During these long and stubborn wars, the military organization of Rome was formed and strengthened.

The Roman army was a people's militia and was completed by recruiting citizens, starting at the age of 17.

All Romans were required to serve in the army, military service was necessary to obtain government positions.

Military service was considered not only a duty, but also an honor: only full-fledged citizens were allowed to it.

The proletarians, in accordance with the constitution of Servius Tullius, did not carry out military service, slaves were not allowed into the army at all. Evasion of military duty was punished very severely: the guilty could be deprived of civil rights and sold into slavery.

In the early period of the republic, in case of military danger, the army was recruited by order of the senate and consuls, and after the end of hostilities it was disbanded.

Formally, this situation persisted for quite a long time, but already in the 4th, and even more so in the 3rd century. as a result of almost uninterrupted hostilities, the army actually becomes permanent.

Service in the army in the early years of the republic was not paid: each soldier himself had to take care of his weapons and food, only the riders received horses from the state or the appropriate amount for their purchase.

Depending on their property status, the Romans served in the cavalry, in heavy or (least wealthy) lightly armed infantry.

At the end of the 5th century BC e. Was held military reform, attributed to the semi-legendary hero of the Veientin and Gallic wars, Mark Furius Camillus, in accordance with which the salaries of the soldiers were established, state-owned weapons and food were issued, and the formation of the army was also changed.

The Roman army was divided into legions, the strength of which ranged from 4,200 to 6,000 people. Before the reform, the legion was a phalanx of heavily armed infantry up to eight rows deep. Cavalry and lightly armed infantry were usually deployed on the flanks and were used primarily as reserves.

The reform consisted in the reorganization of this sedentary phalanx and the introduction of the so-called manipulative system. Each legion was divided into 30 tactical units - maniples.

Each maniple, in turn, was divided into two centuries. The legions were now built according to the principle of the experience of warriors in three battle lines: in the first there were young warriors (the so-called hastati), in the second - more experienced (principles) and in the third - veterans (triarii).

Each line broke up along the front into 10 maniples; the maniples of the first line were separated from each other by certain intervals, the maniples of the second line lined up against the intervals of the first line, the maniples of the triarii were built behind the intervals of the second line.

The manipulative system provided considerable freedom of maneuver. The battle usually began as follows: moving forward, the system threw darts into the ranks of the enemy. A volley of darts opened the way to hand-to-hand combat, in which the main weapon was a sword, a spear, and for defense - a shield, helmet and armor.

The great advantage of the Roman order of battle lay in this combination of hand-to-hand combat with preliminary throwing of javelins at a distance.

The battle was started by lightly armed, which were built in front of the front of the legion. Then, after the main forces entered the battle, the lightly armed retreated into the intervals between the maniples, and the first line, that is, the hastati, was already fighting. If the enemy put up stubborn resistance, then maniples of principles entered the intervals of the first line, thus creating an already solid front.

Only in extreme cases, when the outcome of the battle could not be decided without the involvement of reserves, did the triarii enter the battle. The Romans had a proverb: "It came to the Triarii", which meant that the matter was taken to the extreme.

The consuls, who were commanders in chief, their assistants - legates and commanders of legions - military tribunes belonged to the highest command staff.

In the event of a particular danger to the state, the highest command was transferred to the dictator. It was an unusual magistracy created for a relatively short period (six months).

The dictator exercised the fullness of military and civil power, he appointed an assistant in the army - the head of the cavalry.

The main figure of the lower command staff was the centurion. The centurion of the first century was at the same time the commander of the entire maniple. In the early period of the republic, the armed forces usually consisted of four legions; each consul commanded two legions.

When the armies united, the consuls, according to Roman custom, commanded in turn.

In addition to the legions, which consisted exclusively of Roman citizens, there were also so-called allies in the Roman army, recruited from the conquered tribes and communities of Italy.

They were usually auxiliary troops located on the flanks of the legions. One legion relied on 5,000 foot soldiers and 900 horsemen from among the allies.

Plan of a Roman army for two legions. Schematic reconstruction according to Polybius: 1. Pretorium, the square where the commander's tent was located. 2. Forum, a square that served for gatherings. 3. Altar. 4. Premises for the Praetorian cohort, the personal guard of the commander. 5. Auxiliary cavalry barracks. 6. Legion barracks. 7. Barracks for auxiliary infantry units. 8. Barracks for detachments of veterans, newly called up for military service. 9. The square where the quaestor's tent was located. 10. Main street of the camp. 11. A street parallel to the main one, on which merchants who traded with soldiers were located. 12. The street separating the parts located directly at the fortifications from the inner part of the camp. 13. Street connecting the praetorium with the gates of the camp. 14. The gap between the defensive rampart surrounding the camp and the first barracks. 15. Camp gate.

A feature of Roman military tactics was the arrangement of fortified camps; the place where the Roman army stopped for at least one night was certainly surrounded by a moat and rampart.

Camp fortifications excluded a sudden attack by the enemy and made it possible to combine the advantage of offensive operations with defensive ones, since the camp always served as a stronghold, where the army could take refuge if necessary.

Iron discipline reigned in the Roman army. Order and obedience were placed above all else, any deviation from them was punished mercilessly.

Failure to comply with the order was punishable by death.

The commander-in-chief had the right to dispose of the life of not only ordinary soldiers, but also military leaders.

If a detachment of Romans fled from the battlefield, decimation was carried out: the detachment was lined up, and every tenth was subjected to the death penalty.

Warriors who distinguished themselves on the battlefield received promotions, silver or gold insignia, but the highest award considered a laurel wreath.

The commander who won a major victory was given the title of emperor and a triumph was appointed, that is, a solemn entry into the city at the head of the victorious legions.

