The most important discoveries in biology

1. Microorganisms (1674)

Using a microscope, Anton van Leeuwenhoek accidentally discovers microorganisms in a drop of water. His observations laid the foundation for the science of bacteriology and microbiology.

2. Cell nucleus (1831)

In studying the orchid, botanist Robert Brown describes the structure within the cells, which he calls the "nucleus".

3. Archaea (1977)

Carl Wese discovers bacteria without a nucleus. Many organisms classified in the new kingdom Archaea are extremophiles. Some of them live in very high or low temperatures, others in very salty, acidic or alkaline water.

4. Cell division (1879)

Walter Flemming is careful to note that animal cells divide in stages, which constitutes the process of mitosis. Eduard Strasburger independently defines a similar process of cell division in plant cells.

Economic relationships are studied by science - econometrics. As a rule, general global processes are deeply linear system relationships. However, according to the theory big numbers it is possible to predict the trend based on the analysis of the main determining factors.
Programming allows you to calculate the average values ​​of processes: an online statistics calculator allows you to do this quite quickly.

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5 Sex Cells (1884)

August Weismann determines that germ cells must be divided in different ways in order to end up with only half of the chromosome set. This is special kind sex cells is called meiosis. Weismann's experiments with jellyfish led him to the conclusion that changes in the offspring result from the combination of matter from the parents. He refers to this substance as "germ plasm".

6. Cell differentiation (late 19th century)

Some scientists are involved in the discovery of cell differentiation, which ultimately leads to the isolation of human embryonic stem cells. In differentiation, the cell turns into one of the many types of cells that make up the body, such as lung, skin, or muscle.

Some genes are activated while others are inactivated so that the cell develops structurally to perform a specific function. Cells that are not yet differentiated and have the potential to become any type of cell are called stem cells.

7. Mitochondria (late 19th century to present)

Scientists have found that mitochondria are the powerhouse of the cell. These small structures in animal cells are responsible for the metabolism and transformation of food in cells into chemical substances that can be used. They were originally thought to be specialized bacteria with their own DNA.

8. Krebs cycle (1937)

Hans Krebs defines the stages of the state of the cell, necessary for the conversion of sugar, fats and proteins into energy. Also known as the citric acid cycle, this is a series of chemical reactions using oxygen as part of cellular respiration. The cycle contributes to the breakdown of carbohydrates, fats and proteins into carbon dioxide and water.

9. Neurotransmission (late 19th - early 20th century)

Scientists have discovered neurotransmitters - bodies that transmit signals from one nerve cell to another through chemicals or electrical signals.

10. Hormones (1903)

William Bayliss and Ernest Starling give the hormone its name and show their role as chemical messengers. They specifically describe secretin, a substance released into the blood from the duodenum (between the stomach and small intestine) that stimulates the secretion of gastric juice from the pancreas into the intestines.

11. Photosynthesis (1770)

Jan Ingenhousz discovers that plants react differently to sunlight than they do to shade. This laid the foundation for understanding photosynthesis. Photosynthesis is the process by which plants, algae and some bacteria convert light energy into chemical energy. In plants, leaves absorb carbon dioxide and roots absorb water. Sunlight catalyzes a reaction that results in the production of glucose (plant food) and oxygen, which is a waste product, released into the environment. Almost all life on Earth is ultimately dependent on this process.

12. Ecosystem (1935)

Arthur George Tensley

Arthur George Tensley coined the term ecosystem. Ecosystems are defined as a dynamic and complex whole that acts as an ecological unit.

13. Tropical biodiversity (15th century to present)

On expeditions around the world, early European explorers reported a much greater diversity of species in the tropics. The answer to the question why this is so allows scientists today to protect life on Earth.

2016 will be remembered for historical scientific events. The ball is ruled by physicists and astronomers: they have made the most discussed and exciting discoveries related to black holes, relativity and other worlds. Biologists, modifying genomes and experimenting on humans, have also achieved a lot.

The third is not superfluous

In April 2016, a child was born in Mexico, conceived with the mitochondrial DNA of a third person. The "three parents" method involves the transplantation of mitochondrial DNA from a donor woman into the mother's egg. Scientists believe that this avoids the influence of mutations on the part of the mother, which can cause diseases such as diabetes or deafness.

