshagen.
Veligrad is the former name (Rerik, Rarog) of the city of Macklenburg. Rurik's father, Godoslav, the last ruler of the principality, was executed here.
Velikomir - the former name of the Russian city (modern Ukmerge, Lithuania).
Velichka - the later name of the ancient Tiberiopol (modern city of Strumnitsa) in Western Macedonia.
Vienna - the city of the Celts (Gauls) Vindobor before being captured by Rome and renamed Vindobona.
Hungary - (Ugria, ancient Pannonia, part of Dacia) - a historical region inhabited by the Goths from the 3rd century, then by the Huns and Avars; in the 8th c. Carl Vel. settled here many Slavs; in the 9th century occupied by the Mongols or Hungarians under the leadership of Arpad.
Venden - the official name of the residence of the swordsmen from the moment of construction in 1203 until 1917 (modern - Cēsis in Latvia).
The Vendian state is the state of the Polabian Slavs and the Pomeranians in the 40s of the 11th century. - the first third of the 12th century. led by vigilantes.
Vänern is a lake in southern Sweden; the Göta-Elv river flows out of the lake; main ports - Venersborg, Karlstad.
Venessin is a historical region in the southeast of France.
Hungary is the Russian (Slavic) name of the country Magyar Kostarsasag with the capital Budapest.
Venice is a republic on 12 islands of the Adriatic Sea, founded by fugitives from Aquileia and other cities, the Wends (or Venets), fleeing from the invasion of the Huns. It had a great influence on the fate of many countries and peoples, began to decline when America was discovered and trade routes shifted. After the death of the last orthodox ruler of Venice, Sofroniy Kutovali, unrest began, which led to the unification with Lombardy into the Lombard-Venetian kingdom.
Vincennes is an ancient city, a suburb of Paris, to the south of which there is a former royal castle and a park - the Bois de Vincennes.
Vienna Woods - a spur of the Eastern Alps, near Vienna; oak and beech forests, replete with monuments of Slavic paganism; resting-place.
Venta - a river in Lithuania; flows into the Baltic Sea; at the mouth - Ventspils.
Verona - a city in northern Italy on the Ech River, the capital of Theodoric (Fedora-rex) of the Ostrogoths, since 1405 belonged to Venice, then to Austria
Weighs - the official name of the city of Viesite in Latvia until 1917.
Wessex (All Saxons, modern Wessex) - a historical region in England - the first kingdom in Britain.
Vilna (Vilnya) - the former name of the ancient Russian capital city, which in 1939 was transferred to Lithuania (modern Vilnius).
Wiltse - Slavic state of the 7th-9th centuries. in the Baltic Pomerania.
Vindava - the former name of the ancient city on the Baltic Sea at the confluence of the Venta River into the sea. In 1242 it was captured by the crusaders.
Vindobor - (Vienna Forest) the name of the Celtic (Gallic) city on the edge of the Vienna Woods before it was captured by the Romans in the 1st century. AD and renaming to Vindobona; modern - Vienna, the capital of Austria.
Vishemier is the former name of the city of Wismar in Pomerania, Germany.
Vaudemont is a county in Lorraine.
Vodina (Vodena) is the former name of the city of Moklena or Edessa (Edessa) in South Macedonia.
Wolin is an ancient Slavic city in Poland on the island of the same name at the mouth of the river. Audra.
Volyn - the former name of the city of Jomsburg in Germany.
Vyshgorod is generally an upper, fortified city, a Kremlin, a citadel. In particular, the city on the right bank of the Dnieper, built by Vladimir in 989 as his residence.
Vienne (Vennes) is a historic city in Dauphine (France).
Vyatka is the later name of the ancient Russian city of Khlynov.
Havel - the former name of the Slavic city (7-9 centuries) of the Polabian Rus on the territory of modern. Deutschland; modern - Havelberg.
Gadara is an ancient city east of the Tiberias (Genisaret) Lake in the Gerchesinian country. Here Jesus cast out a legion of demons.
Gaza is an ancient city in the Middle East, on the eastern coast of the Mediterranean Sea as part of Palestine.
Gai - the city of the Canaanites (subjects of the khan) to the southeast from Bethel, which was conquered by I. Navin and given to the tribe of Benjamin.
Gilead mountains, Gilead - (hill of evidence) the modern name of Jil-ad, mountains in Palestine north of the Dead Sea.
Galata (milk market) - the historical part of Istanbul; capital place of Galatia - the main city of the Gauls (Celts).
Galatia is a historical region in Asia Minor, inhabited by the Gauls (Celts), who converted to Christianity in the 3rd-4th centuries.
Gallipoli is a city in Italy.
Gallipoli Peninsula - located in the European part of Turkey, between the strait. Dardanelles and the Saros Gulf of the Aegean Sea.
Galilee is a historical region in the north of Palestine near the Mediterranean Sea, inhabited by pagans. Hence - all the apostles, comrades of J. Christ. After the fall of Jerusalem, the Jews moved here and made the Tiberias Academy their center. Many residents then moved to the Balkans.
Galicia - ancient Chervonaya (Chervlenaya - Red) Rus or Chervlensky cities, in the upper reaches of the Dniester and Vistula, along the northern slope of the Carpathians.
Gall - the ancient name of the city of Hull in England, a port on the North Sea, in the estuary of the river. Humber.
Gaul (lat. Gallia from the Roman name of the Celts) - historical regions that were not part of the Roman Republic until the 2nd century BC. BC.; the territory of modern Spain, France, the Netherlands, Switzerland and parts of other territories.
Garama - the capital city of the mysterious white population of the Garamans who lived in Libya; in 21 BC they were conquered by Rome and dissolved in the local population, especially among the Tuareg. The lower ones were assimilated by the Arabs.
Gargan is a mountainous area in Italy overlooking the Adriatic Sea, famous for its monasteries.
Gardarika - (country of cities) the former European name of Northern Russia with the capital Staraya Ladoga - the predecessor of Novgorod.
Garia (Garrien) is an ancient Estonian maakond (land) in the north of modern Estonia from the city of Varbola. In the 13th century captured by Denmark, including the land of Reval with the city of Revel (modern - Tallinn). In 1347 he was ceded to the Livonian Order, from 1561 - in Sweden. In Russia since 1710 - Revel district of the Estland province.
Heidelberg is an ancient city on the territory of Germany, known as the oldest (600,000 years) Eneolithic site of an ancient (Heidelberg) man. In the 5th century BC the Celts built a fortified settlement-shelter and places of worship on the Holy Mountain. OK. 80 AD captured by the Romans (held until 260), and then in the hands of the local population. In 1196 it was first mentioned under a modern name.
Gelonia (Geolan) is a historical region, a forest country located north of Scythia.
Helvetia - Celtic land between the Main and the Alps; later between Lake Constance and Lake Geneva; Helvetia is currently the Latinized name for Switzerland.
Genisaret land - the later name of Tiberias in Palestine.
Geon water - (muddy water), another name for the Nile.
Heraclea is an ancient city in Asia Minor on the Black Sea, the modern city of Ergeli in Turkey. According to legend, people from Heraclea founded Chersonesus in the Crimea.
Hesperia is one of the ancient names of the Apennine peninsula (Ausonia, Enotria, Italica).
Hyrcania (Iran. Varcana - country of wolves) - an area southeast of the Caspian (Hircan) Sea; from the rest of Iran is separated by mountains with the Caspian Gates pass.
The Hyrcanian Sea is the Iranian name for the Caspian (Khvalyn, Khvalis) Sea.
Gniezno - an ancient Slavic city in the west of Poland; in the 10th century it was the capital of Mazovia (an early Polish state).
Holland is the former name of the Netherlands or Northern Gaul; modern a province in the Netherlands.
Gotha is a historic city in Germany.
Gotland is an island and historical region in the Baltic Sea.
Gotthia is a historical region on the territory of modern Crimea (it got its name after the conquest by the Turks), formerly Tavria.
Grado is a historical Slavic town and island 15 km from Aquileia, in the Adriatic Sea. The chair of the metropolitan (or patriarch) was moved here after the attack of Attila's troops in 452.