Such was the Roman military organization, which to a large extent determined the victories of Rome over other Italic peoples and further contributed to the establishment of Roman domination over the entire Mediterranean.

In the era of the late Republic and Empire, the legions began to play a serious political role. It is no coincidence that Augustus, after the most severe defeat of the Romans in the Teutoburg Forest (9 AD), exclaimed, clutching his head, “Quintilius Varus, give me back my legions.” They could ensure the capture and retention of power in Rome by the future emperor - or, conversely, deprive him of all hopes.

senior officers

Legatus Augusti Proprietor (Legatus Augusti pro praetore)

The official title of the governor of some provinces of the Roman Empire in the era of the principate.
Legates propraetors were appointed, as a rule, to the largest provinces, as well as to those where the legions were stationed. The provinces were divided into imperial provinces, whose governors were personally appointed by the emperor, and senatorial provinces, whose governors (the so-called proconsuls) were elected by the Roman Senate.
Senators of consular or praetor rank (that is, those who had previously held the office of consul or praetor) were appointed to the post of legate of the propraetor. However, the emperors appointed to rule Egypt only representatives of the equestrian estate - the prefect of Egypt, although there was an army in it. Some small imperial provinces where there were no legions (for example, Mauretania, Thrace, Raetia, Norik, and Judea) received a procurator as viceroy, who commanded only auxiliary units. The legate propraetor headed the provincial administration, was the chief judicial officer and commander-in-chief of all armed forces based in the province (both legions and auxiliary units). The only function that was outside the competence of the legate was finance (the collection and administration of taxes), which was entrusted to an independent procurator who was subordinate only to the emperor. The legate of Augustus, the propraetor, was also called "quinquefascalis", for he had the right to 5 lictors.
In the military hierarchy, the direct subordinates of the legate were the legion legates (commanders of the legions in the province), who in turn commanded the military tribunes (senior officers of the legion) and the prefects (commanders) of the auxiliary units attached to the legion.
In the year 68, 15 out of a total of 36 Roman provinces were ruled by the legate Augustus propraetor: Tarraconian Spain, Lusitania, Aquitania, Lugdunian Gaul, Belgica, Britannia, Germania Inferior, Germania Superior, Moesia, Dalmatia, Galatia, Cappadocia, Lycia and Pamphylia, Syria, Numidia.
The position of legate Augustus propraetor disappeared around the end of the 3rd century.

Legate Legion (Legatus Legionis)

Legion Commander. The emperor usually appointed the former tribune to this post for three or four years, but the legate could hold his post for much longer. In the provinces where the legion was stationed, the legate was also the governor. Where there were several legions, each of them had his own legate, and they were all under the general command of the governor of the province.

Tribunus Laticlavius ​​(Tribunus Laticlavius)

This tribune to the legion was appointed by the emperor or the senate. He was usually young and less experienced than the five military tribunes (Tribuni Angusticlavii), yet his office was second in seniority in the legion, immediately after the legate. The name of the office comes from the word "laticlava", which means two wide purple stripes on the tunic laid down for officials of senatorial rank.
The tribune of laticlavius ​​was always under twenty-five years old - that was the minimum age for the office of quaestor. He was appointed to the post of tribune by the governor of the province, who was either his relative, or did it at the request of friends or patron young man- The Romans generally lived according to the principle "well, how not to please your own little man!". The tribune laticlavius ​​had no military experience and, after spending one or two (rarely more) years in the army, retired to start his career in the senate. In ten years he could return to the army, already with the rank of legate.

Camp Prefect (Praefectus Castrorum)

The third most senior officer of the Roman legion.
The position first appeared under the emperor Octavian Augustus. It was usually appointed from among the old, experienced centurions. The prefect of the camp took over the command of the legion if there was no legate or tribune laticlavius. He was mainly the administrative head of the legion and oversaw the correctness of camping, infirmaries and wagon trains, as well as camp discipline. However, in combat, he was deprived of command functions. In his submission he had custos armorum. The prefect of the camp was in the service of the legate also as a planner and on the march usually followed in the vanguard of the legion, and in the evening with his assistant he looked for a suitable place to set up a marching camp. In addition, he was in charge of purchasing food from the population and other equipment for the soldiers.

Tribunes of Angusticlavia (Tribuni Angusticlavii)

Each legion had five military tribunes from the equestrian order. Most often, these were professional soldiers who occupied high administrative posts in the legion, and during the hostilities they could, if necessary, command the legion. They relied on tunics with narrow purple stripes (angusticlava), hence the name of the position.
By the middle of the II century. AD it became customary to appoint as angusticlavii people who had already served as prefects in parts of the auxiliary infantry. Often they also had time to visit a civil position in their hometown(age limit from 25 to 30 years). Thus, the Angustiklavians were usually more mature people with military experience. In the middle of the II century. there were only 131 positions for about 270 commanders of infantry and mixed auxiliaries, consisting of 500 soldiers, so that the governors had plenty to choose from, and they could not appoint people who showed incompetence as tribunes. The best of these two hundred and seventy, 30-40 people, the emperor appointed to command infantry and mixed cohorts, numbering a thousand soldiers.
The future career of the Angustiklavian tribunes was connected with the cavalry. In the legion, they were assigned administrative and economic duties. They had to take care of providing the troops with everything necessary and perform other daily duties of duty officers.