The operation was performed by American surgeon John Zhang. He chose Mexico because in the United States the use of this technique is prohibited. The child was born healthy, no negative consequences have been noted so far.

Gene revolution

On November 16, the journal Nature reported that Chinese scientists have modified the genome of a living person for the first time. Of course, not all, but a small part of it. A patient with metastatic lung cancer was modified with T-lymphocytes using CRISPR technology, turning off the gene encoding the PD-1 protein, which reduces the activity of immune cells and promotes cancer development.

According to the researchers, everything went well, and the patient will soon receive a second injection. In addition, 10 more people will take part in the trials, each of whom will receive two to four injections. All volunteers will be observed for six months to see if the treatment can cause serious side effects.

Minimum

In Science in March, scientists reported that they had succeeded in creating a bacterium with a synthetic genome, removing from it all the genes that the body could do without. For this, the mycoplasma M. mycoides was used, whose original genome consisted of about 900 genes that were classified as essential or non-essential. Based on all available information and with the help of constant experimental tests, scientists were able to determine the minimum genome - the necessary set of genes that are vital for the existence of a bacterium.

As a result, a new strain of bacteria was obtained - JCVI-syn3.0 with a genome halved compared to the previous version - 531 kbp. It encodes 438 proteins and 35 types of regulatory RNA - a total of 437 genes.

Turn into an egg

Another achievement of biotechnology is associated with stem cells obtained from mice. Japanese scientists from the University of Kyushu in Fukuoka have for the first time achieved their transformation into eggs (oocytes). In fact, they received a multicellular living organism from stem cells.

The oocyte refers to cells with totipotency - the ability to divide and turn into cells of all other species. The scientists subjected the resulting oocytes to in vitro fertilization. The cells were then transferred into the bodies of surrogate females, where they developed into healthy babies.

Created in laboratory conditions mice were fertile and could give birth to healthy rodents. In addition, embryonic stem cells could be reproduced from eggs obtained in culture and fertilized in vitro.

Zika is a deadly weapon

Yellow fever mosquito

Little known and first identified in Uganda in 1947, the Zika virus escalated into an international pandemic late last year when a rapidly spreading mosquito-borne disease crossed borders. Latin America. Despite little or no symptoms, the spread of the virus has been accompanied by a spike in microcephaly, a rare disease in children whose salient feature consists in a significant reduction in the size of the skull and, accordingly, the brain. This discovery led researchers to look for a link between Zika and the development of these anatomical abnormalities. And the evidence was not long in coming.

In January 2016, the Zika virus was found in the placenta of two pregnant women whose babies were subsequently born with microcephaly. That same month, Zika was found in the brains of other newborns who died shortly after birth. Petri dish experiments, published in early March, showed how the Zika virus directly attacks cells involved in brain development, significantly slowing brain growth. In April, the fears that many scientists had previously expressed were confirmed: the Zika virus actually causes microcephaly, as well as a number of other severe defects in the development of the brain.

To date, there is no cure for the Zika virus, and a DNA-based vaccine is in clinical trials.

The first genetically modified people

CRISPR is a revolutionary tool for genetic modification that promises not only to cure all diseases, but also to endow humans with improved biological abilities. This year, a Chinese team of scientists used it for the first time to treat a patient with an aggressive form of lung cancer.

To treat it, all immune cells were first removed from the patient's blood, and then the CRISPR method was used to “turn off” a special gene that can be used by cancer cells to spread even faster throughout the body. After that, the modified cells were placed back into the patient's body. Scientists believe that cells that have undergone editing can help a person overcome cancer, but all the results of this clinical trial have not yet been disclosed.

Regardless of the outcome of this particular case, the use of CRISPR to treat humans opens a new chapter in personalized medicine. There are still many unanswered questions here - after all, CRISPR is new technology. However, it is becoming clear that the use of technology that allows you to modify your own genetic code is no longer just another example of science fiction. And real patent wars have already begun for the right to own this technology.

The longest living vertebrate

In the end, it may turn out that we learn the secret of longevity not from major world scientific centers, but from the Greenland shark. This amazing deep-sea vertebrate can live for over 400 years, according to a study published this year in the journal Science. Radiocarbon analysis of 28 female Greenland sharks showed that these animals are the longest-lived vertebrates on our planet. The age of the oldest representatives ranges from 272 to 512 years.