Gran - the later name of the city of Ostrog in Hungary.
Greece - an ancient village in Attica (now Orop, Skala Orop). Mythical and mythological country, traces of which are found throughout the territory of human settlement
Grimbergen - ancient Zelenograd - a city in Belgium near Brussels.
Dacia is a historical region that included present-day Romania, Transylvania and Bessarabia. It was originally inhabited by Gauls, Dacians and Getae. After the conquest by the Romans in 107 AD. was inhabited by pagan Jews and Jatts (Gypsies), who received Roman citizenship (Roma). In the 3rd century it was occupied by the Goths, then by the Alans, Avars, Hungarians and Slavs.
Dalmatia - (Dalmatia - the country of sheep) a historical region in Yugoslavia, along the coast of the Adriatic Sea, the western part of ancient Illyricum, inhabited by Serbs and Croats with a center in Delminium.
Denmark is a historical Slavic region, then a state that adopted Catholicism in 826.
Dvinsk - the former name of Borisoglebov (Daugavpils) until 1917.
Mesopotamia - the same as Mesopotamia (mixed offspring) or Mesopotamia.
Develt - the former name of the city of Zagora, located on Zagorje or Zagora (mountain slope).
Devin - (Velegrad), the capital of Rostislav, Prince. Moravsky.
Devon is a county in the south of Great Britain, on the English Channel.
Dedyakov - Alanian medieval town of 10-15 centuries. at the village Elkhotovo in North Ossetia. Christian churches, mosques, public and residential buildings, graves.
Deira (Dur) - a field near Babylon, a place of worship of the golden idol of the sun god (dei Ra).
The Dzhurdzhani Sea is one of the names of the Caspian Sea.
Dinaburg is the German name for Daugavpils (Dvinsk).
Diocletia - (Dioklia, Cetinje), the birthplace of Emperor Diocletian, at the confluence of the Zeta into the Morava. Later names - Dukla or Dukla, inhabited by Serbian tribes of Duklians (Dulebs, Slavs). At the beginning of the 11th c. conquered by Byzantium and renamed Zeta (named after a tributary of the river Moracha). After it became part of the Serbian state of Nemanjić, then it was conquered by Venice, after falling under Turkish rule, the name Zeta was supplanted by Montenegro.
Dioskuriada - (in Greek - Dioscuria and Sebastos), an ancient city on the Black Sea coast (now at the bottom of the Sukhumi Bay); in the Roman period it was renamed Sebastopolis.
Dobresol - the former name of the city of Halle (Saxony, Germany).
Dodona - the sanctuary of Zeus (Dodona) in Ancient Greece, located in Epirus near Mount Tomar (that ma Ra), now Olichka.
Dorilea is an ancient city in Phrygia Healthy, with palaces and healing springs. In 10-8 centuries. - a state in the vast territories of Asia Minor with the capital Gordion.
Doros (Mangup, Doro, Theodoro) - the main city of Gotthia, in the Crimea, the ruins are 20 km from Sevastopol.
Dorosad - the name of an ancient city in the south of England-England (modern - Dorset).
Dorostol - (Durostorum, Dristr, Dorostol, Silistria), an ancient city, the Roman fortress of Durostorum in the NE. modern Bulgaria, which changed its name under Turkish rule to Silistria (Silistra), a port on the Danube.
Dregovichi is a historical area in Dalmatia.
Drepan - (Elenopol) in Bithynia - historical region. Asia Minor; It got its name from the Thracian tribes of the Bithynians.
Drogichin is an ancient Russian city in the Brest region, Belarus. He put up a regiment to participate in the Battle of Grunval.
Drozdyany is the former Slavic name for Dresden.
Oak - a village near Chalcedon in Bithynia with a royal palace surrounded by groves. Here, at the Council of Chalcedon in 403, John Chrysostom was condemned.
Dublania - (Dublin - known since the 3rd century) Slavic fortress built on the territory of Ireland in 836; the modern city of Bale-Aha-Cliah, the capital of Ireland.
Dubovik - the former name of Dobin.
Dubossary - (Dubesari) an ancient city on the territory of Moldova.
Dubrovitsa is an old Russian city (before 1940 - Dombrovitsa) in the Rivne region. Ukraine on the Goryn River.
Dubrovnik - (Latin name - Ragusa), an ancient Slavic city in Croatia on the Adriatic Sea; known since the 7th century; for a long time it was the center of the aristocratic Republic of Dubrovnik.
Dover is an ancient city in England; shipbuilding center of pre-Roman Britannica.
Dullan (Dullan) is a city in Picardy (France).
Dura-Europos is a city on the Middle Euphrates, founded at the end of the 4th century. BC. Seleucus Nicator as a military colony. It became the center of caravan routes linking the Roman Empire. with the East. Repeatedly passed from hand to hand of the Parthians and the New Persian kingdom of the Sassanids. Destroyed in the 4th c.
Dymin - the former Slavic name of the city of Demmin.
Zagreb is the modern name of the city of Agram.
Zagros - (Zagorskaya Rus) a mountain system of parallel ranges in modern Iran, in the southwest of the Iranian Highlands. Length - 1600 km, width - 200-300 km. Mountain deserts, bushes, copses.
Zadar is the oldest city in Croatia, a port on the Adriatic Sea. Remains of the Roman Forum and triumphal arches; rotunda church of St. Donatus (beginning of the 9th century); Romanesque basilicas (St. Stoshi, 11th-12th centuries; St. Krevan, 12th century); fortress gate "Porta Terraferma" (16th century).
Zara - an ancient Slavic city on the Adriatic Sea, adopted Christianity in the 8th century.
Zverin - the former name of the Russian city; now Schwerin, the administrative center of the state of Mecklenburg-Vorpommern in Germany.
Zvyagel - the name of the ancient city on the Sluch River until 1793; modern Novograd-Volynsky in Ukraine.
Zeta (Cetinja, ancient Dioklea, then Dukla) is the main city of Montenegro on the Zeta River.
Golden Sands (Zlatni Pyasytsi) is a climatic resort in Bulgaria, known since the 3rd century.
Solothurn is a historical region and canton in Switzerland.
Jabbok is a river, a left tributary of the Jordan River. The modern name of Ez-Zarqa.
Iberia - the ancient name of the Iberian Peninsula along the river Iber (Giber, Ber), now the Ebro. Spain became known after the conquest by Rome.
Ida is a mountain in Greece on the island of Crete.
Jebus - the area in which Jebus was located (Ie news, renamed Jerusalem - "the throne of the god of the Rus" by David) before his capture by David. It had its former name by the name of Jebus, the son of Canaan. Cunning invaders try not to call these lands by real names, so that it is not clear to the modern reader what kind of people lived here before.
Yemen - (happy or God's chosen people); the name of the state in Africa after the adoption of Judaism.
Hierakon (Ie Ra Kon-Hierakonpol, Jericho) is the name of the political center of Southern Egypt during the first dynasty.
Iliopolis (Heliopolis) - the city of the Sun, Beth-shemesh, He (the sun), Baal-bek (Bel God), the city of Baal; the most unique object of the ancient world with temple complexes made of incredibly large parts, weighing over a thousand tons.
Ilmen - the old name of the tributary of the Laba (Elbe), the modern - Ilmenau.
Imereti is a historical region in Georgia once inhabited by pagan Jews from Samaria. Its last king Solomon went to Turkey in 1783 and Imereti became part of Russia.
Irinopol - the name of the city of Baghdad before the restoration of the old name in 762.
Ireland - (Iriy land, Hiberia, "Island of the Saints"), the Celtic population began to accept Christianity in the 5th century. through monasteries, submitted to Rome in the 12th century.
Istria is a peninsula in the north of the Adriatic Sea, inhabited by Slavs since ancient times. At first it was part of the Roman Empire, then it belonged to Venice, from the end of the 18th century it belonged to Austria.
Itil (Atel) - the ancient capital of Kozaria, was located near Astrakhan. According to it, it is customary to call the lower part of the Volga - Itil.