Middle officers

Primipil (Primus Pilus)

The highest-ranking centurion of the legion, heading the first double centuria. In the I-II centuries AD. e. upon dismissal from military service, the primipil was enrolled in the estate of horsemen and could reach a high equestrian position in the civil service. The name literally means "first line". Due to the similarity of the words pilus (rank) and pilum (pilum, throwing spear), the term is sometimes incorrectly translated as "centurion of the first spear."
The first cohort was divided into five double centuries, commanded by five senior centurions, who were considered superior to others and were called primi ordines (centurions of the first rank). Among the centurions of the first rank, there was the following hierarchy (in ascending order): hast 2nd, principle 2nd, hast, principle and primipil. Primipilus was the senior centurion in the legion.
Any legionnaire dreamed of rising to the rank of primipil, but for most the dream remained unattainable, because this required not only courage, but also education and the ability of an administrator. The centurion held the post of primipil for a year, after which he either retired or received a higher post. The post of primipil was usually received by people at least fifty years old. Some served for forty years - first as a simple soldier, then as a centurion - but could not reach these dizzying heights. When he retired, Primipil received a large allowance and honorary title primipilaris (i.e., the former primipil), just as a person who was a consul, bore the title of consularis until the end of his life. Primipils were the color of the army. The next position of the primipil could be the prefect of the camp, or the post of tribune in the cohorts stationed in Rome, where the most experienced and reliable soldiers served. Some were appointed governors of the provinces, where only auxiliary troops were stationed, or commanders in the fleet, and, finally, a few reached the top - the post of commander of the Praetorian Guard.

Centurion (Centurio)

The centurions were the basis and backbone of the professional Roman army. They were professional warriors who lived everyday life their subordinate soldiers, and during the battle they commanded them. Usually this post was received by veteran soldiers, however, one could also become a centurion by direct decree of the emperor or other high-ranking official.
The service life of a legionnaire was 25 years. During this time, he could rise to the rank of centurion. The centurions were the only officers who constantly commanded the legionnaires under the command of the legion commander. Higher ranks served at the headquarters. Since centurions were drawn from ordinary soldiers, they are often thought of as something like sergeants. But in fact, their duties roughly corresponded to those of a modern captain.
During the period of the republic, centurions were at first apparently appointed by tribunes, but each appointment was approved by the commander of the army. The centurions were the backbone of the army. These were the only officers whose term of service was not limited, and they often served beyond the prescribed 25 years. The post of centurion attracted not only legionnaires. The soldiers of the Praetorian Guard, having served their 16 years, could receive the post of centurion in the legion. In addition, quite a few young people from the equestrian class wanted to get this position. In the era of the empire, the posts of centurions were handed out by the governors of the provinces, although, undoubtedly, the commanders of the legions and the tribunes could nominate their own people. In addition, friends of people seeking appointment to this position could write a letter of recommendation to the emperor, who was able to intervene and assist them personally.

Each legion had 59 centuries. The centuries were still named after the old maniples, although the name "triarii" was now preferred to "pilus" (pilus). So, in cohorts from II to X there were hast 2nd, hast 1st, principle 2nd, principle 1st, drank 2nd and drank 1st. The name of the century was preceded by the number of the cohort, for example: “decimus hastatus posterior” (2nd hast of the tenth cohort), keeping in traditional name the division of the legion into maniples long gone. In general, such adherence to traditions is very characteristic of Rome. The number of the centurion commanded by each centurion directly reflected his position in the legion, that is, the highest position was occupied by the centurion of the first century of the first cohort, and the lowest - the centurion of the sixth century of the tenth cohort. The five centurions of the first cohort were called "Primi Ordines". In each cohort, the centurion of the first century was called "Pilus Prior".
A centurion could spend his entire service life in one legion, or he could move from one legion to another, for example, when transferring an entire unit to a new location. Such a transfer was carried out to make up for losses, as, for example, after the revolt of Boadicea in 61: then two thousand soldiers were transferred to the ninth legion.
The centurion was easily recognizable by his silver armor. In addition, the centurion wore greaves, which ordinary legionnaires no longer used; the crest on his helmet was turned across. The centurion wore a sword on his left side, and a dagger on his right, in contrast to ordinary legionnaires. This has led some researchers to suggest that the centurions did not carry the scutum, otherwise it would be difficult for them to draw the sword from the left. However, in the time of Caesar, this was not the case: at the siege of Dyrrachium, a centurion named Scaeva, defending a redoubt, received 120 holes in the shield (Caesar uses the word scutum) and was transferred from the eighth cohort to the Primipils for courage.
Centurions were often cruel people: quite a few legionaries wore scars on their backs from a centurion vine rod (vitis). This was due to the fact that the duties of the centurion included maintaining discipline. From the centurion required rigidity and severity. And therefore, during the mutinies, they usually became the first victims of soldiers' revenge. On the other hand, it should be noted that during the defeats, the losses among the centurions were especially great, because it was they who were appointed to cover the retreat.
The centurions did not disdain to accept bribes from legionnaires who wished to evade any duties. Bribes for vacations were so common that even the emperor hesitated to put an end to it, for fear of causing a riot among the centurions. As a result, in order to save the soldiers from exactions, the emperors had to pay the centurions directly in order to secure the loyalty of the army.

junior officers

Option (Optio)

Assistant to the centurion, replaced the centurion in battle in case of his injury. The centurion chose an option from experienced soldiers as his assistants. Like a regular legionnaire, the option wore a short tunic and caligae, but his belt was richer decorated than a soldier's. Option wore chain mail - the oldest Roman armor, which by the era of the Empire had become a symbol of officer status. To make the option visible in the thick of the battle, he wore a bright longitudinal crest on his helmet. The option always had a rod, with which he equalized the ranks and punished negligent soldiers.