So what is the secret to such incredible longevity of the Greenland shark? Scientists do not yet know for sure, but they guess that this is most likely due to the fact that this vertebrate has an extremely slow metabolic process, which leads to slow growth and puberty. Another weapon in the fight against aging in these sharks, apparently, is extreme low temperature environment. Nobody wants to spend a couple of years at the bottom of the Arctic Ocean and then come back with a report on how it went?

The mouse has gone

Spinal injury is one of the most pressing problems of modern neuroscience. So far, no one has been able to fully cope with a broken spinal cord. However, it was in 2016 that several experimental works were published that show that not everything is so bad. In one of them, scientists from St. Petersburg played an important role.

Scientists from the laboratory of neuroprostheses of the Institute of Translational Biomedicine of St. Petersburg state university under the guidance of Professor, Doctor of Medical Sciences Pavel Musienko, a neurostimulation technology was developed spinal cord below the site of injury and tested it on rats.

Most important events in the field of biology, which influenced the entire course of its further development, are: the establishment of the molecular structure of DNA and its role in the transmission of information in living matter (F. Crick, J. Watson, M. Wilkins); decoding genetic code(R. Holly, H.-G. Koran, M. Nirenberg); the discovery of the structure of the gene and the genetic regulation of protein synthesis (A. M. Lvov, F. Jacob, J.-L. Monod, and others); formulation of the cell theory (M. Schleiden, T. Schwann, R. Virchow, K. Baer); study of the laws of heredity and variability (G. Mendel, G. de Vries, T. Morgan, etc.); formulation of the principles of modern systematics (C. Linnaeus), evolutionary theory (C. Darwin) and the doctrine of the biosphere (V.I. Vernadsky).

Only teachers who participated in a total of five or more students in any of these three types of student-teacher interactions in the three observed classrooms were included in the analysis. We chose five as the lower cutoff to be conservative because the analysis we planned to use included ratios. With ratios, the fewer observations, the easier it is to see extreme values ​​that will be classified as significant deviations from what is expected.

Based on this criterion, only 20 out of 26 instructors were qualified to analyze student participation in whole class interactions. If the observers were unable to determine the speaker's gender, or disagreed with the gender, the student was marked as "unable to determine". Overall, observers could not assign a gender to the 9% of students who spoke in front of the entire class. If more than 20% of the total number of students speaking in three sessions could not be assigned a perceived gender, then the teacher teaching that class was not included in the our analysis.

The significance of the discoveries of the last decades has yet to be assessed, however, the most significant achievements of biology have been recognized as: deciphering the genome of humans and other organisms, determining the mechanisms for controlling the flow of genetic information in the cell and the developing organism, the mechanisms for regulating cell division and death, cloning of mammals, and the discovery of pathogens " mad cow disease (prions).

This only happened for two instructors, in which either the camera was too far away to see any of the students who were speaking, or the students spoke so briefly that they could not be identified. Thus, out of 20 instructors with more than five students speaking for the whole class in three classes, we were able to analyze participation data for 18 instructors.

We chose to work with historical video data so that we don't affect the behavior of the instructor by sitting down and recording interactions in real time. However, the methods used in this study have several limitations. The first disadvantage of working with historical video data is that we cannot identify individual students by name to determine their self-reported gender identity. Perceived gender was the best proxy we could put together, but perceived gender is not always the same as self-defined gender.

The work on the "Human Genome" program, which was carried out simultaneously in several countries and was completed at the beginning of this century, led us to understand that a person has only about 25-30 thousand genes, but information from most of our DNA is not readable never, because it contains great amount plots and genes encoding traits that have lost their significance for humans (tail, body hair, etc.). In addition, a number of genes responsible for the development of hereditary diseases, as well as drug target genes, have been deciphered. However, the practical application of the results obtained during the implementation of this program is postponed until the genomes of a significant number of people are decoded, and then it becomes clear what is their difference. These goals are set for a number of leading laboratories around the world working on the implementation of the ENCODE program.