Iturea (Tiria, Turia) is a historical region in the north of Palestine.
Kolotida (Kallatida) is a Dorian colony on the western coast of the Black Sea. According to legend, it was founded by Heraclea.
Camara is a city and fortress in Italy.
Campania is a historical region in southern Italy on the Tyrrhenian coast, which has long preserved Slavic traditions.
Candia is one of the old names (after the capture by the Arabs) of the island of Crete (formerly the Hidden One).
Canossus - Tuscan (Etruscan) castle. Here, in 1077, Henry IV humbly asked for forgiveness from Pope Gregory VII with the participation of the Tuscan Margraves Matilda.
Canton is the former name of the city of Guangzhou in southern China.
Capernaum is an ancient city in Galilee, on the northwestern shore of Lake Tiberias. Glorified by the frequent visits of Christ.
Cappadocia is a historical region in Asia Minor, on the border of Armenia and Cilicia. Adopted Christianity in the 3-4 centuries.
Karaman is a historical region and state in Asia Minor.
Karanovo - the remains of a Neolithic and Bronze Age settlement (6-3 thousand BC).
Carantania is a historical region, the state of Slovenes in the 7th-11th centuries in the Mura river basin and the upper reaches of the Drava river. Later names - Carinthia, Krayna, Carinthian brand (Styria).
Karasev - the old Russian name of the city of Belogorsk in the Crimea; under Turkish rule - Karasubazar, Karasuvbazar.
Karenica - the former name of the city of Harz.
Karin (Kari) - the ancient name of the city, which became Theodosipolis or Theodosipolis (Divine City) under the Byzantines, under the Arabs - Kalikala, the modern Turkish city of Erzurum.
Karin (Erzerum, Theodosipol) is a city in Armenia, near the Euphrates.
Kariya is a historical region in the southwestern part of Asia Minor.
Carmel (Carmel) is a mountain in Palestine (Israel) on the Mediterranean coast. Known for ancient pagan temples, from the 4th-5th centuries. became a place of seclusion for Jewish hermits. In the caves of Skhul and Tabun, along with the Mousterian kam. tools discovered the remains of fossil people of the Neanderthal European type, which had many features of similarity with modern man. Antiquity - 45-40 thousand years.
Catalonia (Catalan) is a historical region in Spain with the capital Barcelona.
Kafa (Kaffa) - the name of the city of Feodosia in the Crimea from the 13th century; renamed in 1783. Founded in the 6th century. BC. unknown people, sometimes they write that the Greeks.
Kakhetia is a historical region of Georgia, conquered by King Bagrat in the 11th century. On old maps it is simply Khetia, part of Kolokhetia, which became Colchidon and Colchis.
Kezlev (Kozlov) is the Slavic name of the city of Evpatoria.
Cologne - the later name of the ancient Slavic city (Appian Colonia-Cologne-Cologne).
Celtiberia - a historical region on the territory of modern Spain; was inhabited by the Celtiberians (Celts and Iberians).
Kemeri - (before 1917 - Kemmern, earlier - Kem Meri) a balneo-mud resort in Latvia (the city of Jurmala).
Kemi is an ancient city in Finland at the confluence of the river. Kemi-Yoki to the Gulf of Bothnia; founding time is unknown.
Kem - (Ta Kemi, Kemi) the ancient name of the state in northern Africa; in the 7th century renamed Misr; the modern name of Gumhurdia Misr al-Arabi; the Hebrew name - Egypt - has taken root in our country.
Kem - an ancient city of Northern Pomerania on the river. Kem at its confluence with the White Sea; founding time unknown; It has been known in Novgorod since the 12th century, and in Moscow since the 15th century.
Kerkinitida is one of the ancient ports of the western Crimea, on the site of modern Evpatoria.
Kimmerik - an ancient city of the 5th century. BC - 3rd c. AD on the southern coast of the Kerch Peninsula in the Crimea, which gave the name of the people - the Cimmerians.
Cyrenaica (Kyrenia) is a historical region in the west of Egypt, on the coast of the Mediterranean Sea.
Clusium is an ancient Etruscan city on the territory of modern Italy (now Chiusi).
Kobrin is a city in the Brest region. Belarus; founded by Russian princes in the 11th century; known from chronicles since the 13th century.
Kovno - the former name of the ancient Russian city (since 1917 - Kaunas); founded at the beginning of the 11th century.
Kozlov - the Slavic name of the city of Evpatoria in the Crimea before Turkish rule.
Kola (Kolo) is a medieval city on the shores of the Kola Bay, at the confluence of the Kolo and Tuloma rivers. Known since the 13th century; Who founded and when is unknown.
Kolgon - modern Golgong, a city in India on the Ganges River.
Kolobreg - the former name of Kolberg.
Colony - (Kolo), the ancient name of the city of Cologne.
Colossi (Khona, Gona) - an ancient city in Phrygia on the river Lykos.
Kolochetia (Kolkhida - in Greek) is a historical region in Western Georgia. In the 13th-7th centuries. BC. the union of tribes of “blond beasts”, identified by archaeologists as the Colchis culture of agricultural tribes, accompanied by the image of animals and swastika ornaments, analogues of the Northern Black Sea region. Mingrelians, Georgian Jews, currently live here.
Kolyvan - the former name of the ancient Slavic city (in Lithuanian - Lindanis). In 1219-1917 the official name was Revel, then from 1917 - Tallinn.
Constantinople - the name in the Middle Ages of Perun-grad, Tsar-grad, Byzant, modern Istanbul (Turkey).
Konstanz is a city at the outlet of the Rhine from Lake Constance.
Horse-Stone (Kony Island) - an ancient sanctuary of the Korels on Konevsky (Konevsky) Island.
Kopaysky basin - Kopayskaya hollow, intermountain depression in Central Greece, along the Kefis River. In the past, it was filled with Kopaysky Lake, now drained.
Koporye - an ancient Russian city and fortress that defended the Novgorod land from the Swedes; now a village in the Leningrad region. with the remains of the fortress walls.
Corbeil is a city in Ile-de-France.
Korela - the name of the city of Priozersk, Leningrad region until 1611. Under Peter 1 - Kekzholmts.
Corinth is an ancient city in Greece at the Isthmus of Corinth, connecting Central Greece and the Peloponnese peninsula. Founded by the Dorians (Darians) in the 10th century. BC. as the main city of Achaia; ruins near modern Corinth (Greece).
Korsun is the ancient Russian name for Chersonese, an ancient polis founded in the 5th century. BC. Ruins near Sevastopol.
Kortsira - the ancient Slavic name of the modern Greek island of Kerkyra (Corfu - in Italian).
Korchev - a Slavic city in the Crimea in the Middle Ages; now - Kerch.
Kossovo field - (Kosovo field), an area in Dalmatia (Serbia), where in 1389 the Turks defeated the Serbs and Bulgarians (according to the modern version, the Serbian-Bosnian troops under the command of Prince Lazar).
Red - the name of the former Slavic city in the territory of Germany; modern - Rothenburg.
Krevo - an ancient city with a fortress and a castle on the territory of Belarus; known for the Union of Krevo - an agreement on a dynastic union between the Grand Duchy of Russia and Litvinsky and Poland.
Kremenets is an ancient city on the territory of modern. Ukraine; known from chronicles since 1226.
Khreshchatyk - the main street of Kyiv, is located on the site of a stream in which the sons of Vladimir and noble people of Kiev were baptized.
Crete - the modern name of the Slavic island of Skryten (Kryt), under the Muslims - Candia from the capital city of Kandax.
Krichev is an ancient Russian city on the Sozh River, the territory of Belarus, known from chronicles since the 12th century.
Croatia is the old name for Croatia.
Croachan is a county in Scotland.
Kruszewice is an ancient Polish capital (8th-9th centuries).
Crimea - the modern name of the island and the state with the former name of Taurida, Tauric Chersonese, Greater Chersonesus, Gotthia, Ostrogothia.