Tesserarius (Tesserarius)

Assistant option. The tesserarius was the principal of a one-and-a-half salary and was responsible in the centuria for organizing guard duty and transmitting passwords, which at that time were issued in the form of tesserae. In service, the tesserarius was not directly subordinate to the centurion, but to the option, he enjoyed disciplinary rights in relation to the legionnaires and deans of his centurion. In the camp, the tesseraria were transferred to the operational subordination of the prefect of the camp, they, in turn, in the camp and on the campaign, were reassigned teams of preventers (sentinels), on the march the place of the tesseraria was near the signifer, in battle he had to help the option maintain discipline. In peacetime, the Tesserarii were also involved in organizing combat training and training of recruits, and were also responsible for recruiting and accepting replacements.
They tried to produce mainly smart and competent soldiers in this rank, it was considered a preparatory step before the title of an option, the centurion used the right to produce it. A distinctive feature of the tesserarius was a staff with a metal pommel, which he wore instead of a spear, and in the performance of his duties of service, also a linen bag for tesserae, worn over the shoulder or attached to the belt.

Decurion (Decurio)

He commanded a detachment of cavalry from 10 to 30 horsemen in the legion. Initially, in the era of the militia army, the elected foremen of the horsemen became the commanders of their dozens in case of war, later this position became appointed, but retained its former name. Three decurias of riders (numbering at least 10 cavalry warriors, usually 30 horses each) made up a turma, the commander of which was the decurion of the first decuria. Gradually, a kind of “non-commissioned officers” and “chief officers” were introduced into the states of the turma - the deputy commander of the turma was an option, appointed from among the combatant cavalrymen and being a duplicator principal, who had the same status as a bill of turma, as well as two cavalrymen on double and one and a half salaries, who did not occupy command posts, but performed certain organizational and administrative functions in the turma, and were not part of specific decuries. At the same time, the candidate for the place of the first decurion was usually not the second decurion, and not an option, but a bill of exchange. In the future, turms in number from 10 to 16 (and later 24) began to be reduced to alas, commanded by temporarily appointed (for the period of the existence of these associations) cavalry prefects, usually from among the senior decurions.

Dean (Decanus)

(on the right in a gilded helmet)
The commander of 10 soldiers (contubernia), with whom he lived in the same tent. The dean enjoyed disciplinary rights in relation to the soldiers of his shellacry. Over time, the size of the Roman camps and tents (barracks) in them increased, as a result, the number of contuberant soldiers subordinate to the dean more than doubled. This led to the fact that uragos began to be appointed to help the dean, above which the title of dean became in status (before that it was almost the only “non-commissioned officer” rank in the Roman army). The rank of tesserarius was superior to the dean in the service, although the Kornizen was considered higher than any dean in the centuria, since he enjoyed disciplinary rights in relation to all the soldiers of the whole centuria, and not a separate contubernia.

Special Honorary Posts

Aquilifer (aquilifer - "carrying an eagle")

Honorary position in the army ancient rome, the standard-bearer who carried the legionary eagle.
Until 104 BC. e. in the form of a “flag” (a symbol of the legion), they could use the image of a wolf, boar, bull, horse, etc., and after that a single standard was introduced (the reform of Gaius Maria) - aquila - in the form of a golden or silver eagle. Aquilifer was one for the entire legion, was considered one of the highest non-commissioned officers (rank below centurion) and received a double salary. Outside of battle, the aquilifer performed the functions of the legion's treasurer and accountant (he was in charge of the legionnaires' savings placed under the protection of the banner).
Most of the famous images of aquilifers (Trajan's column) show them with their heads uncovered (unlike signifers and other smaller standard-bearers who wore animal skins). However, judging by several surviving tombstones, in battle the aquilifers wore a lion skin over their helmet with paws tied around their necks. The armament consisted of a sword (gladius), a dagger (pugio) and a small round shield (parma), which was worn on the side or behind the back on a belt over the shoulder. As protective equipment, the aquilifers used chain mail or scaly armor. A leather “sleeveless jacket” with pterygiums (rectangular scallops with figured fringe at the ends) was worn under the armor on the shoulders and hips. This element of officer equipment, as well as the lion skin worn exclusively by Praetorian signifers, emphasized the special status of the aquilifer.
The eagle of the legion was supposed to be next to the centurion of the first century of the first maniple of the first cohort, that is, the aquilifer actually accompanied the centurion-primipil.

Signifer (signum - sign, ferre - to carry)

A junior officer in the ancient Roman army, who carried the emblem of the cohort, maniple and centuria - signum. Each centuria in the legion had its own signifer, so there were 59 of them in the legion. The signifer of the cohort was the signifer of its first century.
The signum was a long wooden pole topped with a gilded spear or a figure of an open human palm in a round wreath - manus, meaning the oath of allegiance taken by the soldiers. There is a version that the signums with a human palm as a pommel belonged to maniples, and those with a pommel in the form of a spear belonged to cohorts and centuries. Below was a plate with the name and number of the part, as well as the awards with which she was awarded - silver and gold discs (falers) and wreaths. On the signums of the Praetorian cohorts were placed portraits of the emperor and members of his family.
The Signifer of the Centuria was also treasurer, who was responsible for paying the soldiers' salaries, safeguarding their savings, and managing the unit's financial management.
The external difference of the signifer was a bear or wolf skin, worn over a helmet with paws tied around the neck. The praetorian signifers had the skin of a lion. The armament consisted of a sword (gladius), a dagger (pugio). As protective equipment, the signifers used chain mail or scaly armor and a small round shield (parma), which was worn on the side of the belt.

Imaginifer (Imaginifer)

The standard-bearer of the Roman legion, carried a standard with the image of the emperor, which served as a constant reminder of the loyalty of the troops to the emperor. The rank of imaginifer appeared in the legions after the cult of the emperor was founded during the reign of Octavian Augustus. "Imago" was a three-dimensional portrait made of metal, which was carried only in the first cohort.
Imaginifers, like all standard-bearers (signifers) of the Roman army, differed animal skins, put on a helmet, with paws tied on the chest. The legions wore bear and wolf skins. The weapons were a sword (gladius), a dagger (pugio). Protective equipment included a helmet, chain mail or scale armor and a small round shield (parma).