Second, in most of our observed classes, the individual instructor used several methods of interacting with students, as well as working with small groups. Thus, we were unable to relate exam performance in these classrooms to the interaction methods used because multiple methods were used and it was not possible to establish an independent effect of one of these methods on exam performance.

Analyzes were carried out separately for each type of student-teacher interaction to determine whether there are gender patterns of participation within each strategy. Some instructors had enough participants from two categories to be included in both sets of analyses, and some exceeded the minimum number of students for all three methods. Therefore, an individual instructor may be included in the analysis of more than one type of interaction. Overall, 11 faculty members were included in the analysis for spontaneous student questions, 13 in the analysis of volunteer discussions, and 4 in the analysis of discussions on random calls.

Biological research is the foundation of medicine, pharmacy, and is widely used in agriculture, forestry, food industry and other branches of human activity.

It is well known that only the "green revolution" of the 1950s made it possible to at least partially solve the problem of providing the rapidly growing population of the Earth with food, and animal husbandry with feed through the introduction of new plant varieties and advanced technologies for their cultivation. Due to the fact that the genetically programmed properties of agricultural crops have almost been exhausted, the further solution of the food problem is associated with the widespread introduction of genetically modified organisms into production.

Because the number of student-teacher interactions varied significantly between these 18 instructors, the results will be expressed as a percentage of female interactions. Since only a small number of students participated in each instructor analysis, a binomial exact test of good fit was used to compare the expected value of female speakers with the observed percentage of female voices heard in each type of interaction. In addition, a non-parametric Kruskal-Wallis analysis of variance was performed to determine if gender affects women.

The production of many food products, such as cheeses, yogurts, sausages, bakery products, etc., is also impossible without the use of bacteria and fungi, which is the subject of biotechnology.

Knowledge of the nature of pathogens, the processes of the course of many diseases, the mechanisms of immunity, the laws of heredity and variability made it possible to significantly reduce mortality and even completely eradicate a number of diseases, such as smallpox. Using the latest achievements biological science also solves the problem of human reproduction. A significant part of modern medicines is produced on the basis of natural raw materials, as well as thanks to the success of genetic engineering, such as insulin, which is so necessary for patients with diabetes mellitus, which is mainly synthesized by bacteria that have transferred the corresponding gene.

Findings for Study 2: Are there gender gaps in participation in all class discussions. In the 11 grades where there were spontaneous student questions, there was no significant difference between the proportion of women enrolled in the class and the proportion of questions asked by women. In classrooms, women did not ask more questions than men.

Class change in percentage of questions asked by women. Comparison of the percentage of women in the class with the percentage of non-disputed questions in the class that were asked by women. The asterisks indicate that the exact binomial test was significant at the p=05 level.

Biological research is no less significant for the preservation of the environment and the diversity of living organisms, the threat of extinction of which casts doubt on the existence of mankind.

Of greatest importance among the achievements of biology is the fact that they even underlie the construction of neural networks and the genetic code in computer technology, and are also widely used in architecture and other industries. Without a doubt, the 21st century is the century of biology.

On the other hand, in the 13 classes that had volunteer responses, the number of responses attributed to women was significantly lower than expected based on the number of women enrolled in each class. In any of the classrooms, women heard more than men when the instructor asked for answers from volunteers.

Women heard significantly less learning-based expectations in volunteer-student-trainer interactions. Comparison of the percentage of women in a class with the percentage of volunteer student instructors that have female students.

Modern biology is based on the achievements that were made in this science in the second half of

XIX century: the creation of evolutionary doctrine by Ch. Darwin,
the fundamental works of C. Bernard in the field of physiology
gies, the most important studies of L. Pasteur, R. Koch and
I.I. Mechnikov in the field of microbiology and immunology,
works by I.M. Sechenov and I.I. Pavlova in the area of ​​high
necks of nervous activity and, finally, brilliant work
G. Mendel, although not known before the beginning

In contrast to spontaneous student questions or volunteer responses, there were no significant gender differences in participation when participation was based on a random call. This pattern was consistent across four classes that used random calling.

An occasional call will nullify the gender gap in the participation of the entire class. Comparison of the percentage of women in the class with the percentage of women who are called during discussion based on random conversations. We found no evidence that the gender trainer moderated any of these forms of participation.