Kurland - the historical region of Kurzeme in the western part of Latvia (Latgale; gall in Roman - rooster, chicken. Türkic-Slavic kuren and vezha - house, dwelling.). In the 13th century it was captured by the crusaders; since 1561 - the Duchy of Courland and the Pilten region, in 1695-1917 - the Courland province as part of Russia.
Laba is the old Slavic name for the Elbe River; used in Czechoslovakia; Laba is a river in Russia in the North Caucasus, the left tributary of the Kuban.
Ladoga - an ancient Russian city in the Slovenian land (Novgorod); mentioned in chronicles since the 8th century; now with. Staraya Ladoga in the Leningrad region.
Ladon is a river in Greece on the Peloponnese peninsula.
Laconia is a historical region in Greece on the Peloponnese peninsula.
Lan (Lan) is a land and a city in France.
Languedoc is a province in France.
Langton is a bay of the Arctic Ocean in northern Canada.
Landes is a region in southwestern France.
Lagny is a land and a city in the Île-de-France.
Lapland - a historical region, the territory of Finland, Sweden, Norway; the population is Lapps.
Latgale is a historical region in the Baltic states on the territory of modern Latvia.
Lebediya - a historical region on the territory of modern Ukraine, was occupied or defeated by the Magyars (Huns) when they moved to the west. The location was determined by historians - the area of ​​​​the city of Lebedyan (Lipetsk region) or Lebedin (Sumy region).
Swan - a river in Altai, a tributary of the Biya, the Ob basin.
Lenchin is the modern name of Lenzen.
Livonia - the Baltic lands captured by the German Livonian Order.
Lipsk - the old name of the Slavic city on the territory of the Federal Republic of Germany; now Leipzig in Saxony.
Litvinia - White Russia, population - Lithuania, Litvins; in later documents - the state (principality) - Lithuania.
Lausanne - a city in Savoy, from the 16th century. - in Switzerland, on the shores of Lake Geneva.
Longobardia is a historical region in northern Italy, founded in the 3rd century BC. from R.H. longobards (long-bearded), immigrants from the territory of modern Germany; the capital of Mediolan (middle land, now Milan). Modern Lombardy in Italy.
Ltava - (Litava) the name of the city of Poltava until 1430.
Lugdun - (Lugdon) the ancient name of the Gallic city at the confluence of the rivers Rhone and Saone; modern Lyon in France.
Lusatia is a historical region on the territory of modern Germany (named after the modern region of Lusatia), known since the 13th century. BC. The main population: Lusatians, Lusatian Sorbs (Serbs), Wends (Wends). They were subjugated by the Arabian Germans under Otto 1, but retained their own language, which belongs to the West Slavic languages.
Lusitania (Lusitania, Rusitania) - the name of the Iberian Peninsula before the conquest by Rome and renaming to Spain.
Lübeck is a city in the north of Germany, a port on the Baltic Sea.
Lyubech is an ancient Russian city on the left bank of the Dnieper. It was first mentioned in chronicles under 882. In 1097, a congress of Russian princes took place in Lyubech.
Lubich - the former name of the Slavic city (modern Lubeck in Germany).
Lublin is a city in the east of Poland, known since the 10th century; The Union of Lublin between Litvinia and Poland was concluded here.
Lutetia - the ancient city of Parisians and Luticians on the island of Sich (Sita) at the confluence of the rivers; in 3 c. after the capture by the Romans, it was renamed Parisii; modern name is Paris.
Lucerne is a city in Switzerland, on the Firwaldstet lake.
Lucin - the official name of the city of Ludza in Latvia until 1917.
Magdeburg - the ancient Slavic city of Velegrad in Prussian Saxony; the center of the state of Saxony-Anhalt in modern. Deutschland. Known since 805, since 968 - the center of the archbishopric.
Mazovia - a historical region of Poland, in the middle reaches of the Vistula and the lower reaches of the Narew and Bug; from the 9th c. - principality; from the 13th century it was divided into specific principalities and gradually began to fall under the rule of the Polish kings; finally in Poland from 1526.
Macedonia is a historical region on the Balkan Peninsula in the adjacent regions of Yugoslavia, Greece and Bulgaria.
Malin - 1. The ancient name of the Slavic city in Belgium (modern - Mechelen), known for its bell ("crimson") ringing. 2. City in Ukraine.
Marakanda - the ancient capital of Sogdiana; modern - Samarkand.
Mariupol is a city on the Sea of ​​Azov, in 1778 the tsarist government settled here brought Greeks, whom the Tatars did not want to let into the Crimea.
Marcomanni are border residents, the same as Ukrainians.
Mglin - (Meglin, Moglena), a mountain fortress and a city in Western Macedonia, northwest of Vodena (Edessa. Edessa).
Megara is the center of the Megarida region in ancient Greece, on the Isthmus of Corinth.
Medina is the modern name for the ancient city of Yathrib in the Arabian Peninsula.
Bear Lake - (Great Bear Lake), in northwestern Canada, in the Mackenzie River basin.
Mediolan - (middle land), the former Slavic name of Milan and the surrounding lands.
Medniki - the former name of the Russian city, modern. Medininkai, Lithuania.
Melit is the ancient name of Malta.
Memel (Memelburg) - the official name of the city of Klaipeda (Lithuania) until 1923.
Menesk - the old name of the Belarusian city of Minsk; known from chronicles since 1067.
Meotida - (Meot ida - the land of the Meotians) the Roman name of the coast of the Sea of ​​\u200b\u200bAzov (Meotian Lake or Meotian swamp); they also called the inhabitants of the coast Meots, so a new nationality appeared.
Merv is an ancient city, the center of the Merv oasis (modern Mary in Turkmenistan).
Merv oasis - a historical region in the south of modern. Turkmenistan; from the 3rd century it was part of Khorasan.
Lake Merida - dug it in the 15th century. BC King Merid to collect water supplies from the Nile.
Meroe is an ancient country to the west of the Arabian Gulf. According to legend, it was ruled by queens (of Sheba, Kandakia).
Dead Sea - (Salty, Asphalt, Lotovo) drainless salt lake in the Middle East. It is located 395 m below the level of the Mediterranean Sea. The lowest point in the world.
MESOPOTAMIA - (correctly - Senaar, Mesopotamia, Mesopotamia, mixed offspring) - a historical region in the Middle East, between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, one of the centers of ancient civilization, now in Iraq.
Messenia - the historical region of Ancient Greece, in the southwest of the Peloponnese peninsula, inhabited in ancient times by the Leleg tribe, which had Pylos as its capital; later it was settled by immigrants from the Palestinian Messenia; considered the first Jewish (Greek) colony in the Balkans.
Messina is the ancient city of Zankl (until the 3rd-4th centuries) in Sicily, the first Greek colonists came here after the defeat of the state of Northern Israel (Samaria) by Assyria or the Scythians around 730 BC.
Mechelen (Mehelan, Malin) - the ancient city of Malin in Belgium on the Dil River, famous for its bell ringing (crimson ringing).
Mechlin is the former name of the city of Mecklenburg.
Midia is a historical region in the northwestern part of the Iranian Highlands. 13th-7th centuries BC. - union of tribes; in the 7th-6th centuries. - a kingdom that flourished under Cyaxares (King Kiak) on the territory of Iran and South Azerbaijan.
Mysia is a historical region in the northwest of Asia Minor, on the site of Troy. Another area occupied by Serbs and Croats in the 19th century.
Mikilin is the former name of Mecklenburg.
Mytilene - (Mytilan) an ancient city on about. Lesvos.
Mishnah - the former name of the city of Meissen.
Morava - (blue) right tributary of the Danube, consisting of the Serbian and Bulgarian Morava.
Moravia is a historical region along the Oder and Morava.
Morea is a historical region on the territory of modern Greece.
Mosul is a historical region founded by the Guzes (torks - worshipers of Thor) of Central Asia, who converted to Islam in the interpretation of the commander and emir of Mosul - Islam in the territory of modern Iraq. After that, the Guzes began to be called Mosulmans (modern Muslims) or Torkmen (due to the fact that part of the people continued to worship the Torah).
Mstislavl - an ancient city in Belarus on the river Vihra; known from chronicles since 1156.