Vexillary (vexillarius, from vexillum - banner, standard)

The name of the standard-bearer in the Roman army. The vexillarius wore a standard in the form of a slit rectangle with the emblem and number of the military unit, attached to the crossbar on a long shaft. As a rule, vexillums were the standards of individual military units (foot and cavalry) operating outside the legion. The Wixilums also had Praetorian cohorts.
Vexillaria, like all the standard-bearers (signifers) of the Roman army, were distinguished by animal skins worn on a helmet, with paws tied on their chests. In the legions they wore bear and wolf skins, in the Praetorian guard they wore lion skins. The armament consisted of a sword (gladius), a dagger (pugio). Protective equipment included a helmet, chain mail or scale armor and a small round shield (parma).
During the late Empire (3 - 5 centuries AD), the vexillum gradually replaced the traditional standards of the Roman army (signums), becoming the main type of Roman banner (in the modern sense of the term). Cornicen (Cornicen) In the time of Trajan, there were 35 bucinators in the state of the Roman legion, on ships - usually one at a time. The ship’s bucinator was with the captain and gave the main commands to the crew: “alarm”, “to battle”, “give anchor”, etc.

Evocatus (evocatus, pl. evocati)

A soldier of the Roman army who served his term and retired, but returned to the service voluntarily at the invitation (evocatio) of the consul or other commander. Such volunteers enjoyed a particularly honorable position in the army, as experienced, seasoned soldiers. They were allocated to special detachments, most often consisting of the commander as his personal guards and especially trusted guards.
In position, the evocates approach the centurions. They receive high salaries. They are usually attracted to the ranks of the army, in addition to devotion to the leader, the promise of a special reward at the end of the work for which they are called. They were subjected, however, to the usual hardships of a soldier's laborer. With the advent of the regular army and with the consolidation as a principle of recruitment, mainly of those who wish in the era of the Empire, units of evocates become more and more rare, but a special corps of evocati Augusti appears, in contrast to which soldiers on extra service are usually called revocati. Evocati Augusti - Creation of Emperor Augustus. The imperial evocates make up a corps of ex-praetorians (ordinary legionnaires are relatively rare), distributed in Rome and in other garrisons; evocates are composed of both praetorian cohorts and legions. Here they occupy a comparatively high position: the Evocat may expect to become a centurion. They receive not the salary (stipendium) of the soldiers, but a special (greater) reward (sularium). Each tactical unit has at least more than one evocat.
Where the special functions of evocates are indicated in the inscriptions, these are not military functions, but military-civilian ones, relating mainly to economic life detachments: here is an agrimensor (land surveyor) for the needs of legionary land ownership (territorium legionis), and an imperial architect (architectus armamentarii imperatoris), and a prison registrar (acommentariis custodiarum), etc. The main business of the evocates was, judging by one inscription, the management provisional part in the legions, with which, perhaps, it is necessary to compare the title maioriarius menensorum (senior measurer, perhaps the head of the menensores frumentarii military units). The evocates played an important role in the bread allowance of the Praetorians and urban soldiers (urbani) in Rome. Judging by the appearance of their names on the lead stamps of grain distributions, they were intermediaries between the soldiers and the officials in charge of grain distributions since, under Nero, the Praetorians were included in the plebs frumentaria, that is, urban population, enjoying the right to receive free state bread.

Duplicarius (Duplicarius)

The general name of junior commanders and chiefs in the armies of the Roman system (principals), who received double allowances, and also, in addition, - independent military rank. It was worn by a kind of “senior soldiers”, who were not formally principals and did not occupy command or staff positions, but at the same time received a double salary like principals (in different eras and depending on the type of troops, this ranged from 200 to 400 denarii). In the cavalry, one duplicator was regularly relied on the turma, in the infantry their number could depend on specific circumstances: with a shortage of funds, it was reduced, with a shortage of principals, it increased. Duplicarii did not use disciplinary rights in relation to the soldiers of their unit. They were considered as candidates for filling the positions of principals in centuries, for command positions in turms and alas, the interpretation of this rank as an analogue of the modern sergeant is fundamentally erroneous. Also, a simple soldier could be produced in a duplicarium for any specific merit. During the period of the late empire, consolidated teams were formed from duplicarii in the infantry - a kind of "army special forces".

Ancient Roman warriors fought in cohesive and disciplined units. A group of 80 warriors was called a centuria. Several centuries were part of a cohort, and ten cohorts made up a legion.

An iron helmet was worn on the head of a Roman legionnaire (foot warrior). In his left hand he held a shield made of wood and leather, in his right - a throwing spear or sword, which was kept in a sheath on his belt. The breastplate of a Roman soldier was made of metal plates. A peculiar ancient Roman tunic hung from the waist. On the feet of the ancient Roman legionnaire, leather sandals were worn, which were nailed.

The Romans were determined warriors, they conquered even well-defended cities. The Romans surrounded the city in a dense ring, and then, using ingenious techniques, burst into it.

To approach the besieged city, Roman soldiers moved under a canopy of shields. Such a formation is called a "turtle". It effectively protected the attackers from arrows fired from the walls by the defenders of the city. Also, to approach the walls, the soldiers built a covered passage. According to it, without endangering their lives, they could approach the wall.

When the Roman army attacked the walled city, the warriors used special mobile wooden siege towers. The tower was sheathed with strong metal sheets. The warriors erected an inclined plane on an uneven piece of land, then rolled the siege tower against the wall. Then, along the inner stairs of the siege tower, the ancient Roman soldiers climbed up. After that, they lowered a swing bridge onto the wall, and broke into the city.