XX century, but already made by their outstanding author.
The 20th century was the continuation of an equally intense

progress in biology. In 1900, the Dutch biologist X. de Vries (1848-1935), the German botanist K.E. Correns (1864-1933) and the Austrian scientist E. Chermak-Seisenegg (1871-1962) independently and almost simultaneously for the second time, the laws of heredity established by Mendel were discovered and became public domain.

Female students lagged behind their male peers in exams with similar historical college success. In addition, women's voices were heard much less frequently than would be expected based on the gender composition of the classes. The causes and consequences of these subtle disparities are difficult to discern, but they can have long-term implications for the development of scientific identity, a sense of belonging, and the confidence of women professionals in science, which can have negative consequences for women's long-term retention in the field of biology.

The development of genetics after that proceeded rapidly. The principle of discreteness in the phenomena of heredity was adopted

properties, discovered by Mendel; experiments on the study of patterns of inheritance by descendants of the properties and characteristics of parents were significantly expanded. The concept of "gene" was adopted, introduced by the famous Danish biologist Wilhelm Johanson (1857-1927) in 1909 and meaning a unit of hereditary material responsible for the inheritance of a certain trait.

Small but potentially important gap between men and women

We don't have first generation status data for our sample, but we do have racial and ethnic identities. It was less than half the success gap among white and black students and white home students and foreign students. The gap in achieving gender equality was twice as high as the gap in achieving Asia and white achievement. These results indicate that the gender achievement gap is of similar magnitude to some of the gaps already of concern in biology, although smaller than others.

The concept of a chromosome as a structural nucleus of a cell containing deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) - a high-molecular compound, a carrier of hereditary traits, has been established.

Further studies have shown that the gene is a specific part of DNA and indeed the carrier of only certain inherited properties, while DNA is the carrier of all the hereditary information of the organism.

In contrast to our study, three studies in introductory biology classes found no significant gaps between males and females. Overall, our study is the largest introductory biology study and the only introductory biology study to demonstrate a success gap. These include research in fields considered less friendly to women than biology, such as physics and biochemistry. However, performance gaps are only one measure, and more measures need to be explored before any definitive conclusions can be drawn.

The development of genetics was facilitated to a large extent by the research of the famous American biologist, one of the founders of this science, Thomas Hunt Morgan (1866-1945). He formulated the chromosome theory of heredity. Most plant and animal organisms are diploid, i.e. their cells (with the exception of sex cells) have sets of paired chromosomes, chromosomes of the same type from female and male organisms. The chromosomal theory of heredity has made the phenomena of splitting in the inheritance of traits more understandable.

First, female students may enter introductory biology classes with a weaker background in biology than male students. A second possible explanation for this achievement gap comes from the literature of social psychology: the phenomenon of stereotype threat. Measures to reduce stereotype threat have been shown to increase women's performance in mathematics-related fields. Thus, the possibility remains that women in biology are under stereotype threat and that this phenomenon may explain our results.

Instructor Gender Can Affect Success

Further work is needed to thoroughly explore this possibility. Future forward work could conduct surveys that take into account differences in stereotype threat training and experience in order to distinguish between these and other possibilities. Evidence for teacher gender impact on gender achievement gaps at the college level is mixed. Some studies show that the gender of an instructor affects women's achievement, but other studies do not support this finding.

An important event in the development of genetics was the discovery of mutations - sudden changes in the hereditary system of organisms and therefore can lead to a stable change in the properties of hybrids that are further inherited. Mutations owe their appearance either to random events in the development of an organism (they are usually called natural or spontaneous mutations) or to artificially induced influences (such mutations are often called induced). All types of living organisms (both plants and animals) are capable of mutating, that is, giving mutations. This phenomenon - the sudden emergence of new, inherited properties - has been known in biology for a long time. However, the systematic study of mutations was started by the Dutch scientist Hugo de Vries, who established and

Our study found some evidence for a small but significant effect of teacher gender, although there was some uncertainty about the importance of these terms. One of the limitations of our study is that we did not document whether the teaching methods or exam format may vary by gender of the instructor. Without this information, it is not possible to determine whether teacher trainers teach differently than male instructors and whether the teacher effect is primarily an instructor gender principle.

the term "mutation". It has been found that induced mutations can occur as a result of radiation exposure of organisms, and can also be caused by exposure to certain chemicals.