Murmansk - the same as the Norman coast, that is, the northern coast of Russia, adjacent to Norway.
Murom - an ancient Russian city, the capital of Muroma - the Finno-Ugric tribes who lived in the upper reaches of the Oka from 1 thousand BC; known from Christian chronicles since 862; since 1097 the center of the Muromo-Ryazan principality; from the middle of the 12th century up to 15 - the center of the Murom principality.
Mutyanskaya land - the old name of Moldova.
Nazareth is a mythological city in the lower Galilee (there was no such city, but there was the Nazarene land), here Jesus lived up to 30 years; the city is known as the center of the Nazarene heresy, which was preached by Jesus.
Narva - a city and fortress in Estonia on the Narva River; known in Russian chronicles since 1171 under the name Rugodiv (Rusodiv).
Naples - Palestine Naples, the same as Nabluz (Nablus) near ancient Shechem; Naples Italica - the ancient Parthenon; Naples in Macedonia became part of Philippa founded by Philip 11; Scythian Naples (Simferopol) 3rd c. BC - 3rd c. from R.H. - the capital of the Scythian state in the Crimea.
The German Sea is the name of the Baltic Sea found in foreign literature at the time of the seizure of land by Catholic orders.
Nesvizh is an ancient city on the territory of Belarus; known from chronicles from the 13th century and the castle of the Radziwills.
Nicaea is a city in Bithynia, on the shores of Lake Askan, the capital of the Nicaean Empire and the first capital of the Ottomans before they took Constantinople.
Nicomedia - a city in Bithynia, by the Sea of ​​Marmara, the capital of the Eastern Empire to Constantinople.
Nikopol - (Nikup), Roman city 2-7 centuries AD. in the province of Moesia Inferior, east of the modern city of Veliko Tarnovo (Bulgaria).
The Nile is the longest river in Africa, formed by the confluence of the White and Blue Nile. Actually, the Nile is Blue; this name has been from time immemorial, got its name from an unknown fair-haired and white-skinned people who lived here several millennia ago.
Nilgiri - the Blue Mountains in southern India; got its name from an unknown tall, fair-haired people who lived here several thousand years ago.
Nineveh is an ancient city in the Middle East, the capital of Assyria (on the territory of modern Iraq, near Mosul).
Novgorod is an ancient Russian city on the Volkhov River, 6 km from Lake Ilmen. According to church annals, it has been known since 859; from the Vlesova book: “In the summer of 3113 (2395 BC), the Grand Duke Sloven built a city and named it after his name Slovensk, which is now called Veliky Novgorod, from the mouth of the great lake Ilmer along the Volkhov River, half a third field.”
Novgorodok is the name of a Russian fortress on the territory of modern Estonia before it was renamed Vastselina.
Novgorod-Seversky is an ancient Russian city on the Desna River, in the Chernihiv region. Ukraine, known since the 10th century.
Novgorod land - a historical region in the northwest and north of Russia in the 9th-15th centuries; included, in addition to the Novgorod Republic and its possessions to the White Sea and the North. Trans-Urals (Karelia, Tersky coast, Zavolochye, Pechora, Yugra), from the end of the 15th century - only the lands adjacent to Novgorod.
The Novgorod Republic is a rooted name in the domestic literature of the state in NW and S. Rus in 1136-1478. with the capital - Novgorod. Attached to Muscovy as a result of the campaigns of Ivan 111.
Novogrudok is an ancient city in Belarus, known since 1116.
Novosil is an ancient city in the Oryol region. on the river Zusha; known since 1155; at the beginning of the 14th century. - the center of the Novosilsky principality.
Novotroitsk settlement - the remains of a fortified Slavic city of the 8th-9th centuries. at the village Novotroitskoye, Sumy region Ukraine.
Novocherkassk - a city in the Rostov region; the former capital (since 1805) of the Land of the Don Army; the capital of the world Cossacks.
Norik - a historical region, a mountainous country bordering Italy and Pannonia; the main population was the Celts. At the age of 16-13 BC. was conquered by Rome and became an imperial province.
Normandy is a historical region and duchy in northwestern France.
Oks is the ancient name of the Amudarya River; before the Arab conquest.
Oldenburg is the modern name of the Slavic city of Stargrad before the capture by the Germans.
Olbia is the economic capital of the Scythians, located on the right bank of the Dnieper-Bug estuary.
Orany - the former name (until 1917) of Varena in Lithuania.
Oreshek - the name of the Russian fortress and city in 1323-1611; in 1611-1702 after the capture by the Swedes - Noteburg; since 1702 as part of Russia - Shlisselburg.
Or-Kapu (Perekop) is a Turkish fortress on the Perekop isthmus.
Ostia (Mouth) - (in Latin - the mouth of the river) an ancient city in Italy at the mouth of the Tiber, not far from Rome.
Ostrogom - the former name of the city of Gran in Hungary.
Pavia is a city in Lombardy (Italy) on the river. Ticino; since 568 - the capital of Longobardia.
Palestine is a historical region in the Middle East, east of the Mediterranean Sea, one of the oldest centers of Russian civilization. Before colonization by the Jews under the leadership of Solomon, it had one of the names of Palena Stan (hot place).
Palmyra - (Fadmor, City of Palms), an ancient city in Syria, the greatest flourishing in the 1-3 centuries. AD; the temples of Baal, the sanctuaries of Bel, the so-called. camp of Diocletian.
Pamphylia - a historical region in the south of Asia Minor; first - the union of tribes, from the 6th century. BC. in the kingdom of the Achaemenids, Alexander the Great, Ptolemies, Seleucids, Pergamon, together with whom, after 133 BC. became a possession of Rome; in 43 AD Lycia and Pamphylia made up Rome. province.
Pannonia - historical region (ancient Paeonia), Roman province; occupied part of the territory of modern Hungary, Yugoslavia, Austria.
Roman Pantheon - a pagan temple depicting all the gods of the Roman Empire; in 607 Pope Boniface IV converted to the Church of All Saints.
Panticapaeum (Panticapeum) - an ancient city in the Crimea (modern Kerch) in the 6th century BC-4th century. AD; then the Slavic city of Korchev.
The Papal States is a theocratic state that existed in 756-1870. on the Apennine Peninsula with its capital in Rome. Led by the Pope.
Parthia is a historical region southeast of the Caspian Sea. Known from 1,000 BC; in 250 BC-224 AD - Parthian kingdom (from Mesopotamia to the Indus). Since 224, it became part of the Sassanid state.
Passau is a city in Bavaria, the center of Catholic expansion into the Slavic lands.
Patus is an ancient city on the site of modern Gelendzhik.
Paphlagonia is a historical region in the center of Asia Minor.
Pella - an ancient city in Perea (Palestine), opposite Scythopolis; the Jews left here in 66 AD. who did not want to participate in the war with Rome.
The first Bulgarian kingdom is a Slavic-Bulgarian state in 681-1018. in the north of the Balkan Peninsula.
Mother See - an honorary title of Moscow after the transfer of the capital to St. Petersburg.
Pergamum is a city and a state in Asia Minor, in Mysia. Founded in the 12th century. BC. He lost his independence in connection with his will in 133 BC. King Attalus III. In its place, the Romans established the province of Asia. The city gave its name to parchment where it was first invented; famous for the library, honey. school, the Pergamon altar of Zeus.
Crossed - the ancient capital of the streets (uglichs, budzhaks) on the Dniester (modern village of Peresecina in Moldova). The city was taken and destroyed by the Kiev governor Sveneld in 939-940. Then, after the expulsion of the Uglichs and Tivertsy, the Pechenegs, who converted to Christianity, were invited here.
Perea is the Greek name for a part of Palestine, east of Irdan.
Pereyaslavl the Great (Preslav, Markianopol, Megalopolis) - an ancient Slavic city, located in the Balkan Mountains near Shumla.
Pereyaslavl small - (Preslav) an ancient Slavic city, the former capital (893-971) of the First Bulgarian and Western. Bulgarian kingdom; for some time it was owned by the Kyiv prince Svyatoslav. Ruins near the modern city of Preslav.