Simultaneously with the use of the siege tower, the ancient Romans used a battering ram to break through the wall, and also dug under the wall to destroy it. The warriors driving the ram were inside it.

At a long distance, the ancient Romans used catapults. Large catapults hurled heavy stones at the walls. Smaller catapults fired metal arrows at the enemy. From the same distance, skilful Roman archers, who were considered among the best in the Middle East, fired.

Breaking into the city, the ancient Romans set fire to the houses with burning arrows so that the whole city was engulfed in flames. All the surviving citizens were captured and sold into slavery. material from the site

The Roman Empire had to be kept in subjection, and therefore military units had to move quickly in order to keep up with where they were needed. A network of good roads was built to reach every corner of the empire. On such roads, the soldiers passed more than 50 km a day.

Camps and forts

After a long forced march, the soldiers set up camp for the night. The temporary camp of the ancient Roman soldiers was surrounded by a fence and surrounded around the perimeter by a defensive rampart (earth hill), in front of which a ditch was dug. The camp itself consisted of leather tents. The next morning, the camp was cleared, and the army continued on its way. On the borders of the empire, where the constant presence of garrisons was necessary, stone forts were built.

The ethnic composition of the Roman army changed over time: in the 1st century. n. e. it was predominantly an army of the Romans, at the end of the 1st - beginning of the 2nd century. army of Italics, but already at the end of the II - beginning of the III century. n. e. turned into an army of romanized barbarians, remaining "Roman" in name only. According to other sources, if in the 1st c. BC e. in the army served mainly people from the Apennine Peninsula, then already in the 1st century. n. e. the number of immigrants from the Apennine Peninsula in the army decreased sharply, and the number of immigrants from the Romanized Senate provinces (Asia, Africa, Baetica, Macedonia, Narbonne Gaul, etc.) increased. The Roman army had the best weapons for its time, experienced and well-trained command personnel, was distinguished by strict discipline and high military art of generals who used the most advanced methods of warfare, achieving the complete defeat of the enemy.

The main arm of the army was the infantry. The fleet ensured the actions of the ground forces in coastal areas and the transfer of armies to enemy territory by sea. Significant development has been made in military engineering, field camps, the ability to make quick transitions to long distances, the art of siege and defense of fortresses.

Organizational structure

Combat units

The main organizational and tactical unit of the army was legion. From the second half of the 4th century BC. e. legion consisted of 10 maniple(infantry) and 10 turm(cavalry), from the first half of the III century BC. e. - out of 30 maniple(each of which is divided into two centuries) and 10 turm. All this time, its number remained unchanged - 4.5 thousand people, including 300 horsemen. The tactical dismemberment of the legion ensured high maneuverability of troops on the battlefield. From 107 B.C. e. in connection with the transition from a militia to a professional mercenary army, the legion began to be divided into 10 cohorts(each of which combined three maniples). The legion also included wall and throwing vehicles and a convoy. In the 1st century A.D. e. the number of the legion reached approx. 7 thousand people (including approx. 800 horsemen).

Almost in all periods existed simultaneously:

Under the concept signum either maniples or centuriae were understood.

Vexillations were called separate detachments that stood out from any unit, such as a legion. So, vexillation could be sent to help another unit or to build a bridge.

Praetorians

The elite division of the Roman army was the Praetorian Guard, which served as the guard of the emperor and was stationed in Rome. Praetorians participated in many conspiracies and coup d'état.

Evocats

Soldiers who served their term and were demobilized, but re-enlisted in the military for voluntary basis, in particular on the initiative of, for example, the consul, were called evocati- letters. “newly called” (under Domitian, this was the name given to the elite guards of the equestrian class guarding his sleeping quarters; presumably, such guards retained their name under some subsequent emperors, cf. Evocati Augusti at Gigin). Usually they were listed in almost every unit, and apparently, if the commander was popular enough among the soldiers, the number of veterans of this category in his army could increase. Along with the vexillarii, the evocati were exempted from a number of military duties - fortifying the camp, laying roads, etc., and were higher in rank than ordinary legionnaires, sometimes compared with horsemen, or even were candidates for centurions. For example, Gnaeus Pompey promised to promote his former evocati to the centurions after the end of the civil war, but in the aggregate all evocati could not be promoted to this rank. All contingent evocati usually commanded by a separate prefect ( praefectus evocatorum).

Auxiliary troops

Auxiliary troops were divided into cohorts and alas (in the Late Empire they are replaced by wedges - cunei). Irregular troops (numeri) did not have a clear numerical strength, as they corresponded to the traditional preferences of the peoples that made them up, for example mauri (Moors).

Armament

• 1st class: offensive - gladius, gasta and darts ( body), protective - helmet ( galea), shell ( lorica), bronze shield ( clipeus) and leggings ( ocrea);
• 2nd class - the same, without shell and scutum instead clipeus;
• 3rd class - the same, without leggings;
• 4th class - gasta and peak ( verum).

• offensive - spanish sword ( gladius hispaniensis)

• offensive - pilum (special throwing spear);
• protective - iron mail ( lorica hamata).

• offensive - dagger ( pugio).

At the beginning of the Empire:

• protective - shell lorica segmentata (Lorica Segmentata, segmented lorica), late plate armor from individual steel segments. Comes into use from the 1st c. The origin of the plate cuirass is not entirely clear. Perhaps it was borrowed by the legionnaires from the armament of the crupellari gladiators who participated in the rebellion of Flor Sacrovir in Germany (21). Chain mail also appeared during this period ( lorica hamata) with double chain mail on the shoulders, especially popular with cavalrymen. Lightweight (up to 5-6 kg) and shorter chain mail are also used in auxiliary infantry units. Helmets of the so-called imperial type.

• offensive - "Pompeian" sword, weighted pilums.