It should be noted the pioneers of everything related to mutations. The Soviet microbiologist Georgy Adamovich Nadson (1867-1940), together with his colleagues and students, established in 1925 the effect of radio emission on hereditary variability in fungi. The famous American geneticist Herman Joseph Meller (1890-1967), who worked in the USSR during 1933-1937, discovered in 1927 in experiments with Drosophila a strong mutagenic effect of X-rays. Later it was found that not only X-ray, but also any ionized radiation causes mutations.

Gender gaps exist in whole class participation

We know anecdotally that most of the exams in all 23 courses were short answer format and that some of the instructors with the most student-oriented classes were male. Overall, we found that female and male students were equally likely to ask spontaneous questions in ~50% of classes. When students were asked to offer volunteer responses, 69% of the classrooms showed a pattern of male involvement in the bias; In these classes, men spoke on average 63% of the time, even though they made up 40% of the class.

The achievements of genetics (and biology in general) since the publication of Darwin's On the Origin of Species have been so significant that it would be surprising if all this had no effect on Darwin's theory of evolution. Two factors, variability and heredity, to which Darwin attached great importance, received a deeper interpretation.

First, individual students decided whether to volunteer to answer the teacher's question, and then the instructor decided which volunteers should come forward to talk. Instructors enter the class with a set of class perceptions that may include, among other things, what topics students will be most interested in, what students already know about the subject, and who will be most involved. Moreover, if we expect males to participate more, especially when you offer answers, then we might unconsciously facilitate this model by appealing to males more.

So, the further development of biology and its constituent part of genetics, firstly, further strengthened the Darwinian theory of the evolution of the living world and, secondly, gave a deeper interpretation (corresponding to the successes achieved in biology) to the concepts of variability and heredity, and, consequently, the whole process of evolution of the living world. Moreover, it can be said that the successes of biology have advanced this science into the ranks of the leaders of natural science, and its most striking achievements are associated with the study of processes occurring at the molecular level.

Molecular biology

Progress in the study of macromolecules until the second half of our century was relatively slow, but thanks to the technique of physical methods of analysis, its speed has increased dramatically.

W. Astbury introduced the term "molecular biology" into science and conducted fundamental studies of proteins and DNA. Although in the 1940s almost universally dominated

According to the opinion that genes are a special type of protein molecules, in 1944 O. Zveri, K. Macleod and M. McCarthy showed that genetic functions in a cell are performed not by protein, but by DNA. The establishment of the genetic role of nucleic acids was of decisive importance for the further development of molecular biology, and it was shown that this role belongs not only to DNA, but also to RNA (ribonucleic acid).

The DNA molecule was deciphered in 1953 by F. Crick (England) and D. Watson (USA). Watson and Crick succeeded in constructing a model of the DNA molecule resembling a double helix.

Along with the study of nucleic acids and the process of protein synthesis in molecular biology studies of the structure and properties of the proteins themselves were of great importance from the very beginning. In parallel with the deciphering of the amino acid composition of proteins, studies of their spatial structure were carried out. Among the most important achievements in this area should be called the theory of the spiral, developed in 1951 by E. Pauling and R. Corey. According to this theory, the polypeptide chain of a protein is not flat, but coiled into a helix, the characteristics of which have also been determined.

Despite the youth of molecular biology, the progress it has made in this area is stunning. In a relatively short period of time, the nature of the gene and the basic principles of its organization, reproduction and functioning were established. The genetic code has been completely deciphered, the mechanisms and main pathways of protein formation in the cell have been identified and investigated. The primary structure of many transfer RNAs has been completely determined. The basic principles of the organization of various subcellular particles, many viruses, have been established, and the ways of their biogenesis in the cell have been unraveled.

Another area of ​​molecular genetics is the study of gene mutation. The modern level of knowledge allows not only to understand these subtle processes, but also to use them for your own purposes. Genetic engineering methods are being developed to introduce the desired genetic information into the cell. In the 1970s, methods for isolating pure DNA fragments using electrophoresis appeared.