Pereyaslavl Russian (Pereslav) - an ancient Russian city, known since 906; the capital of the Pereyaslav principality in the 11th-13th centuries; the modern city of Pereyaslavl-Khmelnitsky.
Pereyaslavl Ryazansky - an ancient Russian city, founded in 1095 by Prince. Yaroslav Svyatoslavich. From the middle of the 13th century - the capital of the Ryazan principality; in 1778 it was renamed Ryazan.
Pereyaslavl - before the 15th century. Pereslavl, then - Pereyaslavl-Zalessky; in 1175-1302 - the center of the specific Pereyaslav principality of the great Vladimir-Suzdal principality; from the 14th century within the Moscow principality.
Perm - (ancient Biarmia), the old Russian name for the historical region from the Ural Mountains to the river. Pechora, Kama and Volga; inhabited by the Komi people (Kama). This territory was annexed to the Muscovite state in 1478. Great Perm - the territory of modern. Komi-Permyak region; Perm Malaya (Old, Vychegodskaya) - ter. modern rep. Komi.
Persis - (Pars, Parsia, Barsia), - a historical region on the territory of modern Iran; modern - Farce.
Persia is a state in Asia (the modern name is Iran).
Perusia (Perusia) - an ancient Etruscan city on the territory of modern Italy (now Perugia - the former city of rugs; Perugia sounds in Russia).
Petra is an ancient city in Jordan.
Petrian Arabia - the territory adjacent to the city of Petra.
Pitiunt is an ancient city; modern Pitsunda in Abkhazia.
Pleskov is the old name of the city of Pskov.
Pleskov (Pliskov) - the old name of the Bulgarian capital since 640 - Pliski.
Polabskaya Rus is a state that existed on the territory of modern Germany and western Poland until the end of the 11th century.
Polotsk - (Polota) the oldest Russian city on the Polota River, known from chronicles since 864 (currently in the Vitebsk region of White Russia).
Pomerania - the modern name of the historical Slavic region of Pomerania on the Baltic Sea coast with the center of Szczecin.
Pomerania is a historical region on the northern Baltic coast of Poland. It consists of two parts: Western and Eastern (Gdansk). The western part, captured by the Mediterranean Germans, became a duchy and became part of the German Union in 1170.
Northern Pomorie - received its historical name in the 15-17 centuries. (the coast of the White Sea from the city of Kem to the city of Onega - the Pomor Coast) or a wider area from Obonezhye to the North. Urals, including Korelia, Dvina, Vazhskaya, Sysolskaya, Vyatka, Perm lands, Posukhonye, ​​Belozersky and Pechersky territories (Pomor cities). Until the 12th century - the possessions of the Novgorod Republic; by the beginning of the 16th century. - in the Moscow state.
The Kingdom of Pontus is a state on the southeastern shore (Ponte) of the Black Sea. Existed from 301 to 64 years. BC.
Pontus Euxinus - the ancient Greek name of the southern coast of the Black Sea in Asia Minor, on the territory of which the Pontic kingdom was created in 301 BC.
The Ponto-Aral Sea is a hypothetical water basin that united the Black, Caspian and Aral Seas in the past.
Portugal is an ancient historical region (Coast Gaul).
Portusallia is the old name for Portugal.
Beautiful port - the former Slavic name of the port of Chersonesos on the western coast of Crimea, on the site of the modern city of Chernomorsk (under the Turks, Ak-Mechet).
Pressburg is the German name for Bratislava (Pizon, Pizhon).
Prilwiec is the former name of the city of Prilwitz in Germany.
Propontis - the ancient Greek name of the Sea of ​​​​Marmara (lying between the ponts-shores - Pontus Euxinus and Helios Pontus).
Ra is the ancient name of the river, which eventually became known as the Big Road (Bol Ga), and then turned into the Volga.
Ravenna (The Plain) is a Gallic city in northern Italy in a low, marshy plain. From the 5th century - the residence of the Western Roman emperors, then the Ostrogothic kings.
Ragusa is the former name of the current Dubrovnik on the Adriatic Sea.
Ragi is the capital of the Great Media, south of the Caspian Sea.
Razgrad - an ancient and modern city in Bulgaria; formerly the Roman city of Abritus.
Hrazdan is the modern name of a river in Armenia; former - Zanga.
Raipur is a city in India, in the north of the Deccan highlands.
Rakobor - (Rakovor) the former name of a Russian city from the 13th century. (modern Rakvere in Estonia, until 1917 - Wesenberg).
Ras (Ras) is an ancient city in Serbia on the banks of the Raska (Raska) River, a tributary of the Ibra. Stefan Nemanja was baptized here in 1143.
Ratibor - the former Slavic name of the city of Ratzenburg.
Reval - the former name of the capital of the land Rävala in Northern Estonia. In the 13th century it was captured by the Danish crusaders.
Riphean mountains - presumably the Urals.
Rod as - (Rod of Ases) the old name of the island of Rhodes; in the Aegean Sea off the coast of Asia Minor.
Roden is an ancient Russian city of blacksmiths, located at the confluence of the river. Ros in the Dnieper-Slavutich.
Rhombits - Big and Small - now the Beisug and Yeysk estuaries of the Sea of ​​\u200b\u200bAzov.
Rossiena - the official name from 1253 to 1917 of the modern Lithuanian city of Raseiniai.
Rossano is the main city of Calabria, in the south of Italy.
Rostock is a former Slavic city in Germany.
Rotenburg is a city in the south of Germany, the former Slavic city of Krasny.
Rugodiv - an old Russian city, captured by the crusaders and renamed Narva.
Rusafa is the residence of the Baghdad caliphs.
Ruse is a city in Bulgaria, near which there are the remains of the city of Cherven with rock churches.
Rusne is a city in Lithuania on the river. Nemunas.
Ruspe is an ancient city founded by the Vandals (Goths) in NW Africa.
Russik is a monastery founded by Russians on Mount Athos.
Roussillon - 1. Historical region in the south of France. 2. Historical region in the Pyrenees.
Rävala is a historical region in the north of modern Estonia with the capital Revel.
Sals (Salsk) is a city in Roussillon.
Samaria - (Sevastia - after the restoration by Herod) an ancient city in Palestine, for many years the former capital of the pagan Jewish state. The modern name is Sebastia.
Samarra - the capital of the Caliphate after the transfer of the capital from Baghdad in 836, is located 110 km from Baghdad up the Tigris.
Samkerts - the name of Taman during the period of the Khazar Khaganate.
Samothrace - on modern maps of Samothrace, an island in the north of the Aegean Sea as part of Greece.
Sarai - (royal palace), the capital of the Mongol khans on the banks of the Akhtuba River; founded by Batu in the 13th century.
Sardika - (Sredets, Sofia, Ulpiya, Triaditsa) former names of the Bulgarian capital Sofia.
Sardinia is a large island in the Mediterranean. The first cities were built here by the Phoenicians (presumably).
Sardis - (Sardim) - the ancient capital of Lydia under Croesus.
Sarkel - (Royal Shield), - the second name of the border town of the Don Russ Belaya Vezha.
Sevastia (Sebastia) - the name of the restored capital of the Gentile Jews of Samaria under Herod the Great. Hence - Sevastipol (Sevastopol).
Sevastia in Armenia is a city built by settlers from Samaria-Sevastia, in which 40 Christians were executed in 320 AD.
Sevastopol is the modern name of the Turkish city of Akhtiar, renamed in honor of the Jewish city of Sevastia by "Greek" settlers.
Semigallia is a historical region between Poland and Courland, which was captured and converted to Christianity in 1218 by the Sword-bearers.
Semikarakora - a city in the Rostov region, the ancient Karakorum (founded by Khan Karakorum in 808) in the European part of the Golden Horde.
Serbia New - the territory inhabited by Serbs along the river. Bugu, immigrants from Austria in 1749.
Cerdan (Cerdan) is a historical region in the Eastern Pyrenees.
Sephoris - (Diocesarea, Kitron) - the main city of Galilee at the time of I. Christ.