• protective - scale armor ( lorica squamata)

A uniform

• paenula(a short woolen dark cloak with a hood).

• tunic with long sleeves, sagum ( sagum) - a cloak without a hood, previously incorrectly considered a classic Roman military.

build

Manipulative tactics

It is practically generally accepted that during the period of their rule, the Etruscans introduced the phalanx among the Romans, and subsequently the Romans deliberately changed their weapons and formation. This opinion is based on reports that the Romans once used round shields and built a phalanx like Macedonian, however, in the descriptions of the battles of the 6th-5th centuries. BC e. the dominant role of the cavalry and the auxiliary role of the infantry are clearly visible - the first was often even located and acted ahead of the infantry.

If you want to be a tribune, or if, quite simply, you want to live, then restrain your soldiers. Let none of them steal another's hen, touch another's sheep; let no one carry away a bunch of grapes, an ear of bread, do not demand oil, salt, firewood. Let everyone be content with their rightful portion... Let their weapons be cleaned, honed, their shoes strong... Let the soldier's salary remain in his belt, and not in the tavern... Let him groom his horse and not sell its feed; let all the soldiers walk together behind the centurion mule. Let the soldiers... give nothing to fortune tellers... let the slanderers be beaten...

medical service

In various periods, there were 8 positions of military medical staff:

• medicus castrorum- camp doctor, subordinated to the prefect of the camp ( praefectus castrorum), and in his absence - to the legionary tribune;
• medicus legionis, medicus cohortis, optio valetudinarii- the last one is the head of a military hospital (valetudinarium), all 3 positions existed only under Trajan and Adrian;
• medicus duplicarius- a doctor on a double salary;
• medicus sesquiplicarius- doctor on one and a half salary;
• capsarius (deputy, eques capsariorum) - an equestrian orderly with a first-aid kit ( capsa) and with a saddle with 2 stirrups on the left side for the evacuation of the wounded, was part of a detachment of 8-10 people; presumably could be recruited from among the so-called. immunes;
• medicus ordinarius (miles medicus) - an ordinary doctor or a staff surgeon, there were 4 of them in each cohort.

The student was called discens capsariorum.

Recruitment could be ordinary, from recruits, from qualified doctors under the contract, from slaves who were then released or, in emergency cases, mandatory, from civilians.

see also

Notes

primary sources

Literature

In Russian

• // Encyclopedic Dictionary of Brockhaus and Efron: in 86 volumes (82 volumes and 4 additional). - St. Petersburg. , 1890-1907.
• Bannikov A.V. The Roman army in the IV century from Constantine to Theodosius. - St. Petersburg: St. Petersburg State University; Nestor-History, 2011. - 264 p. - (Historia Militaris). - ISBN 978-5-8465-1105-7.
• Boek Yan le. Roman army of the Early Empire. - M.: ROSSPEN, 2001. - 400 p. - ISBN 5-8243-0260-X.
• Van Burham J. The Roman army in the era of Diocletian and Constantine / Per. from English. A. V. Bannikova. - St. Petersburg: Publishing House of St. Petersburg State University; Akra, 2012. - 192 p.: ill. - (Res Militaris). - ISBN 5-288-03711-6.
• Varry John. Wars of Antiquity. From the Greco-Persian Wars to the Fall of Rome / Per. from English. T. Barakina, A. Nikitina, E. Nikitina and others - M .: Eksmo, 2009. - 2nd ed. - 232 p.: ill. -( military history humanity). - ISBN 978-5-699-30727-2.
• Golyzhenkov I. A., Parkhaev O. Army of Imperial Rome. I-II centuries n. e. - M.: LLC "AST"; Astrel, 2001. - 50 p.: ill. - (Military-historical series "Soldier"). - ISBN 5-271-00592-5.
• D'Amato Raffaelle. Warrior of Rome. The evolution of weapons and armor in 112 BC e. - 192 AD e. / Per. from Italian. A. Z. Kolina. - M.: Eksmo, 2012. - 344 p.: ill. - (Military history of mankind). - ISBN 978-5-699-52194-4 ... - Lower. Novgorod: Nizhegorod Publishing House. state un-ta im. N. I. Lobachevsky, 2000. - 236 p. -..

In English

• Birley, Eric. The Roman Army: Papers, 1929-1986
• Brunt, P.A. Italian Manpower, 225 B.C.-A. D.14
• Campbell, Brian. The Emperor and the Roman Army, 31 B.C.-A.D. 235; The Roman Army: 31 B.C.-A.D. 337; Warfare and Society in Imperial Rome, 31 B.C. - A.D. 280
• Connolly, Peter. Greece and Rome at War
• DeBlois, Lukas. Army and Society in the Late Roman Republic; The Roman army and politics in the first century B.C.
• Erdkamp, ​​P. Hunger and the Sword. Warfare and Food Supply in Roman Republican Wars (264-30 B.C.)
• Gabba, Emilio. Republican Rome. The Army and the Allies
• Gilliam, J. Frank. Roman Army Papers
• Gilliver, C. M. The Roman Art of War
• Goldsworthy, Adrian Keith. Roman Warfare
• Grant, Michael, The History of Rome, Faber and Faber, 1993, ISBN 0-571-11461-X
• Isaac, Benjamin. The Limits of Empire. The Roman Army in the East
• Keppie, Lawrence, The Making of the Roman Army
• Le Bohec, Yan. The Imperial Roman Army
• MacMullen, Ramsay. How Big was the Roman Army?
• Mattern, Susan P., Rome and the Enemy. Roman Imperial Strategy in the Principate
• Peddie, John. The Roman War Machine
• Webster, Graham. The Roman Imperial Army
• Kuenzl, E. The medical supply of the Roman army

In other languages

• Aigner, H. Die Soldaten als Machtfaktor in der ausgehenden römischen Republik
• Dabrowa, E. Rozwój i organizacja armii rzymskiej (do początku III wieku n.e.)