In 1981, the process of isolating genes and obtaining from them various circuits was automated. Genetic engineering coupled with microelectronics herald the ability to manipulate living matter in much the same way as non-living matter.

Recently, cloning experiments and related moral, legal and religious problems have been actively discussed in the media. Back in 1943, Science magazine reported the successful fertilization of an egg in a "test tube". Further events developed as follows.

1973 - Professor L. Shetles from Columbia University in New York announced that he was ready to give birth to the first "test tube baby", followed by categorical bans from the Vatican and the Presbyterian Church of the USA.

1978 - birth in England of Louise Brown, the first "test-tube" baby.

1997 - February 27 "Nature" placed on its cover - against the backdrop of a micrograph of the egg - the famous sheep Dolly, born at the Roslin Institute in Edinburgh.

1997 - at the very end of December, Science magazine
reported the birth of six sheep obtained by Roslin-
sky method. Three of them, including Dolly the sheep,
carried the human "factor IX" gene, or haemostasis
pouring protein, which is necessary for people suffering from
hemophilia, that is, blood incoagulability.

1998 - Chicago physicist Sidi announces the creation of
scientific research laboratory for human cloning: he claims
that he will not end up with clients.

1998, early March - French scientists announced the birth of a cloned heifer.

All this opens up unique perspectives for humanity.

Cloning of organs and tissues is the number one task in the field of transplantology, traumatology and other areas of medicine and biology. When transplanting a cloned organ, one should not think about suppressing the rejection reaction and possible consequences in the form of cancer that developed against the background of immunodeficiency. Cloned organs will be a lifesaver for people caught in car accidents.

accidents or some other catastrophe, or for people who need radical help due to diseases of old age (a worn out heart, a diseased liver, etc.).

The most obvious effect of cloning is to enable childless people to have children of their own. Millions of couples around the world are suffering, doomed to remain without descendants.

Due to the rapid technological progress and the general evolutionary development of mankind, every year more and more more people learn to know this world. All sciences are evolving. They develop thanks to new discoveries in a certain area. And biology is no exception. Modern discoveries in biology, in particular, the discoveries of 2014, we remember the rapid progress in the study of the flora and fauna of the Earth's biosphere, as well as completely new technical inventions.

The development of biology, as an independent science of life, began in ancient times and continues today in several directions. In particular, if we talk about less mentioning discoveries in biology (this does not mean that they are less significant), I would like to recall the following:

• technologies and methods for determining protein chains have been significantly improved. People have learned to determine the sequences in the structure of DNA, as well as to establish certain amino acid sequences of proteins. Such a discovery allows scientists to read the genetic code of any living organism almost completely without any difficulty;
• accelerated and improved the development of artificial organs. Scientists have learned to grow muscles, liver tissue, hair, and even working heart valves. Many human lives may depend on the further development of these discoveries.

Discovery of new species

Almost every day, more and more new data on species of living organisms unknown to mankind so far are added to the general world DNA databases. During the period of the end of 2013-2014, we managed to collect data on many new representatives of flora and fauna, but here we recall only a few of them.

Olinguito

This is a predatory mammal in its own way. appearance resembles a harmless plush toy, therefore, with its discovery, a real sensation was formed among animal lovers. The animal was discovered in August 2013 as a result of many years of research by US zoologist Christopher Helgen.

Kawesaka dragon tree

As a separate biological species, this tree was identified only last year. Why this bright representative of the flora of Thailand has gone unnoticed for many years is still a mystery. However, the species was discovered recently, therefore it refers to modern discoveries in biology.

Clean room microbe

The official biological name in Latin for this species is Tersicoccus phoenicis. The microbe was discovered in mid-2014 in absolutely sterile rooms where spacecraft. Due to these circumstances, many scientists fear that Tersicoccus phoenicis could even pollute Mars, hitting the neighboring planet along with the rovers. Tersicoccus phoenicis is a clear proof of the incredibly difficult conditions under which life can exist.

Experiments on your body. Madness or sacrifice for the sake of science?