Sekheriy - the Black Sea channel of the Kuban.
Silesia is a historical region in Europe, in the upper part of the Odra river basin (modern territory of Poland and the Czech Republic).
Silistra - (Dorostol, Derstr) an ancient Bulgarian fortress on the Danube.
Singidon - (Upper Misia), the ancient name of the capital of Serbia, Belgrade.
Sindskaya harbor is one of the former names of Anapa.
Syracuse is an ancient city and capital founded in 734 BC. in Sicily.
Seachem (Sichem, Sikar, Flavius-Naples) - the former capital of the bulk of the Jews who broke away from Judea before being transferred to Samaria; now - the city of Nabluz (Navluz).
Scythopolis (Befsan) is an ancient city in Palestine.
Sclavnia - one of the Slavic states of the Baltic coast of the 8th century. on the territory of modern Deutschland; neighboring - Wiltse.
Scrivia is a meandering river in Italy.
Slavonia is a historical region in the north of Yugoslavia, between the rivers Sava and Drava, part of ancient Pannonia.
Slavutych is the Slavic name for the Dnieper.
Smyrna - the ancient city of Lydia in Asia Minor; founded in the 2nd millennium BC
Sogdiana - the historical region of Asia in the north. from the Persian Gulf, in the basin of the Zeravshan and Kashkadarya rivers, one of the most ancient centers of civilization. Chief city from 329 BC - Marakanda (now Samarkand).
Solun - (Thessalonica), the ancient city and capital of Thessaly; now Thessaloniki.
Sparta is an ancient Greek state with the center of the same name in the south of the Peloponnese peninsula.
La Spezia is an ancient and modern city and port in Italy, famous for its spice trade.
Splet (Spalatro) - The ancient city of Dalmatia; modern - Split.
Sredets - (Sardika, Ulpiya, Triaditsa) is the ancient Slavic name of the Bulgarian capital Sofia.
Srem - (Sirmium), a city in Pannonia on the Sava River, the capital of the Gepids; in 3-5 centuries. - the capital of the Roman Caesar.
Stargrad - the former name of the Slavic city; now - Oldenburg in Germany.
Stargrad - the former name of the city of Altenburg (modern Stralsund).
Starodub - a city from the 11th century on the territory of the Bryansk region, on the Babinets river; the center of a specific principality, put up a regiment to participate in the Battle of Grunval.
Starodubye is a settlement founded in 1690 in the Chernihiv region. fugitive Old Believers from Moscow, fleeing executions.
Walls - a port on the western coast of the ancient Crimea. The exact location has not been established.
The Stodar state is the name of the principality of the Lyutichs in the 8th century. in the Great Chronicle.
Stradonitsa is an ancient Celtic settlement dating back to the 1st millennium BC. near the village of the same name in the Czech Republic.
Strasbourg is a city in eastern France on the Ile River at its confluence with the Rhine (the German name is Strasbourg). The name comes from "guard" and "city" - a border town.
Stridon is an ancient city in Dalmatia at the confluence of three rivers.
Strymon is the Greek name for the Struma River, which flows mainly in Bulgaria and flows into the Aegean Sea.
Suva - (Owl, Soval Syria, Kelesiriya), the area between Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon.
Sugdey (Sugdeya, Surozh) - an ancient Slavic city in the Crimea, the center of Surozh Rus; modern Sudak.
Sudzhuk-Kale is the former name of Novorossiysk.
The Surozh Sea is the name of the Sea of ​​Azov from Surozh Rus and the city of Surozh (Sudak).
Taurus (Toros) - mountains in southern Turkey.
Taurida - (Gottia) Crimea.
Taurica - in ancient times (9th century BC - 4th century AD) was the name of the southern part of the Crimea, inhabited by Taurians, Tauro-Scythians.
Tavria - the name of the Crimean peninsula and the south of Ukraine (Northern T.) in the 19th - early. 20th century
Tauromenos is an ancient city in Sicily.
Taman - Tmutorokan, Tamatarkha, Matarkha, Matrika, Matrakha, Maritandis, Tom, Tom Tarkhan, Samkerts, Sharukan. As an administrative territory of the entire peninsula: Belaya Kumaniya, Taman.
Tana is an ancient city on the left bank of the Don River near the city of Azov and the Don River itself.
Tanais is an ancient city (3rd century BC-5th century AD) at the mouth of the river. Don and the river itself.
Tarquinia - the ancient Etruscan city is famous for the royal family of Takvinii (Tarkh Venev); now Tarquinia in Italy.
Tarsus - (Afar), the main city in Cilicia.
Tver is a city in Russia; founded in 1209 by the Slavs who came from the south of Europe.
Ternov (Tyrnov) - the ancient Bulgarian capital on the Yantra River; modern Veliko Tarnovo.
Tiberias - a historical province and an ancient city on the southwest shores of the Tiberias (Genisaret) Lake in Palestine, the main city of the lower Galilee (Gaul of Palestine); the population was called "Tiberians", then "Nazarenes"; hence came Jesus and all his apostles.
Tiberiopol - an ancient Slavic city in Western Macedonia (later names - Velichka, Strumnitsa); founded by fugitives from Palestine.
Tyre, a seaside city-state in Phoenicia; founded in 4 thousand BC; modern Sur in Lebanon.
Tire (Thira, Santorini) is a group of volcanic islands in the Aegean Sea with the port of Thira.
Tire (Tira, Tiras) - an ancient city (6th century BC - 3rd century AD) on the banks of the Dniester estuary, near the city of Belgorod-Dnestrovsky.
Tiryns is one of the oldest centers of Mycenaean culture in Argolis, in the Peloponnese. The first settlement dates back to the Neolithic period. Heyday - by the 14th-13th centuries. BC. During excavations, tablets with linear writing were found.
Tyrol is a historical region in Europe, in the Alps.
The Tyrrhenian Sea is part of the Mediterranean Sea between the Apennine Peninsula and the islands of Corsica, Sardinia and Sicily. Named in ancient times from the Tyrrhenian people (natives of Tyre, who founded all cities with similar names).
Tirtsa (Tivertsa, Ferza, Fersa) - the capital of the Israelite kingdom before Samaria.
Tom (Tom, Tomy, Ovidiopol) - a city at the mouth of the Danube, at first a Dorian colony; later the episcopal city of Lesser Scythia in the 2nd-5th centuries. AD; modern city of Constanta.
Tom is one of the former names of Taman.
Tor - the former name of the city of Slavyansk in Ukraine (renamed under Catherine 11) in honor of the 9th Slavic regiment guarding A.V. Suvorov.
Torki is the former name of the Russian city (modern since 1917 - Trakai).
Transylvania - (Semigradje) historical region in Romania; formerly part of Hungary.
Transoxiana - (the land beyond the Oxus - the early name of the Amu Darya), a historical region in Central Asia.
Troad - a historical region in Mysia, in Asia Minor.
Tours is a city in France, the main city of the historical region of Touraine.
Tura - 1. River in the West. Siberia; 2. The capital of the Evenki a.o.
The Turan lowland is a plain in Central Asia and Kazakhstan.
Turdetania is a historical region on the territory of modern Andalusia.
Touraine (Touraine) - a historical region in France in the Loire basin; includes dep. Indre and Loire.
Touraine is the former name of Turin (Italy).
Turinsk is a city in the Sverdlovsk region (before 1600 - Yepanchin).
Tysmenitsa - an old Russian city in Ukraine, not far from Ivano-Frankivsk; known from chronicles since 1143.
Ubii is the capital city of the Germanic tribe of the Ubii (since 50 BC - the Agrippa colony, then the Colony, the modern city of Cologne).
Ugarit - city-state 2 thousand BC in Phenicia.
Ugrian Rus (Hungarian Rus) is a historical region that received its name even before the arrival of the Hungarians.
Ugrovesk is an ancient Slavic city at the confluence of the Uger with the Western Bug, one of the most ancient Russian cities.