By the 3rd century BC. Rome became the strongest state in Italy. In continuous wars, such a perfect instrument of offensive and defense was forged - the Roman army. Its total strength usually amounted to four legions, that is, two consular armies. Traditionally, when one consul went on a campaign, the other remained in Rome. When necessary, both armies operated in different theaters of operations.

With the legions were allied contingents of infantry and cavalry. The legion of the era of the Republic itself consisted of 4500 people, 300 of them were horsemen, the rest were infantrymen: 1200 lightly armed soldiers (velites), 1200 heavily armed soldiers of the first line (hastati), 1200 heavy infantry made up the second line (principles) and the last 600, the most experienced warriors represented the third line (triarii).

The main tactical unit in the legion was the maniple, which consisted of two centuries. Each centuria was commanded by a centurion, one of them was at the same time the commander of the entire maniple. The maniple had its own banner (badge). Initially, it was a bundle of hay on a pole, then a cast bronze image of a human hand, a symbol of power, began to be attached to the top of the pole. Below, military awards were attached to the flagpole.

Armament and tactics of the Roman army in ancient times did not differ significantly from those of the Greeks. However, the strength of the Roman military organization was in its exceptional flexibility and adaptability: in the course of the wars that the Romans had to fight, they borrowed the strengths of the armies of the enemy and changed their tactics depending on the specific conditions in which this or that war was fought.

Infantryman's armament. Thus, the traditional heavy armament of an infantryman, similar to the hoplite among the Greeks, has changed as follows. A solid metal shell was replaced by chain mail or plate, lighter and less restrictive of movement. Leggings were no longer used, because. instead of a round metal shield, a semi-cylindrical (scutum) appeared, about 150 cm high, covering the entire body of a warrior, except for the head and feet. It consisted of a plank base covered with several layers of leather. Along the edges, the scutum was bound with metal, and in the center it had a convex metal plaque (umbon). On the legs of the legionnaire were soldiers' boots (kaligi), and his head was protected by an iron or bronze helmet with a crest (for a centurion, the crest was located across the helmet, for ordinary soldiers - along).

If the Greeks had a spear as the main type of offensive weapon, then the Romans had a short (about 60 cm) sword made of high-quality steel. The traditional Roman double-edged, pointed sword (gladius) has a rather late origin - it was borrowed from the Spanish soldiers when the Romans experienced its advantages in hand-to-hand combat. In addition to the sword, each legionnaire was armed with a dagger and two throwing spears. The Roman throwing spear (pilum) had a long (about a meter), thin tip made of soft iron, ending with a sharply honed and hardened sting. From the opposite end, the tip had an inflow, where a wooden shaft was inserted and then fixed. Such a spear could also be used in hand-to-hand combat, but it was designed primarily for throwing: piercing the enemy’s shield, it bent so that it was impossible to pull it out and throw it back. Since several such spears usually hit one shield, it had to be thrown, and the enemy remained defenseless against the attack of a close formation of legionnaires.

Battle tactics. If initially the Romans acted in battle in a phalanx, like the Greeks, then in the course of the war against the warlike mountain tribes of the Samnites, they developed a special manipulative tactic, which looked like this.

Before the battle, the legion was usually built according to the maniples, in 3 lines, in a checkerboard pattern: the first was the maniples of the hastati, the second of the principles, and the triarii stood at a slightly greater distance from them. Cavalry lined up on the flanks, and in front of the front, light infantry (velites), armed with darts and slings, marched in loose formation.

Depending on the specific situation, the legion could form the continuous formation necessary for the attack, either by closing the maniples of the first line, or by pushing the maniples of the second line into the intervals between the maniples of the first. The maniples of the triarii were usually launched only when the situation became critical, usually the outcome of the battle was decided by the first two lines.

Having rebuilt from the pre-battle (chess) order, in which it was easier to follow the system, into the combat one, the legion moved at an accelerated pace towards the enemy. The velites made up the first wave of attackers: throwing darts, stone and lead slingshots at the enemy formation, they then ran back to the flanks and into the gaps between the maniples. The legionnaires, finding themselves 10-15 meters from the enemy, brought down a hail of spears-pilums on him and, drawing their swords, began hand-to-hand combat. At the height of the battle, the cavalry and light infantry protected the flanks of the legion, and then pursued the fleeing enemy.

Camp. If the battle went poorly, the Romans had the opportunity to find protection in their camp, which was always set up, even if the army stopped for only a few hours. The Roman camp was rectangular in plan (however, where possible, natural fortifications of the area were also used). It was surrounded by a moat and a rampart. The top of the shaft was additionally protected by a palisade and guarded around the clock by sentries. At the center of each side of the camp were gates through which the army could enter or leave the camp at short notice. Inside the camp, at a distance sufficient to prevent enemy projectiles from reaching there, tents of soldiers and commanders were set up - in a once and for all definite order. In the center stood the tent of the commander - the praetorian. In front of it was free space, enough to line up an army here if the commander required it.

The camp was a kind of fortress that the Roman army always carried with them. More than once it happened that the enemy, having already defeated the Romans in a field battle, was defeated when he tried to storm the Roman camp.

Subjugation of Northern and Central Italy. Continuously improving our military organization, using the troops of conquered peoples (the so-called allies) for their own reinforcement, the Romans at the beginning of the 3rd century. BC. conquered Central and Northern Italy. In the struggle for the South, they had to face such a dangerous and previously unknown enemy as Pyrrhus, the king of the Greek state of Epirus and one of the most talented commanders of the Hellenistic era.