Since mid-2012, information about the discovery of a new hormone began to appear on the pages of the World Wide Web. It soon became known that this hormone is irisin, which is secreted by human muscles during strong physical exertion. The effect of this hormone, as the study showed, is determined on adipose tissue, where the usual "white" fat, which serves as an energy source, turns into "brown" fat, which releases energy in the form of heat. Such a transformation of lipids in the body, as many scientists have argued, has a lot of positive effects on human health.

In early 2014, Harvard biologist Bruce Spiegelman decided to test irisin on himself, proving in this way the positive effects of the hormone on the physical condition of a person. However, the scientist miscalculated the dose and introduced too much into his body. a large number of hormone. Soon, all the fat in his body turned into "brown". As a result of the mistake, Spiegelman's body began to generate so much heat that he had to be placed in a special chamber with liquid nitrogen to reduce his body temperature. He directs further research from there. But he nevertheless proved the positive effect of the hormone in the right doses. According to doctors, Bruce Spiegelman is the healthiest person in the world. His act was described in many foreign and Russian articles under the heading "Modern discoveries in biology."

Scientists have found a new species of mammal - Olinguito - video

The most important events in the field of biology that influenced the entire course of its further development are: the establishment of the molecular structure of DNA and its role in the transmission of information in living matter (F. Crick, J. Watson, M. Wilkins); deciphering the genetic code (R. Holly, H.-G. Koran, M. Nirenberg); the discovery of the structure of the gene and the genetic regulation of protein synthesis (A. M. Lvov, F. Jacob, J.-L. Monod, and others); formulation of the cell theory (M. Schleiden, T. Schwann, R. Virchow, K. Baer); study of the laws of heredity and variability (G. Mendel, G. de Vries, T. Morgan, etc.); formulation of the principles of modern systematics (C. Linnaeus), evolutionary theory (C. Darwin) and the doctrine of the biosphere (V.I. Vernadsky).

Significance of discoveries recent decades yet to be assessed, however, the most important achievements of biology have been recognized as: deciphering the genome of humans and other organisms, determining the mechanisms for controlling the flow of genetic information in the cell and the developing organism, the mechanisms for regulating cell division and death, cloning of mammals, as well as the discovery of causative agents of "mad cow disease" ( prions).

The work on the "Human Genome" program, which was carried out simultaneously in several countries and was completed at the beginning of this century, led us to understand that a person has only about 25-30 thousand genes, but information from most of our DNA is not readable never, since it contains a huge number of sites and genes that encode traits that have lost their meaning for humans (tail, body hair, etc.). In addition, a number of genes responsible for the development of hereditary diseases, as well as drug target genes, have been deciphered. However practical use the results obtained during the implementation of this program are postponed until the genomes of a significant number of people are decoded, and then it becomes clear what is their difference. These goals are set for a number of leading laboratories around the world working on the implementation of the ENCODE program.

Biological research is the foundation of medicine, pharmacy, and is widely used in agriculture, forestry, food industry and other branches of human activity.

It is well known that only the "green revolution" of the 1950s made it possible to at least partially solve the problem of providing the rapidly growing population of the Earth with food, and animal husbandry with feed through the introduction of new plant varieties and advanced technologies for their cultivation. Due to the fact that the genetically programmed properties of agricultural crops have almost been exhausted, the further solution of the food problem is associated with the widespread introduction of genetically modified organisms into production.

The production of many food products, such as cheeses, yogurts, sausages, bakery products, etc., is also impossible without the use of bacteria and fungi, which is the subject of biotechnology.

Knowledge of the nature of pathogens, the processes of the course of many diseases, the mechanisms of immunity, the laws of heredity and variability made it possible to significantly reduce mortality and even completely eradicate a number of diseases, such as smallpox. With the help of the latest achievements of biological science, the problem of human reproduction is also being solved. A significant part of modern medicines is produced on the basis of natural raw materials, as well as thanks to the success of genetic engineering, such as insulin, which is so necessary for patients with diabetes mellitus, which is mainly synthesized by bacteria that have transferred the corresponding gene.

Biological research is no less significant for the preservation of the environment and the diversity of living organisms, the threat of extinction of which casts doubt on the existence of mankind.

Highest value Among the achievements of biology is the fact that they even underlie the construction of neural networks and the genetic code in computer technology, and are also widely used in architecture and other industries. Without a doubt, the 21st century is the century of biology.