Umbria is a historical region in Italy; its borders were in the north of the river. Rubicon, in the west - r. Tiber, in the northeast - the coast of the Adriatic Sea, and in the south and east - the river. Nar. During the era of Etruscan colonization, many cities were built on the lands of Umbria.
Ungvar - the name of the city of Uzhgorod from the 11th century. until 1918; known since the 8th century.
Ur, Ur Chaldean - an ancient city-state in Mesopotamia, on the territory of modern Iraq.
Wales (in the old days Veles), a peninsula in the west of Great Britain.
Phanagora - the former local name of the ancient city (between Taman and Sennaya), in which there was a lighthouse on the mountain (lantern on the mountain).
Fars is a historical region in the south of Iran. Before the Arab conquest (7th century) naz. Pars, Parsa, Parsia, Persis. In the Middle Ages - the core of the state-in the Buyids, Mozafferids, Zends, etc.
Philippopolis - an ancient city in Thrace on the SE bank of the Gebra; modern Plovdiv in Bulgaria.
Philippi is the ancient capital of Macedonia.
Khadzhibey - the name of Odessa under the Turks and Tatars.
Hayastan is the name of Armenia among the Armenians.
Hainash - the official name of the city of Ainazi in Latvia until 1917.
Halan (Halne, Halonitida) is a historical region in Mesopotamia, near Ktesiphon.
Chaldea - (Babylonia, Shinar), a historical region in Mesopotamia since the arrival of the Chaldeans (626-538 BC).
Chalcedon is a city in Bithynia, at the entrance to the Thracian Bosporus.
Charax - Roman fortress in the 1st century. BC. - ser. 3 in. AD at Cape Ai-Todor in the Crimea.
Harappa - the ruins of one of the oldest centers of civilization in India and Pakistan. Known from 3-1 thousand BC.
Kharuhain-Belgas - a medieval city (10-13 centuries) on the territory of modern Mongolia, on the river. Haruh. Fortifications, suburban irrigated arable land, residential areas, water supply.
Hattusas - an ancient city in Anatolia; in the 17th-13th centuries. BC. was the capital of the Hittite state.
Khvalynsk - a city in the Saratov region, a pier on the Volga; founded by people from the Caspian Sea (Khvalynsk Sea).
Khvalynskoye Sea - (Khvalisskoye Sea), the Old Slavonic name of the Caspian (Hirkan in Iranian) Sea.
Hedeby (Haythabu; Hedeby, Haithabu) - a medieval center in Denmark (9th-ser. 11th centuries), was destroyed as a result of an attack by Christians.
Kherson - the most important of the cities of the Greek colony of Tauric Chersonesos; in the Middle Ages - Korsun; since 1778 - again Kherson.
Chersonese (from Greek - peninsula, cape) Thracian - on the Sea of ​​Marmara; Chersonese Tauride in the Crimea; Chersonese Cretan or Akritian.
Khlynov - the former name of the ancient city before being renamed Vyatka (Vyatko or Vyachko, and in Christian terms, Prince Vyacheslav died.
Khorasan - a historical region in the NE of Iran; the center of the Parthian kingdom in 250 BC - 224 AD. In the 3rd-18th centuries. H. included C of Iran, the Merv oasis of the south of modern. Turkmenistan, part of Herat and Balkh.
Khorezm is the former name of Khiva.
The Khorezm Sea is one of the names of the Aral Sea.
Horeb is the former name of the mountains of Sinai.
Khorsabad is an ancient fortress founded by the Assyrian king Sargon (King Gon, King Gun) in 717 BC. near the city of Mosul.
Horutania is the Slavic name for Carinthia; from the ancient name of the Slovenes - Horutans.
Khotyn is an ancient Russian city on the Dniester, which was again conquered from the Turks in 1769.
Khromkla (Rumkale, Romkla) is a medieval city near Tarsus in Cilicia.
Cera - (tse Ra) the name of the ancient Etruscan city (modern Chetveteri).
Chervonaya Rus is a historical region, part of Galicia, which had this name before baptism.
Chernigov - an old Russian city in Ukraine; known from chronicles since 907.
Montenegro - in the past, a historical region, a state on the Balkan Peninsula.
Black Mountains - volcanic mountains in the Crimea (Karadag). These mountains and the neighboring Black Sea steppes gave the name to the local lands of Black Russia.
Chernaya Zemlya is the former name of Black Russia or Volga Bulgaria.
Black Russia - the name in the 13-14 centuries. NW of Belarusian lands in bass. the upper Neman from the years. Gorodno, Novogorodok, Volkovysk, Slonim, Zditov, Lida, Nesvizh. From the 10th c. - in Dr. Russian state-ve; from 13 - in the Grand Duchy of Russia and Litvinsky.
The Black Sea is the modern name of the sea, which was called by ancient and later authors: the Russian Sea, the Rum Sea, the Pontus of Euxinus, Pontos, Bontus, the Nitas Sea, the An-Nitasi Sea (near Idrisi in the 12th century).
Shavly is the former Slavic name of Shauliai.
Sharukan - the name of Taman during the reign of Sharukanid Muslims.
Shash - the name of Tashkent before the conquest by the Arabs in 712.
Swabia is a historical region in Western Europe, now in the southeast of Germany.
The Shetland Islands are a group of islands in the northwestern Atlantic Ocean, part of Great Britain.
Aegippius - (Egypt, Egypt) one of the ancient names of the Kuban.
Epirus - a historical region, present-day Albania and Montenegro.
Yuriev - the former name of the Russian city; after the capture by the Germans - Dorpat; modern - Tallinn.
Jutland is a peninsula in Europe, between the North and Baltic Seas, as part of Denmark and Germany.
Jutta (from Heb. Mountainous country) is a city near Hebron in Palestine.
Yaik is the former name of the Ural River.
Yaksart - (Aksart) the ancient name of the branch of the Syr Darya before the Arab conquest in the early 8th century.
Janovo - the official name of the city of Jonava until 1917.
Yarov - the name of the city-fortress in the north-east of England-England in the 8th century; modern - Jarrow.
Yaroslavl is an old Russian city in Galicia. Yaroslavl is the regional center of Russia; founded in 1010.
Yathrib (Yatreb) - the former name of the city of Medina.

In the XV - the first half of the XVI centuries. in the Russian state Agriculture remained the main occupation. There was three-field crop rotation . In the cities, the old craft professions lost during the period of the Tatar-Mongol invasion were quickly restored, and new ones arose.

feudal nobility The Russian state consisted of: servants (former appanage) princes; boyars; free servants - medium and small feudal landowners who were in the service of large feudal lords; boyar children (medium and small feudal lords who served the Grand Duke). Remains a big feudal lord church , whose possessions are expanding due to the seizure of undeveloped and even black-mowed (owned by the state) lands, and through donations from boyars and local princes. The Grand Dukes are increasingly beginning to seek support in the nobility entirely dependent on them, which was formed primarily from "servants under the court".

Peasantry divided into: black-mallowed - the rural population dependent on the state, bearing in-kind and monetary duties in favor of the state; privately owned - living on lands owned by landowners and votchinniks. By right of ownership, the master owned serfs (at the level of slaves). The top of the servility was the so-called. big serfs - princely and boyar servants. Kholops planted on the ground, as well as receiving working cattle, equipment, seeds from the landowner and obliged to work for the master, were called sufferers .

bonded people - one of the varieties of serfs that arose in Russia from the middle of the 15th century. in connection with the receipt of a loan under the obligation to work off interest in the creditor's economy, which created a temporary (until the payment of the debt) servile dependence of the debtor ( bondage - a form of personal dependence associated with a loan). At the end of the XV century. appeared beans - impoverished people (urban and rural), who did not bear the state tax, received housing from feudal lords, churches, or even from the peasant community.

In the XV century. a special class appears - Cossacks , protecting border regions on a par with the regular army.

Russian city

Urban population Russia was divided into city (fortress-detinets fenced with a wall) and a trade and craft shop adjoining the city walls Posad . Accordingly, in the peaceful years, the part of the population free from taxes and state duties lived in the fortress - representatives of the feudal nobility and their servants, as well as the garrison.